Internal radiation exposure and genetic effects on birth outcomes. New and Important Evidence - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

Internal radiation exposure and genetic effects on birth outcomes. New and Important Evidence under Article 6.2 of the EURATOM Basic Safety Standards Directive 96/29

Submission to the BEIS meeting

London Sept 12

th

2017

Christopher Busby

Scientific Secretary

European Committee on Radiation Risk

1117 Latvian Academy of Sciences, Riga

christo@greenaudit.org

Slide2

www.greenaudit.org

www.llrc.org

www.euradcom.eu

www.ifrrr.org

Slide3

New and important Evidence

In 1998 independent scientists, Alexey

Yablokov

, Inge Schmitz-

Feuerhake

, Chris Busby, Alice Stewart, Rosalie

Bertell

and Jean-Francois

Viel

were invited to Brussels to advise the Green Group on the EURATOM Basic Safety Standards Directive 96/29. The conclusion was that the ICRP risk model was unsafe for internal exposures and that further evidence for this would emerge from the Chernobyl contaminated areas in the next 10 years. The group set up the European Committee on Radiation Risk (ECRR) to investigate the issue.

They suggested that the Parliament introduce a safety clause so that if new scientific evidence emerged, the EURATOM BSS could be changed. As a result, Article 6.2 was included, requiring re- Justification if new and important evidence emerged.

Slide4

The EURATOM Basic Safety Standards Directive (BSS) is law in EU Member States

Currently and from May 2000: Under Article 6.2 of the Council Directive 96/29/Euratom of 13 May 1996:

 

Existing classes or types of practice may be reviewed as to Justification

whenever new and important evidence about their efficacy or consequences is acquired

 

From 2018: Under Article 19.2 of the Council Directive 2013/59 of 5

th

Dec 2013:

 

Member States shall consider a review of existing classes or types of practices with regard to their justification

whenever there is new and important evidence about their efficacy or potential consequences.

Slide5

In 1998 and today, the ICRP radiation risk model, developed in 1952 defines legal limits for exposures. It is based on the epidemiology of the Japanese A-Bomb externally exposed groups in the Life Span Study (LSS)

Slide6

What is JUSTIFICATION? It is accepted that ionizing radiation causes harmful biological effects.

Cell death

Organ damageOrganism death (including infant deaths)

Heritable damage (Congenital malformations)

Lifespan shortening

Cancer

Heart and circulatory system disease

Slide7

Which evidence to examine in an epidemiological study?

Studies of internal exposure and cancer are complicated by the long lag periods between exposure and expression, for solid tumours from 15-30 years. In this period, many other confounding causes might exist, exposure data lost, individuals die of other causes or be lost to follow-up.

Studies of immediate birth outcomes, congenital malformations, stillbirths, infant deaths, chromosome diseases, and objective biological genetic markers in children, are much easier to relate to the previous exposures. By 2017, more than 20 peer-reviewed studies had been published showing a clear increase in the rates of such heritable effects after Chernobyl.

Taken together, these clearly represent New and Important Evidence within the meaning of the Black Letter Law of Article 6.2 of the EURATOM BSS.

Slide8

Genetic effects of Chernobyl was an issue where ECRR scientists had made some contributions

Med

Confl

Surviv

.

2009 Jan-Mar;25(1):20-40.

doi

: 10.1080/13623690802568954.

The evidence of radiation effects in embryos and

fetuses

exposed to Chernobyl fallout and the question of dose response.

Busby C

1

,

Lengfelder

E

,

Pflugbeil

S

,

Schmitz-

Feuerhake

I

.

Abstract

Current legal frameworks for radiation exposure limits are based on the risk models of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). In Publication 90 (2003), ICRP presents a safe (threshold) dose range of up to 100

mSv

for radiogenic effects resulting from in utero exposure and bases this conclusion on the findings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. However, a variety of observations of congenital malformations,

fetal

loss, stillbirths and infant deaths, as well as of Down's syndrome and other health defects in children after the Chernobyl accident exposures suggest that the A-bomb survivor data are incomplete. The Chernobyl findings are generally marginalized or even denied because of the low values of the estimated human exposures and the inconsistency of the results with the accepted risk models. One explanation for the observations is that physical

dosimetric

models have underestimated the effective exposure. This possibility is supported by biological dosimetry in the contaminated regions. The assumptions about effects after in utero exposure by incorporated radionuclides need to be revised.

