CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

CLASSIFICATION OF SKILLS

We

use a

CONTINUUM

to analyse a

MOVEMENT SKILL

.

These

are imaginary scales of 2

extremes

, that show a gradual increase/decrease in the number of characteristics.

We classify movements

skills because:

- difficult to be specific as skills have elements of all characteristics.

- characteristics can change depending on the situation in which they are performed.

There

are

6

Continuum

1

)

MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT

: From

GROSS

skills (large muscle movements) to

FINE

. Skills (involve small muscle movements)

2)

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCER

: From

OPEN

skills (affected by the environment) to

CLOSED

skills (not affected by the environment)

3)

CONTINUITY CONTINUUM

: From

DISCRETE

skills (a clear beginning and end) through

SERIAL

skills (numerous discrete skills put together) to

CONTINUOUS

skills (skills with no beginning or end)

4)

PACING CONTINUUM:

From

SELF PACED

skills (the performer determines when to start the skill) to

EXTERNALLY PACED

skills (the control of the movement is determined by the environment)

5)

DIFFICULTY CONTINUUM:

From

SIMPLE

skills (low levels of decision making, sub routines, power and accuracy needed, use of feedback, low perceptual load) to

COMPLEX

skills (high levels of the previous)

6)

ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM

: From

LOW

(sub routines are easily separated) to

HIGH

(sub routines are closely linked)Slide2

GROSS MOTOR ABILITY and PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY

SKILL

has

GOALS

, is

LEARNED

and is

TECHNICAL

and it relies on ability

ABILITY

is

INNATE

is

GENETICALLY DETERMINED,

is

STABLE

and lasts a long time. They

SUPPORT

and

UNDERLIE

skills. They are

BUILDING

BLOCKS

which help us to perform skills. As they are determined by genes, whichever ones you have will depend on how successful that you are in sport

FLEISHMAN

identified 2 types of Ability.

1)

GROSS MOTOR ABILITY

(9) – These are Physical Proficiency abilities. There are 9 related to physical fitness: Dynamic Strength, Static Strength, Explosive Strength, Trunk Strength, Stamina, Extent Flexibility, Dynamic Flexibility, Gross Body Coordination, Gross Body Equilibrium

2)

PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY

(8)– involves processing information and putting them into action. These include: Multi Limb Coordination, Response Orientation, Reaction Time, Speed of Movement, Finger Dexterity, Manual Dexterity, Rate Control, Aiming

Skills rely on several abilities to support or underpin them.

NATURAL GAMES PLAYERS

– some coaches suggest that some athletes are this. Current research states that this is not the case. Some sports require the similar abilities and the athlete simply

TRANSFERS

them

Ability can be developed particularly well in childhood if they have opportunity to

PRACTICE

, access to

FACILITIES

and

EXPERT COACHINGSlide3

There are 3 Stages or Phases of Learning.

COGNITIVE STAGE:

The learner attempts to create a

MENTAL PICTURE

of how the skill should be performed.

VERBAL EXPLANATIONS

and

DEMONSTRATIONS

are important. It will take longer if the skill is

COMPLEX.

Learners are given specific

CUES

to focus on, of the most important parts of the skill. This is called

SELECTIVE ATTENTION.

Learners use

TRIAL AND ERROR

.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

is important for

REINFORCEMENT.

Performances will be

INCONSISTENT,

full of

ERRORS

.

ASSOCIATIVE STAGE:

This is the

PRACTICE

phase of learning. Some learners stay in this stage for a long time and never progress beyond it. Mistakes begin to be eliminated and errors are less gross. Learners are more

CONSISTENT

, and the

FUNDAMENTALS

are mastered.

SUB ROUTINES

are coordinated and the skill is

SMOOTHER

. The learner attends to

SPECIFIC CUES

and they concentrate on

REFINING

skills in many conditions. The learner develops their use of

KINAESTHESIS

to eliminate errors.

AUTONOMOUS STAGE:

The skill can be executed with

MINIMUM CONSCIOUS THOUGHT.

They can concentrate on other factors such as tactics. The

MOTOR PROGRAMME

is established and stored in the

LONG TERM MEMORY

. Performance is

CONSISTENT

and

HABITUAL.

Performers can detect their

OWN ERRORS

.

EXTERNAL FEEDBACK

is less important. Slide4

There are 4 Types of GUIDANCE used by coaches to help the learning process

VISUAL GUIDANCE:

This is used at all stages of learning. It is important because

VISION

is the dominant sense. We tend to learn through

IMITATION. DEMONSTRATIONS

are good for this but they must be ACCURATE. They can also include pictures, diagrams and video. A

MENTAL PICTURE

can be developed but there are disadvantages with complex skills because there is so much information. Some methods may not keep attention

VERBAL GUIDANCE:

Often used with Visual to direct the learner to

SPECIFIC CUES.

