A group of related mental processes that are involved in acquiring storing and retrieving information What Is Memory M emory involves three fundamental processes Encoding T ID: 631916
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Slide1
Memory
Chapter SixSlide2
Memory
:
A
group of
related
mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving informationSlide3
What Is Memory?
M
emory
involves
three fundamental processes.
Encoding
:
T
ransforming
information into a form that can be entered and retained by
the memory system
Storage:
R
etaining
information in memory so that it can be used at a later
time
Retrieval:
R
ecovering
stored information for conscious awarenessSlide4Slide5
Sensory Memory: Fleeting Impression of the World
V
ery briefly stores sensory impressions so that they overlap slightly with one another
Used to perceive the world as continuous, rather than as a series of disconnected visual images or disjointed soundsSlide6
Types of Sensory
Memory
Visual sensory memory
is sometimes referred to as
iconic memory
because it is the brief memory of an image, or icon.
Duration
: A
pproximately
¼ to ½ a secondAuditory sensory memory is sometimes referred to as echoic memory, meaning a brief memory that is like an echo.Lasts up to three or four seconds
Auditory sensory memory
is sometimes referred to as echoic memory, meaning a brief memory that is like an echo.
Lasts up to
3 or 4 secondsSlide7
Sperling’s
Experiment
Demonstrating
the
Duration of
Sensory MemorySlide8
Short-Term Working Memory: The Work of Consciousness
STM provides temporary storage for information transferred from sensory and long-term memory.
Duration:
About 20 seconds
Can be retained longer through maintenance rehearsal
Mental or verbal repetition of information
Information loss may be due to decay or interference from new or competing information
Capacity
Described by George Miller as “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”
Can be increased by chunking; use maintenance rehearsal to encodeCurrent research suggests that the true “magical number” is four plus or minus one when chunking not an optionSlide9
From Short-Term Memory to Working Memory
Baddeley’s
model of working memory
The terms
working memory
and
short-term memory
are sometimes used interchangeably
Working memory refers to the active, conscious manipulation of temporarily stored information with three main components, each of which can function independentlySlide10
Baddeley’s
Model
of Working
Memory:
How
Do I
Get to
Marty’s House?Slide11
Any
information stored longer than
the 20-second
duration of short-term memory
.
Unlimited
amount of information can be stored in long-term memory.
LTM
has different memory systems.
Long-term memories can last a lifetime. Amount
of information that can be held is limitless.
Long-Term
MemorySlide12
Hints for Studying Based on Encoding
Strategies
Make
sure you understand the new information by restating it in your own
words
Actively
question new
information
Think about the potential applications and implications of the materialRelate
the new material to information you already know, searching for connections that make the new information more
meaningful
Generate
your own examples of the concept, especially examples from your own
experiences
Encoding Long-Term Memories
Maintenance rehearsal
not effective;
elaborative rehearsal
more effective
Encodes information into a form that can be retrieved later
Focuses on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to long-term memory
Relates the information to other information you already knowSlide13
Encoding Long-Term MemoriesSlide14
Types of Information in Long-Term Memory: Three Major Categories
Procedural memory
refers to the long-term memory of how to perform different skills, operations, and actions;
sometimes
known as “muscle
memory.”
Episodic memory
refers to long-term memory of specific events or episodes, including the time and place.
Related: autobiographical memory; personal life history
Semantic memory is general knowledge of facts, names, definitions, concepts.Slide15
Types of Long-Term MemorySlide16
Implicit and Explicit
Memory:
Two
Systems of LTMSlide17
Culture and Memory
Cross-cultural
research
shows how
culture helps shape one’s sense of
self.
Earliest
autobiographical memories are for events that occurred between the ages of two and
four.
Cultural differences in autobiographical memory are formed in very early childhood, through interaction with family members.
American
memories:
Discrete
, reflecting individual experiences or feelings
Chinese
and
Taiwanese memories:
G
eneral
, routine activities with family, schoolmates, or community
members;
brief accounts that centered on collective
activitiesSlide18
The Organization of Information in Long-Term Memory
Clustering
Related items are clustered together to form higher-order categories.
List items are remembered better if list is presented in categories.
Poorer recall when presentation is random presentation.
Even if list items are random, people still organize information into some logical pattern.Slide19
Clustering Demonstration
chair
boat
footstool
orange
pear
peach
bed
bus
trainplumgrapesmotorcycle
apple
car
airplane
lamp
banana
dresser
sofa
bookcase
truck
table
strawberry
bicycleSlide20
Semantic Network Model
Mental links form between
concepts.
Common properties provide basis for mental
link.
Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in
memory.
Concept is activated in semantic network,
spread
in any number of directions, activating other associations in network.
Network model useful
as metaphor, but not an actual brain
structure.Slide21
The Importance of Retrieval Cues
Forgetting
: Inability to retrieve previously available information
Retrieval
refers to the process of accessing and retrieving stored information in long-term memory
A
retrieval cue
is a clue, prompt, or hint that can help trigger recall of a stored memorySlide22
Common Retrieval Glitches:
The Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Experience
TOT involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory but being unable to retrieve it.
People have about one TOT experience per week.
TOT occurs with ASL users.
90% of TOT experiences are eventually resolved, often within a few minutes.Slide23Slide24
The Serial Position Effect
There
are two parts to the serial position effect.
Primacy effect
: The tendency
to recall
the first
items in a
list
Recency effect: The tendency to recall the final items in a list
Serial position
effect
:
T
endency
to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the
middle
Slide25
Encoding Specificity Principle
When conditions of retrieval are similar to conditions of encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful.
Context effects
Tendency to remember information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting in which you originally learned the information
Environmental
cues in a particular context
are encoded as
part of the unique memories you form while in that
context
Mood congruenceFactors related to mood or emotion Slide26
Flashbulb Memories
These memories are
thought to involve the recall of very specific details or images surrounding a significant, rare, or vivid
event
However, research
demonstrates:
Both flashbulb and everyday memories gradually
decay
over
time.Flashbulb memories are emotionally charged, but they are not necessarily more accurate than memories of more common events.Flashbulb Memories?
Can
you remember where you were
when you
learned of the death of Robin Williams?
Where were you at the time of
the bombing at
the Boston
Marathon?
Supposedly
, shocking national or
international events
can trigger highly accurate, long-term flashbulb memories.Slide27
Forgetting
Ebbinghaus
: The Forgetting Curve
First
began to study forgetting by using nonsense syllables, like
:
ROH
, LEZ, SUW, QOV, XAR, KUF
,
BIW, CUL, TIX, QAP, WEJ, ZODMuch of what is forgotten is lost relatively soon after we originally learned it
How
quickly we forget material depends on how well the material was encoded in the first place, how meaningful the material was, and how often it was rehearsed
Hermann
EbbinghausSlide28
The Ebbinghaus
Forgetting CurveSlide29
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.Slide30
Why Do We Forget?
One of the most common reasons for forgetting occurs when information is not encoded initially into long-term memory (
encoding failure
).
Failure to remember what needs to be done in the future involves a
p
rospective memory error
.Slide31
Why Do We Forget?
Decay Theory
When a new memory is formed, it creates a
distinct
structural or chemical change in the
brain
(memory trace).
Memory traces fade away over time as a matter of normal brain processes.
ChallengesSome research has shown that information can be remembered decades after it was originally learned.Ebbinghaus theorized that the rate of forgetting decreases over time.Slide32
Déjà Vu Experiences:
An
Illusion of Memory?
D
éjà
vu experience
Déjà
vu
is a brief but intense feeling of
remembering a scene or an event that is actually being experienced for the first time. 68% of individuals experience déjà vu one or more times in their lives.Incidence decreases with age.Explaining déjà vuA disruption in source memory or source monitoringSource amnesiaEncoding failure/inattentional blindnessBrain dysfunctionSlide33
Interference Theory
Interference Theory
Memories
interfere
with memories
Forgetting
not caused
by mere passage of time
Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another
memoryTwo types of interferenceRetroactive interferenceA NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD informationProactive
interference
An OLD memory interferes with
remembering
NEW
informationSlide34
Why Do We Forget?
Motivated forgetting
An undesired memory is held back from awareness
Suppression: Conscious forgetting
Repression: Unconscious forgetting (Freudian)Slide35
Imperfect Memories
Memory details change over time
Without awareness, details can be added, subtracted, exaggerated, or downplayed.
Misinformation effect
Post-event, eyewitness recollection of an original event can be distorted (Loftus).
Source confusion
True source of memory can be forgotten.
A memory can be attributed to the wrong source.Slide36
Source Confusion
Source confusion
arises when the true source of the memory is forgotten or when a memory is attributed to the wrong source.
Can give rise to a false memory—a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occurSlide37
Schemas, Scripts, and Memory Distortions
Can the knowledge
people
had
before an
event occurred
influence their later
memory of the
event?