Slide9

I had been interested in the effects on genetic diseases from internal exposures from 1995

Busby Chris and Cato, Molly Scott (1998), ‘Cancer in the offspring of radiation workers: exposure to internal radioisotopes may be responsible.’

British Medical Journal

316 1672

Busby, C. C. and Cato, M. S. (2000), ‘Increases in

leukemia

in infants in Wales and Scotland following Chernobyl: evidence for errors in risk estimates’

Energy and Environment

11(2) 127-139

Busby C.C. and Cato M.S. (2001) ‘Increases in

leukemia

in infants in Wales and Scotland following Chernobyl: Evidence for errors in statutory risk estimates and dose response assumptions’. Kiev:

International Journal of Radiati

on

Medicine

Busby C and

Fucic

A (2006) Ionizing Radiation and children’s health: PINCHE conclusions

Acta

Paediatrica

S 453 81-86

Busby C.C. (2009) Very Low Dose

Fetal

Exposure to Chernobyl Contamination Resulted in Increases in Infant

Leukemia

in Europe and Raises Questions about Current Radiation Risk Models.

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

.; 6(12):3105-3114

Busby Chris,

Lengfelder

Edmund,

Pflugbeil

Sebastian, Schmitz

Feuerhake

, Inge (2009) The evidence of radiation effects in embryos and

fetuses

exposed by Chernobyl fallout and the question of dose response.

Medicine, Conflict, Survival

25(1) 18-39

Slide10

The reports of infant

leukemia

Increases after Chernobyl in several

Countries of Europe caused us

to discuss the issue with Mr Michael

Meacher. This led to the founding

of the Committee Examining

Radiation Risks from Internal

Emitters, CERRIE. However the

NRPB and industry members

refused to concede the

infant

leukemia

evidence and in

the final report manipulated the

dose levels. I will return to this issue

When I consider the nuclear site

child

leukemia

.

Slide11

Yablokov, 2009

Others had found evidence of the effects of Chernobyl on Birth Outcomes. Trend of infant mortality rates in Finland, Switzerland and Sweden, 1980 - 2006, and undisturbed trend line. Chernobyl effects based on official data (

Koerblein

2009)

Slide12

For 20 years the Scientific Secretary of

the ICRP was Dr Jack Valentin

until March 2009. He has been the

editor of many of the ICRP reports

Including the 2007 report.

My discussion with him was recorded at an open meeting in Stockholm on 22

nd

April 2009 after he had retired early. He stated that the ICRP risk model could not be used to predict the health effects of radiation exposures in human populations because the errors for certain internal exposures could be as high as 900-fold, and that the official risk agencies had been wrong in not looking at Chernobyl effects, but as Secretary he did what he was told. The video is on

youtube

.

None of this evidence was discussed or cited by IRCP or UNSCEAR

Slide13

ICRP and heritable effects

The ICRP states that there is no evidence of heritable effects of radiation in humans.

This is because the studies of the Japanese A-Bomb groups apparently showed no evidence of increases in any birth defects or other genetic effects.

The ICRP 2007 excess risk coefficient of 2% per Sievert is based on external radiation experiments on mice.

Slide14

The Japanese A-Bomb studies cannot inform on the effects of internal radionuclides (or indeed anything).

The Dose groups used for comparison were all exposed to internal radionuclides from the fallout and rainout, principally Uranium particles in the “black rain”. Internal exposures were ignored.

Sawada has shown that individuals exposed to the black rain but as far as 6km from the hypocentre, and thus unexposed to external radiation, developed deterministic effects (epilation, diarrhoea) equivalent to 700mSv external exposure.

The initially selected “No Dose, Not in City” NIC Group had been (dishonestly) abandoned in 1973 when employing it began to suggest that there was a significant excess cancer risk in the lowest external dose group

A 2009 study by

Wanatabe

et al used unexposed adjacent prefectures as controls and found significant excess cancer risk in the low external dose control group

For birth outcomes, the study was begun 7 years after the event and suffered from all the control group problems above.

Sex ratio genetic effects found were dishonestly interpreted.

Slide15

New and important evidence in 2016

Schmitz-

Feuerhake

I, Busby C,

Pflugbeil

S.

