K-12 Urban School Teachers’ Perceptions of Psychological Empowerment: A Mixed Methods - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

K-12 Urban School Teachers’ Perceptions of Psychological Empowerment: A Mixed Methods Study

Dissertation Oral Presentation

Elizabeth Anne Scott-

Ikharo

Walden University

August 15

,

2014

Slide2

Personal InterestI became particularly interested in this topic after working in the field of education for over two decades. Over this time I noticed that some coworkers seemed to remain highly engaged in their work throughout their careers while others seemed to experience significant amounts of stress and burnout. I wondered what made the difference for these two groups of individuals. How could they have such diverse experiences while working in the same career for a number of years? I have come to some understanding of these issues as a result of this study.

Slide3

IntroductionThe psychological empowerment of K-12 urban school teachers holds great significance to educating youth who frequently experience poverty, schooling disengagement, lack of adequate educational resources, and priorities that compete with academic achievement (

Nir

&

Kranot

, 2006).

Nearly one-half of all youth attending K-12 urban schools in the United States live in high crime neighborhoods, live with only one parent or grandparent, and lack developmental assets needed for school and social success (

Klassen

, Usher, & Bong, 2010;

Pomaki

,

Karoly

, &

Maes

, 2009).

Psychological empowerment is linked to organizational effectiveness in schools (

Somech

, 2005).

Slide4

Introduction Continued

Teachers who feel psychologically empowered will likely exhibit behaviors consistent with optimal student learning outcomes (Seibert, Wang, &

Courtright

, 2011).

Psychological empowerment may be considered one of the core building blocks of teacher efficacy and role fulfillment in the K-12 urban school setting (Kim & Kim, 2013).

Social change implications include increased professional development for K-12 urban school teachers regarding ways to promote psychological

empowerment.

Identification of benefits associated with having a psychologically empowered staff,

include

a higher level of work commitment, perseverance in the face of obstacles, and an orientation to work toward organizational goals (Kim & Kim, 2013).

Slide5

BackgroundTeachers today are bombarded with numerous challenges that require high levels of attention and expertise on a continual basis (

Stenhouse

& Jarrett, 2012).

Performance expectations are high from parents, principals, community members, and even students (

Stenhouse

& Jarrett, 2012).

The main challenge is the low quality teaching and learning environment in many schools (

Leistyna

,

Lavandez

, & Nelson, 2004).

Many teachers are faced with students who are ill prepared to meet the challenges of learning on grade level which can result in low motivation and bad behavior by these

students (

Leistyna

et

al., 2004).

Slide6

Background ContinuedTeachers who fail to handle students’ poor behaviors are often labeled as having ineffective classroom management skills (Lee, Weaver, &

Hrostowski

, 2011).

In turn, teachers feel a low sense of empowerment and a sense of inadequacy.

In comparison to previous years,

teachers’

influence has been diminished (Wallace, Johnson,

Mathe

, & Paul, 2011).

Moreover, state mandated testing is the norm in most

districts; thus,

making teaching a high stress profession (Chen, Kirkman, Kanfer, Allen, & Rosen, 2007).

Slide7

Background ContinuedIt is not uncommon for parents to withdraw students from schools that do not meet expected performance standards

(

Chen et al., 2007

).

Frequently, the lowest performing students are left behind making the teaching and learning process an even more formidable challenge (Nelson, McMahan, & Torres, 2012).

Consequently, the psychological empowerment of teachers is needed to restore meaning and purpose in the teaching and learning process, which will produce positive learning outcomes for students.

Slide8

Background ContinuedBeing psychologically empowered enhances teachers’ self-respect which in turn increases respect among community members, students, and administrators.

Psychological empowerment involves how individuals see themselves and how capable they feel to meet the demands placed upon them (Spreitzer, 2007).

Individuals who are psychologically empowered will likely experience success as they believe they are capable of doing a good job under most

circumstances (Spreitzer

, 2007)

.

Spreitzer (2007) has extensively studied psychological empowerment among workers

in industry

, healthcare, and hospitality fields.