It must be

CLEAR AND CONSCISE

to be understood and remembered. Useful when working with

AUTONOMOUS

learners. Disadvantages are that ability of the coach to relay the message, information must to be limited and some complex skills are difficult to describe.

MANUAL GUIDANCE:

This is when the coach

HOLDS

or

PHYSICALLY MANIPULATES

the body of the learner throughout the correct movement.

MECHANICAL GUIDANCE:

This is the use of an

EQUIPMENT

to help the learner. Arm bands are an example. This allows the learner to develop

SPATIAL AWARENESS

and TIMING. Both Manual and Mechanical are good in the Cognitive stage and develop

KINAESTHESIS.

They give

CONFIDENCE

but it must not be relied upon. Good for dangerous skills. However the equipment might not

REPLICATE

the actual movement. Slide5

THE 4 METHODS OF MANIPULATING PRACTICE

TASK ANALYSIS

uses the skills classification system to understand how a skill needs to be taught. You use the

ORGANISATIONAL

and

DIFFICULTY

continua .....

ORGANISATIONAL

- Can the skill be broken down into parts or not?

DIFFICULTY

– How many decisions have to be made to perform the skill?

KINAESTHESIS

is the awareness of your body in the movement space

1)

PART PRACTICE

: used when the skill is

LOW ORGANISATION

and can be broken into

SUB ROUTINES

. These are then practiced in

ISOLATION

before putting them all together. EG: Tennis Serve

2)

WHOLE PRACTICE

: Skills taught as a whole. Usually when

HIGH ORGANISATION

and

LOW COMPLEXITY

. EG: Golf Swing. It allows performers to gain

KINAESTHESIS

3)

PROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICE

: Complex skills are practiced in isolation, then linked together to form large parts before combining into the whole skill. EG: The Triple Jump / Trampoline Routines

4)

WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHOD

: The learner tries the whole skill first, gets a feel for it, then break it into

SUB ROUTINES

to practice in isolation, then put back together again. EG: The Tennis ServeSlide6

We can

CLASSIFY SKILLS

on

CONTINUUM

. These are imaginary scales of 2 extremes. EG: Black White.

PERCEPTUAL LOAD is the degree of decision making. If high lots of decisions made . SUB ROUTINES are the different parts of a skill1) MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT: From GROSS skills (large muscle movements) to FINE. Skills (involve small muscle movements)2) ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCER: From OPEN skills (affected by the environment) to CLOSED skills (not affected by the environment)3) CONTINUITY CONTINUUM: From DISCRETE skills (a clear beginning and end) through SERIAL skills (numerous discrete skills put together) to CONTINUOUS skills (skills with no beginning or end) 4) PACING CONTINUUM: From SELF PACED skills (the performer determines when to start the skill) to EXTERNALLY PACED skills (the control of the movement is determined by the environment)5) DIFFICULTY CONTINUUM: From SIMPLE skills (low levels of decision making, sub routines, power and accuracy needed, use of feedback, low perceptual load) to COMPLEX skills (high levels of the previous)6) ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM: From LOW (sub routines are easily separated) to HIGH (sub routines are closely linked)Slide7

SKILL

has

GOALS

, is

LEARNED

and is TECHNICAL and it relies on abilityABILITY is INNATE is GENETICALLY DETERMINED, is STABLE and lasts a long time. They SUPPORT and UNDERLIE skills. They are BUILDING BLOCKS which help us to perform skills. As they are determined by genes, whichever ones you have will depend on how successful that you are in sportFLEISHMAN identified 2 types of Ability. 1) GROSS MOTOR ABILITY (9) – These are Physical Proficiency abilities. There are 9 related to physical fitness: Dynamic Strength, Static Strength, Explosive Strength, Trunk Strength, Stamina, Extent Flexibility, Dynamic Flexibility, Gross Body Coordination, Gross Body Equilibrium 2) PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY (8)– involves processing information and putting them into action. These include: Multi Limb Coordination, Response Orientation, Reaction Time, Speed of Movement, Finger Dexterity, Manual Dexterity, Rate Control, AimingSkills rely on several abilities to support or underpin them. NATURAL GAMES PLAYERS – some coaches suggest that some athletes are this. Current research states that this is not the case. Some sports require the similar abilities and the athlete simply TRANSFERS themAbility can be developed particularly well in childhood if they have opportunity to PRACTICE, access to FACILITIES and EXPERT COACHINGSlide8

THE 4 METHODS OF MANIPULATING PRACTICE

TASK ANALYSIS

uses the skills classification system to understand how a skill needs to be taught. You use the