Genetic Radiation Risks-A Neglected Topic in the Low Dose Debate. Environmental Health and Toxicology.

2016. 31Article ID e2016001.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5620/eht.e2016001

.

Busby Christopher. (Invited) Letter to the Editor on “The Hiroshima Nagasaki survivor studies. Discrepancies between results and general perception.” By Bernard R Jordan. Genetics. 2016; 204(4) 1627-1629

Slide16

Slide17

Schmitz-

Feuerhake

, Busby, Pflugbeil 2016

Objectives

To investigate the accuracy and scientific validity of the current very low risk factor for hereditary diseases in humans following exposures to ionizing radiation adopted by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation and the International Commission on Radiological Protection. The value is based on experiments on mice due to reportedly absent effects in the Japanese atomic bomb (A-bomb) survivors.

Methods

To review the published evidence for heritable effects after ionising radiation exposures particularly, but not restricted to, populations exposed to contamination from the Chernobyl accident and from atmospheric nuclear test fallout. To make a compilation of findings about early deaths, congenital malformations, Down’s syndrome, cancer and other genetic effects observed in humans after the exposure of the parents. To also examine more closely the evidence from the Japanese A-bomb epidemiology and discuss its scientific validity.

Results

Nearly all types of hereditary defects were found at doses as low as one to 10

mSv

. We discuss the clash between the current risk model and these observations on the basis of biological mechanism and assumptions about linear relationships between dose and effect in neonatal and foetal epidemiology. The evidence supports a dose response relationship which is non-linear

and is either biphasic or

supralinear

(hogs-back) and largely either saturates or falls above 10

mSv

.

Conclusions

We conclude that the current risk model for heritable effects of radiation is unsafe. The dose response relationship is non-linear with the greatest effects at the lowest doses. Using Chernobyl data we derive an excess relative risk for all malformations of 1.0 per 10

mSv

cumulative dose. The safety of the Japanese A-bomb epidemiology is argued to be both scientifically and philosophically questionable owing to errors in the choice of control groups, omission of internal exposure effects and assumptions about linear dose response.

Slide18

Results show biphasic dose response. Due to death of foetus at higher dose (From Busby 2017 in Press)

Slide19

Biphasic response infant leukemia

(from Busby 2009)

Slide20

New and important evidence on Chernobyl heritable effects included

Lazjuk

GI,

Nikolaev

DL,

Novikova

IV. Changes in registered con­genital anomalies in the Republic of Belarus after the Chernobyl accident. Stem Cells 1997;15

Suppl

2:255-260

Feshchenko

SP,

Schröder

HC, Müller WE,

Lazjuk

GI. Congenital malformations among

newborns

and developmental abnormalities among human embryos in Belarus after Chernobyl accident. Cell

Mol

Biol

(Noisy-le-grand) 2002;48(4):423-426

Kulakov

VI,

Sokur TN,

Volobuev AI, Tzibulskaya IS, Malisheva VA, Zikin BI, et al. Female reproductive function in areas affected by radiation after the Chernobyl power station accident. Environ Health Perspect 1993;101 Suppl 2:117-123Petrova A, Gnedko

T,

Maistrova

I, Zafranskaya M, Dainiak N. Morbidity in a large cohort study of children born to mothers ex­posed to radiation from Chernobyl. Stem Cells 1997;15 Suppl 2:141-150Wertelecki W. Malformations in a Chernobyl-impacted region. Pe­diatrics 2010;125(4):e836-e843Wertelecki W, Yevtushok L, Zymak-Zakutnia N, Wang B,

Sosyniuk

Z,

Lapchenko

S, et al.

Blastopathies

and microcephaly in a Cher­nobyl-impacted region of Ukraine.

Congenit

Anom

(Kyoto) 2014;54(3):125-149

Akar

N, Ata Y,

Aytekin

AF. Neural tube defects and Chernobyl?

Paediatr

Perinat

Epidemiol

1989;3(1):102-103

Caglayan

S,

Kayhan

B,

Menteşoğlu

S,

Aksit

S. Changing incidence of neural tube defects in Aegean Turkey.

Paediatr

Perinat

Epidemi­ol

1989;3(1):62-65

Güvenc

H,

Uslu

MA,

Güvenc

M,

Ozekici

U,

Kocabay

K,

Bektaş

S. Changing trend of neural tube defects in eastern Turkey. J

Epide­miol

Community Health 1993;47(1):40-41

Mocan

H,

Bozkaya

H,

Mocan

MZ,

Furtun

EM. Changing inci­dence of anencephaly in the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey and Chernobyl.