Slide9

Background ContinuedSpreitzer (2007) noted that workers who experienced high levels of psychological empowerment tend to have greater degrees of job related success and worker satisfaction than their less empowered peers.

Bandura (1991, 1993) discussed self-efficacy and social cognitive theory in relation to workers’ productivity. Bandura noted that individuals with high levels of self-efficacy feel empowered in their workplace.

This sense of psychological empowerment is evidenced by workers’ autonomy in accomplishing tasks, deriving meaning from their jobs, caring about their jobs, and their sense of having a strong self-determination orientation in their

roles (Bandura, 1991, 1993).

Anshel

and Kang (2007) examined positive habits that influence full engagement at work and found that individuals who demonstrated psychological empowerment were more effective in their efforts.

Slide10

Statement of the ProblemSocial, cultural, and political forces have resulted in significant changes to the teaching profession in the past several decades.

This has compromised educators’ traditional autonomy while simultaneously requiring individual teachers to feel empowered to accommodate these changes (

Corsun

&

Enz

, 1999;

Sweetland

& Hoy, 2000).

Due to high demands placed upon teachers in their workplace, educators need high levels of psychological empowerment in order to effectively meet these demands.

Therefore, successful job performance requires

a high level of psychological empowerment.

Slide11

Statement of the Problem Continued

A review of literature indicates that research focusing specifically on K-12 urban school teachers has not been adequately addressed.

This study will help fill that gap in the literature pertaining to K-12 urban school teachers’ psychological empowerment (

Khoury-Kassabri

Benbenishty

, Astor, &

Zeira

, 2004; Lee,

Bryk

, & Smith, 1993; Lee & Smith, 1997; Rinke, 2011).

Given the demands placed upon teachers in their work places, a study that investigates the lived experiences of teachers’ level of psychological empowerment at early-, middle-, and late-career stages will assist in helping to understand how teachers gain a sense of control and self-efficacy, which would benefit the education professional in their continuous efforts to improve the profession and add to the research literature in the area of psychology.

Slide12

Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this mixed methods study was to explore and compare the levels of psychological empowerment among K-12 urban school teachers at early-, middle-, and late-career stages.

A mixed methods design was chosen because both the quantitative and qualitative methods are needed in order to test the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments (Green,

Caracelli

, & Graham, 1989).

Psychological empowerment is defined as a multilevel construct that includes four dimensions of empowerment: (a) impact or feeling that one’s work is important, (b) competence or one’s ability to successfully accomplish work tasks, (c) meaningfulness or how much one cares about their work, and (d) choice or level of self-determination and autonomy at work (Spreitzer, 2007).

Slide13

Research Questions and HypothesesAre teacher’s psychological empowerment different at the early-, middle-, and late-career stage of their careers?

H

0

: There is no difference between teacher’s psychological empowerment when compared to their career stage.

H

a

: Teachers in the middle stage of their careers will demonstrate higher levels of psychological empowerment than teachers in the early and late stages of their careers.

What are teachers’ experiences of psychological empowerment at the early-, middle-, and late-career stages of their career?

Slide14

Theoretical FrameworkBandura’s (1977) theory of self-efficacy,

Spreitzer’s

(1995) theory of psychological empowerment, and

Conger and

Kanungo’s

(1988) theory of employee empowerment served as the theoretical basis of this mixed methods study.

Comparison of the three theories:

Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy posits that individuals who believe they are capable of achieving a goal will achieve it with sustained effort.

This notion is related to

Spreitzer’s

(2007) theory of psychological empowerment which asserts that employees will continue striving to achieve work outcomes in the face of obstacles if they possess a strong sense of psychological empowerment.

Slide15

Theoretical Framework Continued

Conger and

Kanungo’s

(1988) theory of employee empowerment suggests that employees need an ample sense of empowerment in order to be effective in their role and to engage in sustained productive work behaviors.

Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Beliefs

:

Bandura (1977, 1994, 1997) is credited with founding the construct of self-efficacy beliefs.

Self-efficacy beliefs refers to an individuals concept of their capacity to meet designated performance levels and influence outcomes that affect their lives (Bandura, 1997,

Pajares

, 1996).