ORGANISATIONAL

and

DIFFICULTY continua .....ORGANISATIONAL - Can the skill be broken down into parts or not?DIFFICULTY – How many decisions have to be made to perform the skill?KINAESTHESIS is the awareness of your body in the movement space 1) PART PRACTICE: used when the skill is LOW ORGANISATION and can be broken into SUB ROUTINES. These are then practiced in ISOLATION before putting them all together. EG: Tennis Serve 2) WHOLE PRACTICE: Skills taught as a whole. Usually when HIGH ORGANISATION and LOW COMPLEXITY. EG: Golf Swing. It allows performers to gain KINAESTHESIS 3) PROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICE: Complex skills are practiced in isolation, then linked together to form large parts before combining into the whole skill. EG: The Triple Jump / Trampoline Routines 4) WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHOD: The learner tries the whole skill first, gets a feel for it, then break it into SUB ROUTINES to practice in isolation, then put back together again. EG: The Tennis ServeSlide9

PART PRACTICE:

Advantages: Reduces the amount of Information you need to learn / Good for learning Dangerous Skills / Good for gaining confidence bit by bit / Good for serial skills

Disadvantages: Takes time / Putting parts together can be difficult

WHOLE PRACTICE

Advantages: Allows athlete to FEEL the movement and appreciate relationship of body parts / Good for Ballistic skills / Quick to learn

Disadvantages: Not suitable for complex or dangerous skillsPROGRESSIVE – PART PRACTICE Advantages: Good for complex Serial Skills as it reduces information load and can help the transfer into the whole skill – called CHAINING Disadvantages:WHOLE - PART - WHOLE METHOD Advantages: The learner gets a KINAESTHETIC feel for the skill first / Can be quicker to learn / can identify weak parts of the skill earlier Disadvantages: Not suitable for Highly Organised SkillsSlide10

There are 3 STAGES or PHASES OF LEARNING

COGNITIVE STAGE:

The learner attempts to create a

MENTAL PICTURE

of how the skill should be performed.

VERBAL EXPLANATIONS and DEMONSTRATIONS are important. It will take longer if the skill is COMPLEX. Learners are given specific CUES to focus on, of the most important parts of the skill. This is called SELECTIVE ATTENTION. Learners use TRIAL AND ERROR. POSITIVE FEEDBACK is important for REINFORCEMENT. Performances will be INCONSISTENT, full of ERRORS.ASSOCIATIVE STAGE: This is the PRACTICE phase of learning. Some learners stay in this stage for a long time and never progress beyond it. Mistakes begin to be eliminated and errors are less gross. Learners are more CONSISTENT, and the FUNDAMENTALS are mastered. SUB ROUTINES are coordinated and the skill is SMOOTHER. The learner attends to SPECIFIC CUES and they concentrate on REFINING skills in many conditions. The learner develops their use of KINAESTHESIS to eliminate errors. AUTONOMOUS STAGE: The skill can be executed with MINIMUM CONSCIOUS THOUGHT. They can concentrate on other factors such as tactics. The MOTOR PROGRAMME is established and stored in the LONG TERM MEMORY

. Performance is

CONSISTENT

and

HABITUAL.

Performers can detect their

OWN ERRORS

.

EXTERNAL FEEDBACK

is less important. Slide11

4 TYPES OF GUIDANCE

VISUAL GUIDANCE:

This is used at all stages of learning. It is important because

VISION

is the dominant sense. We tend to learn through

IMITATION. DEMONSTRATIONS are good for this but they must be ACCURATE. They can also include pictures, diagrams and video. A MENTAL PICTURE can be developed but there are disadvantages with complex skills because there is so much information. Some methods may not keep attentionVERBAL GUIDANCE: Often used with Visual to direct the learner to SPECIFIC CUES. It must be CLEAR AND CONSCISE to be understood and remembered. Useful when working with AUTONOMOUS learners. Disadvantages are that ability of the coach to relay the message, information must to be limited and some complex skills are difficult to describe. MANUAL GUIDANCE: This is when the coach HOLDS or PHYSICALLY MANIPULATES the body of the learner throughout the correct movement. MECHANICAL GUIDANCE: This is the use of an EQUIPMENT to help the learner. Arm bands are an example. This allows the learner to develop SPATIAL AWARENESS and TIMING. Both Manual and Mechanical are good in the Cognitive stage and develop KINAESTHESIS. They give CONFIDENCE but it must not be relied upon. Good for dangerous skills. However the equipment might not REPLICATE the actual movement. Slide12

PRACTICE METHODS

MASSED PRACTICE

is when the learner practices

CONTINUOUSLY

with

NO REST. Sessions are usually LONG. It is good for GROOVING SKILLS and making them HABITUAL. It is good for ELITE, EXPERIENCED athletes with good FITNESS. They are good for SIMPLE and DISCRETE skills. Disadvantages are that it can cause BOREDOM and FATIGUEDISTRIBUTED PRACTICE does have REST. It is good for BEGINNERS and learners with LOW MOTIVATION and FITNESS. It is good for CONTINUOUS and COMPLEX skills. Rest uses EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK and MENTAL REHEARSAL. The MOST EFFECTIVE method and promotes MOTIVATIONFIXED PRACTICE is when a specific movement pattern is practiced repeatedly in the same ENVIRONMENT. It is also called a SKILL DRILL. It is good for CLOSED skills and allows them to be

OVERLEARNED

so attention can be directed to the environment.