Paediatr

Perinat

Epidemiol

1990;4(3):264-268

Kruslin

B,

Jukić

S, Kos M,

Simić

G,

Cviko

A. Congenital anomalies of the central nervous system at autopsy in Croatia in the period before and after the Chernobyl accident. Acta Med

Croatica

1998;52(2):103-107

Moumdjiev

N,

Nedkova

V,

Christova

V,

Kostova

S. Influence of the Chernobyl reactor accident on the child health in the region of Pleven, Bulgaria. In: International

Pediatric

Association. Excerpts from the 20th International Congress of

Pediatrics

; 1992 Sep 5-10; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Vevey

: Nestlé Nutrition Services; 1992, p. 57

Zieglowski

V,

Hemprich

A. Facial cleft birth rate in former East Germany before and after the reactor accident in Chernobyl.

Mund

Kiefer

Gesichtschir

1999;3(4):195-199 (German).

Scherb

H,

Weigelt

E. Cleft lip and cleft palate birth rate in Bavaria before and after the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident.

Mund

Kiefer

Gesichtschir

2004;8(2):106-110 (German).

Lotz

B,

Haerting

J, Schulze E. Changes in

fetal

and childhood au­topsies in the region of Jena after the Chernobyl accident; 1996 [cited 2016 Jan 28]. Available from: http://www.meb.uni-bonn. de/

gmds

/abstracts/0095e.html (German).

Slide21

And36.

Moumdjiev

N, Nedkova V, Christova

V,

Kostova

S. Influence of the Chernobyl reactor accident on the child health in the region of Pleven, Bulgaria. In: International

Pediatric

Association. Excerpts

from the 20th International Congress of

Pediatrics

; 1992 Sep 5-10; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Vevey

: Nestlé Nutrition Services; 1993, p. 57. 1992, p. 57.

37.

Kruslin

B,

Jukić

S, Kos M,

Simić

G,

Cviko

A. Congenital anomalies of the central nervous system at autopsy in Croatia in the period before and after the Chernobyl accident. Acta Med

Croatica

1998;52(2):103-107. 38. Zieglowski V, Hemprich A. Facial cleft birth rate in former East Germany before and after the reactor accident in Chernobyl. Mund Kiefer

Gesichtschir 1999;3(4):195-199 (German). 39. Scherb H, Weigelt E. Cleft lip and cleft palate birth rate in Bavaria before and after the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident. Mund Kiefer Gesichtschir 2004;8(2):106-110 (German). 40. Korblein A. Fehlbildungen in bayern nach tschernobyl. Strahlentelex 2004;416-417:4-6 (German). 41. Government of Berlin West, Section of Health and Social Affairs. Annual health report. Berlin: Government of Berlin West; 1987 (German). 42.

Lotz

B,

Haerting J, Schulze E. Changes in fetal and childhood autopsies in the region of Jena after the Chernobyl accident; 1996 [cited 2016 Jan 28]. Available from: http://www.meb.uni-bonn. de/gmds/abstracts/0095e.html (German). 44. Busby C, Cato MS. Increases in leukemia in infants in Wales and Scotland following Chernobyl: evidence for errors in statutory risk Estimates. Energy Environ 2000;11(2):127-139.

Slide22

Some specific examples: Belarus

Lazjuk

et al 1997 (Belarus National Genetic Monitoring Register) anencephaly, spina bifida, cleft palate, limb reduction defects, esophageal

atresia, anorectal atresia, Downs syndrome, Multiple malformations: 80% increase 1987-94 vs. 1982-85 at 6.7mSv p<.05 gradient 49% at 0.44mSv.

Whole of Belarus: all congenital malformations increased from 12.5 per 1000 in 1985 to 17.5 in 1994.

Increase in frequency stabilised by State abortion intervention program.

7 other independent studies of areas of Belarus published by different groups with different levels of contamination, all below 10mSv confirmed the increases. (see ISF 2016 for list).

Lazjuk

GI,

Nikolaev

DL,

Novikova

IV. Changes in registered congenital anomalies in the Republic of Belarus after the Chernobyl accident. Stem Cells 1997;15

Suppl

2:255-260.