Self-efficacy beliefs generate behavioral responses that are inextricably linked to one’s emotions, perceptions, thoughts, and motivations (Bandura, 1991).

Slide16

Theoretical Framework Continued

External circumstances influence changes in self-efficacy over time (Maddux, 2001).

Social cognitive theory suggests “that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior” (Boston University School of Public Health, 2013, para 1 ).

Self-efficacy beliefs develop throughout the lifespan as individuals continually integrate information from five primary sources: (a) performance experiences, (b) vicarious experiences, (c)

imaginal

experiences, (d) verbal persuasion, and (e) physiological and emotional states (Bandura, 1977, 1997).

Slide17

Theoretical Framework Continued

Spreitzer’s

Theory of Psychological

Empowerment:

Spreitzer (2007) developed the theory of psychological empowerment that includes four dimensions: (a) meaningfulness or significance, (b) competence or self-efficacy, (c) self-determination or choice, and (d) impact or importance.

Meaningfulness refers to the fit between the needs of one’s work role and one’s beliefs, values, and behaviors (Spreitzer, 2007).

The closer the fit between one’s beliefs, values, and

behaviors

to one’s work roles, the higher the degree of psychological empowerment one will

experience (Spreitzer

, 2007).

Slide18

Theoretical Framework Continued

Competence is aligned with self-efficacy and is specific to one’s work or a belief in one’s capability to perform work activities with skill and precision (Bandura, 1989).

Self-efficacy is a learned behavior in that it can be taught over time and with experience (Bandura, 1989).

Managers who foster a sense of community among their employees tend to promote better outcomes with respect to nurturing competence in their

workers (Bandura, 1989).

Self-determination is a sense of choice in initiating and regulating one’s actions (Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989).

Impact is the degree to which one can influence

strategic, administrative, or operating

outcomes at work (

Ashforth

, 1989).

Slide19

Theoretical Framework Continued

Conger and

Kanungo’s

Theory of Employee

Empowerment:

Conger and

Kanungo

(1988) identified two contributing factors to the empowerment construct: (a) empowerment as a relational construct, and (b) empowerment as a motivational construct.

Empowerment as a relational construct refers to managers having influence over subordinates and sometimes exercising that influence in a negative way.

Empowerment as a motivational construct refers to managers endeavoring to foster intrinsic motivation within employees so that they work to accomplish organizational goals because they desire to do the right thing.

Slide20

Findings from the Literature Review

Investigation of Three Career Stages:

There

is a large body of literature that supports the investigation of the three career stages in this study and the stages were chosen based on a literature synthesis by Sparks (2012).

Sparks

(2012) studied two generations of nurses’ job satisfaction and psychological empowerment.

She found that baby boomer nurses had higher job satisfaction and psychological empowerment than generation X nurses.

This

study supported the notion that one’s psychological empowerment heightens as one grows in their career.

Slide21

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinued

Klassen

and Chiu (2010) studied teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction, years of experience, and job stress.

They found that teachers with more years of experience had higher levels of self-efficacy than teachers with fewer years of experience.

The

researchers, however, noted that self-efficacy ebbed and flowed throughout the career.

This

result demonstrates the need for further research regarding the career stages and the development of self-efficacy and psychological empowerment.

Slide22

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedMone

,

Eisinger

, Guggenheim, Price, and Stine (2011) studied employee

engagement

.

Engagement

is similar to psychological empowerment in that one must find meaning in their work in order to become engaged.

Employee

engagement is a process of applying new knowledge and skills in the workplace over time. As such, it needs to be investigated across the career span.

The

authors found that performance management drives employee engagement in organizations.

Slide23

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedBennett (2011) studied what influenced a marketer to develop a marketing professional identity during early career experiences.

As

with psychological empowerment, professional identity is linked with the manner in which a person identifies with a specific work role. This in turn affects their motivation, organizational perspective, and behavior.

Bennett

found that participants developed a marketing professional identity (MPI) within the first year of professional employment when they were given an experienced mentor to provide support and leadership.

Further

research is needed to determine if the MPI is sustained throughout the career stages.