VARIED PRACTICE

is when the skill is practiced in many environments. It allows

SCHEMA

to develop so the performer can

ADAPT

to the environment. Practice must be

REALISTIC

. It develops

PERCEPTION

and

DECISION MAKING

. It is good for

OPEN

skills. A skill needs to be

OVERLEARNED

before using this as they need to adapt to the environment

MENTAL REHEARSAL

or

IMAGERY

is when the athlete goes through the skill in the mind. Good for

COGNITIVE

learners but the elite use to

FOCUSSlide13

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODELS compare our brains to computers and how information enters our system, how we interpret it and how we put these decisions into action. There are 3 key processes :

1)

INPUTTING

information through

SENSORY INPUT

(touch, sight etc) 2) PROCESSING information through our CENTRAL MECHANISM (brains) 3) OUTPUTTING information through EFFECTOR MECHANISMS (muscles) STIMULUS IDENTIFICATION is when our senses receive information about the situation. A stimulus is any information which stands out. This stage involves PERCEPTION. EG: The speed and direction of the shotRESPONSE SELECTION is when we decide what movement to make EG: The ball is high and left so I must dive in that direction to save itRESPONSE PROGRAMMING organises our MOTOR system (nerves and muscles) to carry out the movement. EG: You dive in that directionThere are 2 Models of Information Processing that we will apply to SportWHELFORD’S MODELWHITING’S MODELSlide14

Use the handouts and the following terminology to APPLY both models

PROPRIOCEPTION

is a sense that allows us to know what position our body is in. It relies on information from

PROPRIOCEPTORS

in our joints

PERCEPTION is how we view or interpret the informationPERCEPTUAL MECHANISM is the use of detecting, comparing and recognising informationMEMORY has 3 parts. 1) SHORT TERM SENSORY STORE 2) SHORT TERM MEMORY 3) LONG TERM MEMORYMOTOR PROGRAMME is a series of movements stored in the long term memory. It remembers the sequence they are performed inDISPLAY is the surrounding environmentKINAESTHESIS is the feel of the movement. Used by advanced athletesTRANSLATORY MECHANISMS is the decision making aspect once the information has been interpretedEFFECTOR MECHANISM is when the motor programme is put into action by sending nerve IMPULSES to the musclesEFFECTOR is the muscles which put the movement into actionFEEDBACK can be INTRINSIC (from internal proprioceptors) or EXTRINSIC (coach, team mates) Slide15

SERIAL AND PARALLEL PROCESSING

Most information that we process is done

SEQUENTIALLY

or in

STAGES

. Each stage is different and they have an effect on each other. These are known as SERIAL PROCESSES. EG: In a trampoline routine the performer processes information relating to each movement and stage by stage. PARALLEL PROCESSING is when processes occur SIMULTANEOUSLY. They do not have an effect on each other. EG: In a game you process information about the speed, direction and height of the ball but also the team mates and opposition. Use Whiting’s and Whelford’s Model to explain:A skill which requires SERIAL PROCESSES and A Skill which uses PARALLEL PROCESSINGSlide16

MEMORY is important for

INTERPRETING

information and deciding the

MOTOR PROGRAMME

to use. We rely on our

PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES. The MULTI STORE MODEL OF INFORMATION PROCESSING identifies 3 STORES. SENSORY MEMORY (SM) The use of SHORT TERM SENSORY STORES holds all stimuli for only 0.25 second to 1 second. Their capacity is LARGE and there is a separate store for each sense. Our PERCEPTION recognises which is the most important information. It is FILTERED through SELECTIVE ATTENTION. Only the important info is used. Focusing on irrelevant information is ATTENTIONAL WASTAGESHORT TERM MEMORY(STM) This is the WORKPLACE where incoming information is COMPARED to what you have already stored in the LTM. It has LIMITED CAPACITY in terms of QUANTITY (5 to 9 pieces of info) and LENGTH of time stored (up to 30 seconds) ENCODING is information in coded form. To do this the info must be passed into the LTM through REHEARSAL. LONG TERM MEMORY(LTM) holds the info that has been REHEARSED. Its capacity is LIMITLESS and can be held PERMANENTLY. Motor Programmes are stored in the LTMSlide17

Use the Multi Store Model to explain how we use information and transfer it from on stage to another

..