Schemas organize clusters of knowledge and information about particular topics.Scripts are schemas that involve a typical sequence of actions and behaviors at a common event.False memories are created for actions that would have been consistent with a script.False memories of a psychologyprofessor’s officeWhat happened?Slide38
Imagination Inflation: Remembering Being Lost in the Mall
Lost-in-the-mall technique (Loftus)
R
esearch
strategy
that uses information
from family members to help create
or induce
false memories of childhood
experiencesImagination inflationImagining the past as different from what it was can change the way it is rememberedInnocence Project application How does this occur?Slide39
How does imagining an event—even one that never took place—help create
a memory
that is so subjectively compelling?Slide40
Factors Contributing to False Memories
Factor
Description
Misinformation effect
When erroneous information received after an event leads to
distorted or
false memories of the
event
Source
Forgetting or misremembering the true source of a memory Schema distortion
False or distorted memories caused by the tendency to fill in
missing memory
details with information that is consistent with
existing knowledge
about a
topic
Imagination inflation
Unfounded confidence in a false or distorted memory caused by
the vivid imagining of the
pseudoevent
False familiarity
Increased feelings of familiarity due to repeatedly imagining an event
Blending
fact and fiction
Using vivid, authentic details to add to the legitimacy and
believability of
a
pseudoevent
Suggestion
Hypnosis, guided imagery, or other highly suggestive techniques
that can
inadvertently or intentionally create vivid false
memories Slide41
The Memory Wars: Recovered or False Memories?
Repressed memory therapy, recovery therapy, recovered memory, trauma therapy
The therapeutic approach assumed that incidents of sexual and physical abuse—in childhood, especially—were so psychologically threatening that victims repressed all memories of the experience
Methods used to help people unblock, or recover, repressed memories include:
Hypnosis, dream analysis, guided imagery, intensive group therapy, and other highly suggestive techniques to recover the long-repressed memoriesSlide42
The Memory Wars: Recovered or False Memories?Slide43
The Search for the Biological Basis of Memory
Lashley
S
earched
for the localized memory trace, or engram
Concluded that memories
are
distributed, or stored, throughout the
brain(from observing maze-learning rats with different parts of cortex removed)Was incorrectThompsonFound memory for simple classically conditioned responses to be localized in the cerebellum
Search for the
engram
(brain
changes
presumed
to occur in long-term memory formation)Slide44
How Neurons Change as
Aplysia
Forms a New Memory
When
Aplysia
is repeatedly squirted with water, and each squirt is followed by a
mild shock
to its tail, the snail
soon learns
to withdraw its gill flap at just the squirt of water. Conditioning leads to structural and functional changes in Aplysia’s three neurons involved in the memory circuit.Two processes are suggestedFunctioning of the brain’s neurons could changeStructure of the neurons could changeSlide45
The Role of Neurons in Long-Term Memory
When
Aplysia
acquires this new memory, there is an increase in the amount of neurotransmitters produced by the neurons
Structure of the sea snail’s neurons changes
Number of interconnecting branches between the neurons increases
Number of synapses, or communication points, on each branch increases
Collectively, these changes are called long-term potentiationSlide46
Processing Memories in the Brain: Clues from Amnesia
Amnesia:
Severe memory loss
Retrograde amnesia:
Inability to remember past episodic information; common after head injury
Anterograde amnesia
: Inability to form new memories; related to hippocampal damage
Memory consolidation
: Gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories into stable, enduring memory codes.Slide47
Disrupting the Consolidation of
Memories
Head injuries are common in many sports.
Disrupt memory consolidation process
Memories permanently lostSlide48
Implicit and Explicit Memory in Anterograde Amnesia
H.M.
Had portions of the medial (inner) temporal lobe on each side of his brain, including the brain structure called the hippocampus, removed
Was unable to acquire new long-term memories of events (episodic information) or general knowledge (semantic information)
Had some residual declarative memory abilities (retained info about famous people)Slide49
Brain Structures Involved in MemorySlide50
Alzheimer’s Disease
Progressive disease that destroys neurons in the brain, gradually impairing memory, thinking, language, and other cognitive functions; eventually results in complete inability to care for oneself
Most common form of dementia; causes still unknown
Alzheimer brains develop two abnormal structures: beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tanglesSlide51
Courtesy of Dr. Paul Thompson
, Laboratory
of
Neuro
-Imaging and
the Imaging
Genetics Center at UCLA
Alzheimer’s DiseaseSlide52
Mapping Brain Changes in Alzheimer’s Disease
In these
color-coded images, blue corresponds
to normal tissue (no loss), red indicates up to
10 percent
tissue loss, and white indicates up
to
20
percent tissue loss.
These high-resolution “brain maps” represent composite images of the progressive effects of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) in 12 patients over the course of two years.