Slide24

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedLee and Johnson (1994) studied reactions to job transfer by job type and career stage. They noted that job transfer frequently is a disruptive and expensive human resource issue.

The

researchers found that in predicting attitude toward transfer, many of the interactions between job transfer and tenure were significant, which indicated” the strengthening of relationships between the attitude toward transfer, and mobility or stability with advancing career stage” (p. 389

).

Thus, research examining career stage is salient to understanding reactions to job transfer by job type.

Slide25

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinued

Psychological Empowerment Dimensions in

Organizations:

Most

researchers agree that psychological empowerment involves concepts of impact or importance, competence or self-efficacy, meaningfulness or significance, and choice or self-determination (Spreitzer, 2007).

For

instance, Houghton and Yoho (2005) describe impact as being a function of a person’s role congruence. The extent to which one feels their values align with their work role results in a higher level of role congruence.

Similarly

, role congruence, characterized by the level of person-environment fit, serves to enhance goal-directed behaviors within the work context (

Cattaneo

& Chapman, 2010; Chiang & Jang, 2008; Randolph &

Kemery

, 2010).

Accordingly

, employee impact may have clear linkages to organizational development (Mir & Mir, 2005;

Peterson et al., 2006

; Zhu, May, &

Avolio

, 2004).

Slide26

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedConsequently, impact primarily pertains to how individuals influence strategic processes within the context of their work (Spreitzer, 2007; Thomas &

Velthouse

, 1990).

E

mployees

who perceive a high level of impact might be more likely to assert themselves in workplace decision processes because they believe their tasks hold vital significance to organizational functioning (

Fetterman

&

Wandersman

, 2007;

Somech

, 2005).

Whereas

an employee who perceives their role as lower in impact may be less inclined to expend effort to influence change, regardless of how much they believe change is needed (

Eylon

& Bamberger, 2000; Pitts, 2005).

Slide27

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedFeelings of psychological empowerment are engendered as a result of competence experiences (Dragoni, 2005; Fredrickson &

Losada

, 2005).

Self-determination

or choice plays an integral role in employee satisfaction and productivity (

Chen et al., 2007

).

For instance

,

Wallace et al. (2011

) found that leader-member exchange relationships are bolstered when employees are allowed to exercise choice in which tasks they will do as well as the manner in which they will perform them

.

This

strategy enables employees to utilize their creativity and decision-making skills in task completion (

Corsun

&

Enz

, 1999; Davis,

Mero

, & Goodman, 2007), and as a result, employees take more ownership for their work and subsequently do a better job (Leach, Wall, & Jackson, 2003;

Mathieu,

Gilson, & Ruddy, 2006).

Slide28

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedMoreover, choice moderates employees’ sense of self-esteem and competence because they experience the rewards of their choices (Guthrie, 2001; Hechanova,

Alampay

, & Franco, 2006).

In

other words, an employee who is free to make choices about task completion strategies will likely gain increased self-confidence as tasks are completed successfully.

A

corollary of increased self-confidence is an enhanced sense of job competence (Kirkman & Shapiro, 2001;

Laschinger

,

Finegan

,

Shamian

, &

Wilk

, 2004

).

Therefore

, taken together, self-esteem and competence work to foster enhanced role

functioning,

thereby leading to improved employee outcomes (Hall et al., 2006;

Hochwarter

, Witt,

Treadway

, & Ferris, 2006).

Slide29

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedSimilarly, improved employee outcomes reap organizational benefits (James et al., 2008).

Competence

is construed as an individual’s perceived ability to accomplish work tasks with quality and precision (

Butts et al.,

2009;

Erdogan

& Bauer, 2009;

Kuipers

& de Witte, 2005).

Chen

, Lam, and

Zhong

(2007) studied how negative feedback seeking behaviors influence worker competence perceptions.

They

found that workers’ job performance or competence was affected by negative feedback insofar as it spurred improvement

.

Employees

generally use negative feedback to enhance skills and relationships with leaders (

Janssen

& Van

Yperen

, 2004;

Uhl

-Bien &

Maslyn

, 2003).