Use Practical Examples

Draw the model and apply

your answers SHORT TERM SENSORY STORESHORT TERM MEMORYLONG TERM MEMORYSTIMULI / INPUTSELECTIVEATTENTIONENCODING

ENCODING

RETRIEVAL

PERCEPTION

AND DECISION

MAKINGSlide18

REACTION TIME

is the time between the onset of the stimulus and the start of the movement in response to it. It has 4 parts and is the time for:

The stimulus to activate the particular sensory system

The stimulus to travel from the sensory system to the brain

The brain

(CENTRAL MECHANISM) to process the stimulusThe relevant commands to be sent from the central mechanism to the musclesMOVEMENT TIME is the time taken from starting the movement to finishing itRESPONSE TIME is the time taken from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of the movement = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME Imagine you are Usain Bolt’s Psychologist. You want to explain REACTION TIME for the benefit of him and for his coach. Write an article which explains Reaction Time for their benefit. Ensure you apply of the key concepts and use practical examples to make it easy to understandSlide19

Reaction Time is affected by many factors.

AGE – reaction time gets quicker until you are 20, then declines

GENDER – males generally have quicker reaction times

LIMB USED – the further the nerve impulse has to travel the slower the reaction time will be. Feet Reaction will be slower than hands

PERSONALITY – Extroverts have quicker reaction time than INTROVERTS

ALERTNESS: Optimum levels are needed to react quickestBODY TEMP – if we are cold, we react slowerSENSES: Different senses have different reaction times in the following order: PAIN / SIGHT / SOUND / TOUCH / KINAESTHESIAIF A WARNING IS GIVEN and you are expecting it you will react quickerSTIMULUS INTENSITY: loud sounds or sights stimulate quick reactionsTHE LIKELIHOOD OF THE STIMULUS OCCURRING: If it has a good chance of occurring reactions are quicker. This is STIMULUS – RESPONSE COMPATABILITY. EG: A punch being thrown in Boxing Use practical examples to highlight how Reaction times in the England Rugby and Football Teams will compare.Slide20

REACTION TIME

SINGLE CHANNEL HYPOTHESIS

states that when we receive information the brain can only deal with one stimulus at a time. It is thought of as a

SINGLE CHANNEL

. One piece has to be processed before the next one can be dealt with. This is called a

BOTTLENECKCHOICE REACTION TIME is when performers are having to deal with more than one stimulus and one response at a time. The greater the amount of choices will increase the information to be processed and slow reaction timeHICK’s LAW states that CHOICE REACTION TIME increases as the number of stimulus / alternatives increases. This relationship is LINEAR. Coaches can Improve a Performers Response Time by: PRACTICE and REHEARSAL / MENTAL REHEARSAL / EXPERIENCE / STIMULUS RESPONSE COMPATABILITY / CUE DETECTION EG: recognising an opponents body position / PHYSICAL FITNESS/ LEVEL OF MOTIVATION / WARM UP/ SPATIAL ANTICIPATION is predicting what will happen/ TEMPORAL ANTICIPATION is predicting when it will happen. Slide21

ANTICIPATION

has many benefits BUT we must be aware of its draw backs. If we anticipate incorrectly our reaction time will slow down. If we detect a stimulus and are processing it but are then presented with a second stimulus, we are unable to deal with the second stimulus until we have finished dealing with the first

EG: A defender in football when dealing with

Christiano

Ronaldo. If Ronaldo performs a step over (1st STIMULUS) the defender attempts to deal with this (1st RESPONSE) by moving his body in that direction. However, Ronaldo then moves the ball in the opposite direction (2nd STIMULUS). The defender cannot deal with the 2nd STIMULUS and perform a 2nd RESPONSE until he has completed the 1st RESPONSE. This delay in attending to the 2nd STIMULUS is called THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD (PRP). It is the delay caused by only being able to process one piece of information at a timeSTIMULUS 1REACTION 1

STIMULUS 2

REACTION 2

PRP (TIME)Slide22

A MOTOR PROGRAMME (MP) is a GENERALISED series or pattern of movements stored in the LONG TERM MEMORY. It is the PLAN for a skill. It can also be called an EXECUTIVE MOTOR PROGRAMME (EMP). Every skill in sport has a MP or EMP

An MP for a Tennis Serve would include the following sub routines: Ball Toss, Backswing, Forward Swing, Contact, and Follow Through. These SUB ROUTINES are HIERARCHICAL (they have an order of importance) and SEQUENTIAL (they are performed in an order)Slide23

When a performer reaches the

AUTONOMOUS STAGE

they will have

OVERLEARNED

or

GROOVED the Motor Programme into the LTMMotor Programmes can be one of 3 Types or LEVELS depending on the amount of feedback available when performing the skill LEVEL 1 CONTROL: OPEN LOOP CONTROL: When RAPID movements are performed. It is a very QUICK action with NO TIME for FEEDBACK. Therefore the movement CANNOT BE CHANGED. The EMP is stored in the LTM and sent to the MOVEMENT EFFECTORS because there is a MEMORY TRACE as it has been so well REHEARSED. Control is SUBCONSCIOUS. It is associated with BALLISTIC skills such as wicket keeping in cricket LEVEL 2 CONTROL: CLOSED LOOP CONTROL: This control involves FEEDBACK and this is called PERCEPTUAL TRACE. FEEDBACK is SHORT and is gathered by KINAESTHESIS and PROPRIOCEPTORS. Quick subconscious CORRECTIONS can take place. EG: Slalom Skiing LEVEL 3 CONTROL: CLOSED LOOP CONTROL

:

FEEDBACK

about the performance has

TIME

to get to the brain. You can change the movement by sending

IMPULSES

back to the muscles. It uses

CONSCIOUS

thought.