Slide23

Example--Ukraine: Wertelecki

Wertelecki

W. Malformations in a Chernobyl-impacted region.

Pe­diatrics

2010;125(4):e836-e843

Wertelecki

W,

Yevtushok

L,

Zymak-Zakutnia

N, Wang B,

Sosyniuk

Z,

Lapchenko

S, et al.

Blastopathies

and microcephaly in a Cher­nobyl-impacted region of Ukraine.

Congenit

Anom

(Kyoto) 2014;54(3):125-149

Polissia

(contaminated) vs. non

Polissia

, (lesser contamination). Doses <1mSv) Internal contamination measured.

Among 145 437 live births in Rivne between 2000 and 2009 are included 2348 (1.61%) infants with anomalies noted before one year of age. This analysis concerns eight congenital malformations henceforth referred to as a group of

cCM

that includes conjoined twins, teratoma, NTD, microcephaly, mOPH, OM, gastroschisis, and exstrophy of the bladder.Overall frequencies of cCM, NTD, and spina bifida are statistically significantly higher in P during both 5-year study periods, the frequencies of cranio-inien-rachis-schisis,MIC

, and

mOPH

are statistically significantly higher only during the second 5-year study period. However, it is also evident that the frequencies of all of these

cCM

are higher in P during the first and second study periods. This fact, in our view, is biologically significant although in some instances such contrasts do not reach statistical significance, which is at least in part due to a limited number of observations

Slide24

Objective measurements: Alecsandra

Fucic

Fucic

A,

AghajanyanA

,

DrizhininV

,

Minina

V,

Neronova

E (2016) Follow up studies in genome damage in children after Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident.

Arch.

Toxicol

.

DOI 10.1007/s00204-016-1766z

From Abstract

: Child population affected by internal and external radiation consisted of subjects exposed prenatally, postnatally (both evacuated and non-evacuated), born by irradiated fathers who worked as liquidators, and parents exposed environmentally. In all groups of children during the last 30 years who were exposed to doses which were significantly higher than that recommended for general population of 1

mSv

per year, increased genome damage was detected. Increased genome damage includes statistically higher frequency of dicentric and ring chromosomes,

chromated

and chromosome breaks, acentric fragments, translocations, and micronuclei. The presence of rogue cells confirmed internal contamination. Genome instability and

radiosensitivity

in children was detected both in evacuated and continuously exposed children.

afucic@imi.hr

Slide25

Radiation genotoxicity.

The 1946 Nobel prize for medicine

was awarded to Herman J Muller for

his discovery and subsequent work

on the mutations caused by X-rays which he discovered in 1926. By the 1950s Muller warned about the radioactive contamination being caused by the atmospheric nuclear tests causing genetic effects. His warnings turned out to be accurate.

Slide26

Effects of the 1960s atmospheric testing

(from Busby 2017, International Conference on Applied Pharmacology and Toxicology Paris, June 22, 2017; in Press)

Slide27

Requests for re-Justification under Euratom BSS 96/29

Formal Requests for legally required re-Justification under BSS Article 6.2 have been made to the EURATOM National Contacts in UK, Ireland, Sweden, Denmark, France and Germany.

The issue was submitted in presentations to the Swedish Land and Environmental Court, the Nacka

Tingsrätt

, a few days ago on 8

th

and 11

th

September.

Failure to implement the Black Letter Law will result in applications to the European Commission and European Court for intervention of an Infringement.

Slide28

Peer Review Article

Busby Christopher (2017) Child health and ionizing radiation: Science, Politics and European Law.

Pediatric

Dimensions.

2(3) 1-4 doi:10.15761/PD.1000150

The history of Science has been full of major changes in scientific models. But none of these, from Galileo, Newton, Einstein, etc. can have had quite the public health impact as the revelation that internal radionuclide exposures are so genotoxic and that the model employed to quantify these exposures is totally unsafe. Politicians and radiation risk agencies and experts are now caught between human health and economic (nuclear energy, fracking) and military (nuclear weapons, depleted uranium) projects which depend upon permitting radioactive contamination.

Slide29

COMARE, nuclear sites and child

leukemia

: an explanation. Biphasic response and foetal death; dose related variable lag period due to clonal expansion of damaged cells gives expression at different ages. Expression in utero results in foetal death. Pre-leukemic children have compromised immunity and high risk of death from other causes (Lichtenstein).