EXTERNAL FEEDBACK

can be used to

REINFORCE

especially if they are beginners. The

PERCEPTUAL TRACE

compares the performance with the

MEMORY TRACE

. If it matches its reinforced, if not the skill is adjustedSlide24

Draw Adam’s 3 theories of Loop Control and explain how they apply in sport. Apply all characteristics of each level and explain how they work

Do you believe in Loop Control Theory? What are the drawbacks? Think about: Open Skills. Will this work for Open Skills?

Why?

THE EMP in the LTM

The Action of the MusclesMemory TraceLEVEL ONE CONTROLLEVEL TWO CONTROLTHE EMP in the LTMThe Action of the Muscles

Feedback

Via Muscles

Memory

Trace

LEVEL THREE CONTROL

THE EMP in the LTM

The Action of the Muscles

Memory

Trace

Perceptual

TraceSlide25

SCHEMA THEORY

This theory disagrees with Loop Control and states that

MPs

are not stored in the LTM as separate items but they are held as

RELATIONSHIPS

which are GENERALISED MOVEMENTS which can be ADAPTED to respond to NEW SITUATIONS. Schema is a store of information and experiencesThe EXPERIENCE is gathered from 4 areas called MEMORY ITEMS. Items 1 and 2 make up RECALL SCHEMA and items 3 and 4 make up RECOGNITION SCHEMA. Both allow the performer to ADAPTRECALL SCHEMA MEMORY ITEM 1: KNOWLEDGE OF INITIAL CONDITIONS: Has the athlete experienced a similar situation before ? MEMORY ITEM 2: KNOWLEDGE OF RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS: Does the athlete know what can be done in these situations?RECOGNITION SCHEMA MEMORY ITEM 3: KNOWLEDGE OF SENSORY CONSEQUENCES: Relates to Kinaesthesis. Does the athlete know how it feels to perform the correct skill MEMORY ITEM 4: KNOWLEDGE OF MOVEMENT OUTCOME: Does the athlete know what the outcome of performing the skill will be?Slide26

Sporting Scenario: 2 attackers v 1 defender in Rugby

RECALL SCHEMA

MEMORY ITEM 1:

KNOWLEDGE OF INITIAL CONDITIONS:

Has he experienced a 2 v 1 situation before?

MEMORY ITEM 2: KNOWLEDGE OF RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS: Does the performer know that he can pass, dummy, sidestep or kick?RECOGNITION SCHEMA MEMORY ITEM 3: KNOWLEDGE OF SENSORY CONSEQUENCES: Does the performer know what it feels like to successfully execute a pass etc ? MEMORY ITEM 4: KNOWLEDGE OF MOVEMENT OUTCOME: Does the athlete know that if he did side step then the defender would be sent the wrong way? ......The performer then executes the skill based on these experiences Apply Schema Theory to a sporting situation of your choice. Which do you believe in? Loop Control or Schema?Slide27

FEEDBACK

FEEDBACK

is information received by the athlete both during and after the skill has been performed. It must be

ACCURATE, CONSTRUCTIVE

and

COMPREHESIBLE and it can improve CONFIDENCE, MOTIVATION, REDUCE ERRORS, and REINFORCE good actions. There are 8 Types: POSITIVE : given externally by a coach when PRAISING their successNEGATIVE: is given when the movement is INCORRECT. It can be INTRINSIC or EXTRINSIC. This is NOT criticismEXTRINSIC: is from external sources such as the coach. Can be called AUGMENTED feedbackINTRINSIC: is SENSORY feedback about the physical feel of the movement. It relies on PROPRIOCEPTORS and KINAESTHESISTERMINAL: is given AFTER the movement is completed and is EXTRINSICCONCURRENT: is received DURING the skill performance. It can be INTRINSIC or

EXTRINSIC

KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE (KP):

is feedback that is given about the

QUALITY

of the movement. It can be

INTERNAL

and

KINAESTHETIC

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR):

is about the result or

OUTCOME

of the movement and is

EXTRINSIC.

EG: Times Slide28

MOTIVATION AND AROUSAL

MOTIVATION is the DRIVE to learn and perform well. It is the

DIRECTION

of behaviour (the amount of emotional energy) and

INTENSITY

of behaviour (the course of action related to the emotion). It is linked to AMBITION and also whether someone PARTICIPATES. Intensity of Behaviour is also called AROUSAL. There are 2 aspects:SOMATIC or PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL: the state of the body- heart rateCOGNITIVE or PSYCHOLOGICAL AROUSAL relates to the mind – worryMOTIVATION can be INTRINSIC (when a performer participates for their own reasons – GOALS) and EXTRINSIC (when they perform for REWARDS) Slide29

The

DRIVE THEORY

of Arousal. There relationship is

LINEAR

between

AROUSAL and PERFORMANCE. The quality of the performance depends on how well the skill has been LEARNED as the more learned they are the more the DOMINANT RESPONSES is most likely to be givenThe INVERTED U THEORY of Arousal. Performance increases as arousal does but reaches a point called the OPTIMUM POINT or THRESHOLD OF AROUSAL. It is mid way to maximum arousal and can vary. It depends on PERSONALITY, TYPE OF TASK, STAGE OF LEARNING, EXPERIENCE The best performance levels occur at MODERATE levels of arousal. If the performer goes past this point then they become OVER AROUSED and their performance DETERIORATES. The CATASTROPHE THEORY of Arousal. This is when performance is influenced by the relationship between SOMATIC and COGNITIVE arousal. As Somatic arousal increases so does the performance BUT performance reaches OPTIMUM level ONLY if the cognitive arousal is kept LOW at the same time. If it is high the athlete goes OVER THE EDGE and performance drops CATASTROPHICALLY. The DRIVE REDUCTION theory describes the LOSS of

MOTIVATION

when learning a skill. At first there is

DRIVE

and the

S-R BOND

is strong but this leads to low motivation. New

GOALS

must be introduced to rectify Slide30

Draw the A, B and C theories in the form of a graph. Use the X Axis to represent the Units of LEVEL OF AROUSAL. Use the Y Axis to represent units QUALITY OF PERFORMANCE. Both axis from LOW to HIGH

Show the OPTIMUM POINT. You may need 2 lines for Catastrophe Theory

Use arrows to draw a flow diagram for the Drive Reduction Theory re ordering these 5 terms:

The skill is mastered – Desire to learn a new skill – The drive reduces – Drive to satisfy the need to learn is applied – new goals.

Explain how

INHIBITION (boredom) reduces driveFor the DRIVE theory explain with practical example why high arousal would benefit elite performers rather than novices. Explain how the optimum level would change in this theory for the novice. EG: What level of arousal would they best need? Explain why. For the INVERTED U theory UNDER and OVER AROUSAL can seriously affect learning of skills. Describe how the concentration on environmental CUES and SELECTIVE ATTENTION would affect learning when they are under aroused:. Now...When over aroused how might HIGH ANXIETY, ATTENTIONAL FIELD (the area of which the performer is aware) HYPERVIGILANCE (panic) CONCENTRATION affect performance Suggest ways that psychologists can reduce anxiety levels in graph 3. Explain when you have experienced Catastrophe. Why did it happen?Slide31

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

We need to consider different

STRATEGIES

to encourage children to participate. Especially those who are

DISAFFECTED.

Motivation can be EXTERNAL and can be TANGIBLE (you can touch it such as Trophies) or INTANGIBLE (cannot be touched such as Praise) However EXTERNAL Motivation is a SHORT TERM strategy compared to INTERNAL motivation. It is the key to LIFELONG SPORT and is established through POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT and setting GOALSMOTIVATIONAL strategies are essential to learning and performance. Critically evaluate the following strategies by explaining how each will affect lifelong participation and a healthy balanced lifestyleProviding FUN ACTIVITIESEnsuring SOCIAL EXPERIENCESUse of ATTAINABLE TARGETSIncreasing SKILL AND FITNESS LEVELSUsing ROLE MODELS Use of POSITIVE REINFORCEMENTEnsuring PERSONAL BENEFITTRANSFER OF PREVIOUSLY LEARNED SKILLSSlide32

The 3 THEORIES OF LEARNING MOVEMENT SKILLS

OPERANT CONDITIONING:

Behaviour can be

MODIFIED

or

CONDITIONED if directed towards a STIMULUS in a STRUCTURED ENVIRONMENT. It strengthens the S-R BOND. This link is called an ASSOCIATION or CONNECTION. The learner uses TRIAL and ERROR. When the correct response is given the learner is REWARDED through POSITIVE REINFORCEMENTCOGNITIVE THEORY: Learning is best achieved by presenting the WHOLE skill to the learner. It depends on PERCEPTION. The learner will use CURRENT KNOWLEDGE and PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE. They use MENTAL PROCESSES called INTERVENING VARIABLES. Solving the whole problem is known as INSIGHT or INTUITIVE LEARNING. It is a GESTALTIST theory (German word for whole pattern)The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. They believe that PART learning is ineffective because the learner does not have all the informationOBSERVATIONAL LEARNING:

SOCIAL

learning involves

IMITATING

others. Most learning takes place this way. It is most likely to be copied if the

DEMONSTRATOR

is a

SIGNIFICANT OTHER

to the observer.