Slide30

COMARE: Child leukemia

at sites where nuclear stations were planned

Such sites are all near the sea or on estuaries and subject to sea-to-land transfer of radionuclide contamination.

A sea-coast and estuary effect for child

leukemia

was found by Alexander and Cartwright in 1990

Sea coast effects on

leukemia

and cancer were found by Busby 1998-2001 for Irish Sea populations, presented to CERRIE and published in 2007

Sea coast effect on child

leukemia

was discussed for Galloway populations:

Busby Chris (2008) Is there a sea coast effect on childhood leukaemia in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, 1975-2002 ?

Occupational and Environmental Medicine

65, 4, 286-287

Slide31

Non-Chernobyl reports of excess heritable damage at low doses

Hanford USA workers children

Sever et al 1988Sellafield workers stillbirths

Parker et al 1996

Liquidators

Obninsk

CA

Tsyb

2004

Liquidators Bryansk CA

Matveenko

2005

Liquidators Russia CA

Lyaginskaya

et al 2009

British Nuclear test Veterans

Rabbitt

Roff

1999

British Nuclear Test Veterans

Busby et al 2013

3 Studies of CA following Uranium weapons in Fallujah Iraq

Alaani

et al,2010,2012. Busby et al 2011

Slide32

Fallujah Iraq: Uranium weapons

ALAANI, S., AL-FALLOUJI, M.,

BUSBY, C*., HAMDAN, M.. Pilot study of congenital anomaly rates at birth in Fallujah, Iraq, 2010. Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of North America, North America, 44, Aug. 2012. Available at: <

http://jima.imana.org/article/view/10463

>.

Alaani

Samira

Tafash

Muhammed,

Busby Christopher*

,

Hamdan

, Malak and

Blaurock

-Busch Eleonore (2011) Uranium and other contaminants in hair from the parents of children with congenital anomalies in Fallujah, Iraq

Conflict Health

5, 1-15

Busby, Chris*

;

Hamdan

, Malak;

Ariabi

,

Entesar

. (2010) Cancer, Infant Mortality and Birth Sex-Ratio in Fallujah, Iraq 2005–2009. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 7, no. 7: 2828-2837.

Slide33

British Nuclear Test Veterans Busby et al 2013

Busby C and de

Messieres

M (2014) Miscarriages and congenital conditions in offspring of the British Nuclear Atmospheric test Program.

Epidemiology

2014, 4:4 http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-1165.1000172

Questionnaire epidemiological study of members of the British Nuclear Test Veterans Association. Comparison with National EUROCAT data and controls.

Congenital Malformation in children OR = 9.8; in grandchildren OR = 8.3. Miscarriages OR = 2.7.

Similar effects found by

Rabbitt

Roff

1999. Note the genomic component.

Slide34

Fracking and Radium

Busby Christopher and

Mangano

Joseph J. There’s a world going on underground—infant mortality and fracking in Pennsylvania. Journal of Environmental Protection. 8(4) 2017

doi

: 10.4236/jep.2017.84028

Using official 0-28d infant mortality rates in the highly fracked counties of Pennsylvania relative to the non-fracked counties before and after fracking began showed a statistically significant 28% excess rate in the fracked counties after fracking began. The effects was related to density of drinking water wells. For the counties with high density the excess was a significant 66%. The authors discussed evidence for exposure to Radium in groundwater.

Slide35

Theoretical Explanations

The effects are due to the dose to the DNA, or rather the ionization density at the DNA. This is very much greater than the mean tissue dose for those internal radionuclides with chemical affinity for DNA,

e.g

, Strontium-90, Uranium, Radium, Barium-140. This is reviewed in:

Busby Christopher (2013). Aspects of DNA Damage from Internal Radionuclides, New Research Directions in DNA Repair, Prof. Clark Chen (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-1114-6,

InTech

, DOI: 10.5772/53942. Available from:

http://www.intechopen.com/books/new-research-directions-in-dna-repair/aspects-of-dna-damage-from-internal-radionuclides

Busby Christopher (2017) Radiochemical Genotoxicity and Absorbed Dose.

Keynote presentation. 9

th

International Conference on Applied Pharmacology and Toxicology, Paris, June 22, 2017