ROLE MODELS

have huge influence and is most likely to occur in the same

GENDER

. It requires

VISUAL GUIDANCE

creating a

MENTAL PICTURE. Slide33

Critically Evaluate the 3 Theories of Learning using the following information

OPERANT CONDITIONING: Skinner’s Rat experiment allowed a rat in a cage to experiment with levers. Eventually it pressed the correct lever and it gave a food pellet.

Task – Design a practice session which uses Operant Conditioning. Use the terms Connection, Association, Trail and Error, S-R Bond, Reinforcement, Conditioning, Modified and Reward in your answer

COGNITIVE THEORY: Design a session using this theory to develop skills in passing a receiving a basketball. How could

Gestaltist

theorists use this theory in unsafe or complex skills? EG: RugbyDescribe the differences between Connectionist and Gelstaltist Theorists. Which do you agree with?BANDURA (a psychologist) suggested that Observational Learning can only take place if 4 elements are present. Design a practice session which applies the 4 elements. ATTENTION: The learner must focus on the demonstrationRETENTION: The learner must store the image if they are to replicate itMOTOR PRODUCTION: The learner must have the physical ability to copy itMOTIVATION: The learner must be driven to copy Slide34

REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement is the process that causes the

STIMULUS RESPONSE (S-R) BOND

to

STRENGTHEN

. This ensures the response REOCCURS. There are 21) POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: is when the coach or teacher gives APPROVAL when the DESIRED behaviour is demonstrated. Approval may be TANGIBLE (certificate, trophy) or INTANGIBLE (praise) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: is when the NEGATIVE or AVVERSIVE STIMULUS (this is Disapproval) is taken away when the desired response is performed. It strengthens the S-R bond because it WEAKENS the INCORRECT LEARNING BOND. EG: When learning to dive a swimmer experiences pain on contact. When the pain is withdrawn if performed correctly the negative reinforcement is removed. It is NOT punishmentPUNISHMENT: is when a NOXIOUS (unpleasant) STIMULUS is given and this prevents that behaviour reoccurring. EG: Being sent off for a high tackle. The red card is the noxious stimulusTHORNDIKE (a psychologist) believed that 3 rules are applied to strengthen the S-R Bond. A) The LAW OF EFFECT: behaviour is reinforced with Positive Reinforcement it will strengthen the S-R Bond B) The LAW OF EXERCISE: The S-R Bond is strengthened with PRACTICE C) The LAW OF READINESS: the performer must ready both mentally and physicallySlide35

TRANSFER OF LEARNING –

5

Types

TRANSFER

is the influence that one skill has on the learning and performance of another skill.

Schmidt said “No learning takes place without transfer”. It has huge LINKS with VARIABLE PRACTICE and SCHEMA theory. In childhood we learn FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT SKILLS (such as hopping) which then become the BASIS of advanced skills (side stepping). Children develop a POOL OF EXPERIENCE or MOVEMENT SCHEMAS. These transfer into difficult Motor Programmes 1) POSITIVE: when one skill helps the learning of another. EG: Learning to throw positively transfers to the arm action of the tennis serve 2) NEGATIVE: when one skill HINDERS or prevents the learning of another. EG: Badminton requires loose wrists. Tennis requires firm wrists 3) PROACTIVE: A previously learned skill influences a skill you are currently learning EG: Throwing will help you learn the volleyball serve 4) RETROACTIVE: when a newly learned skill helps you perform a skill you already know EG: Learning the tennis serve may help you to better over arm throw in cricket 5) BI LATERAL: when a performance of one side of the body influences the other side EG: A right footed player learns to play left footedSlide36

1) Good coaches and teachers ensure that during the session

POSITIVE TRANSFER

takes place and that its effects are

OPTIMISED

(the effects are maximised) How can coaches ensure

OPTIMISED TRANSFER. Use the following points to answer this question. Give practical examples:VARIABLE PRACTICEDEMONSTRATIONSINFORMATION PROCESSINGTHORNDIKES 3 LAWSSTAGE OF LEARNING of a previously learned skillDeveloping a POOL OF EXPERIENCEREINFORCEMENT and strengthening the S-R BOND 2) NEGATIVE TRANSFER can be avoided by ensuring the practice ENVIRONMENT is close to the real situation, and by avoiding CONFLICTING skills. Apply these concepts to your sport 3) Describe and explain the STRONG RELATIONSHIP between Transfer and SCHEMA and VARIABLE PRACTICE. Why do GESTALTISTS like this theory?