Therefore

, perceptions of competence bears upon employee attitudes, behaviors, and relationships with employers.

In

particular, competence serves to bolster higher productivity while simultaneously

instilling

greater employee confidence levels (

Ahearne

, Mathieu, & Rapp, 2005;

Langfred

&

Moye

, 2004;

Randolph

&

Kemery

, 2010).

Slide30

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinued

Urban Education and Teacher

Empowerment:

The

psychological empowerment of K-12 urban school teachers holds great significance to educating youth who frequently experience poverty, schooling disengagement, lack of adequate educational resources, and priorities that compete with academic achievement (

Nir

&

Kranot

, 2006

).

Specifically

, nearly one-half of all youth attending urban schools in the

United States live

in high crime neighborhoods, live with only one parent or grandparent, and lack developmental assets needed for school and social success (

Klassen

et al.,

2010;

Pomaki

,

Karoly

, &

Maes

, 2009).

These

factors have negatively contributed to the success of many urban youth in school (

Wiggan

, 2007).

Furthermore

, due to widespread state mandated testing and insufficient preparation and skills, some urban students fail these high-stakes tests at alarming rates, therefore, they are disproportionately ill-prepared to pursue higher education opportunities (Davidsdottir &

Lisi

, 2007; Holden, Evans,

Hinnant

, &

Messeri

, 2005; Keiser &

Shen

, 2000).

Slide31

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedTeachers’ psychological empowerment contributes to the way they approach teaching and learning (

Corsun

&

Enz

, 1999;

Sweetland

& Hoy, 2000) and this in turn is vitally important to educational philosophy, pedagogy, and to potential student outcomes (Miller & Rowan, 2006).

Psychologically

empowered teachers believe their work is valued by administrators and colleagues (Dee,

Henkin

, & Singleton, 2006).

Feeling

appreciated and respected in the workplace encourages teachers to expend greater effort while preparing for student interactions (

Curwin

, 2010; Donnell, 2007).

Likewise

, researchers have reported high levels of impact or a feeling of importance among teachers who express a marked degree of psychological empowerment (

Mabokela

& Madsen, 2003; Spreitzer, 2007

).

In

contrast, teachers who feel devalued by superiors or peers report lower motivation to put forth their best effort (

Yendol-Hoppey

, Jacobs, & Dana, 2009).

This

circumstance is likely harmful to students’ achievement in that teachers self-efficacy may be diminished over time in an unhealthy work environment.

Slide32

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedI

mpact

speaks to the psychological dimension of individuals deriving meaning from their work and the extent to which their work is regarded as important to the organization (

DiBara

, 2007; Kearney, 2008).

Researchers

have found that teachers often use intrinsic motivation to sustain viability in their roles (King, 1993;

Seider

&

Huguley

, 2009).

External

pressures and lack of administrative support seem far too common realities for contemporary educators (

Abbate

-Vaughn, 2004).

While

this may be true, urban educators are frequently bombarded with social issues that are not directly related to instruction or district policy.

Nevertheless

, societal ills plague the lives of many urban youth, thereby having an impact on a young person’s readiness to learn (Patterson, Collins, & Abbott, 2007).

As

a result, urban educators need to fully embrace the importance of their work to students and the school organizationally (

Follo

,

Hoerr

, &

Vorheis

-Sargent, 2002).

Slide33

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedS

tudying

urban educators’ perception of psychological empowerment and how their work behaviors and attitudes are affected by

it

is useful to education

policymakers

and practitioners (

Khoury-Kassabri

et al.,

2004; Lee,

Bryk

, & Smith, 1993; Lee & Smith, 1997).

To

illustrate, Wayne et al. (2008) studied teachers’ attitudes toward professional development opportunities offered by their district and the relevance these activities had to professional practice.

They

found that although professional development opportunities were prolific, teachers expressed dissatisfaction when they did not receive continuous support in implementing strategies that supported their psychological empowerment.

Teachers

believed that authentic professional development involved time to learn new skills, which are to be

practiced under

the supportive guidance of specialists (Payne &

Wolfson

, 2000).

Accordingly

, psychological empowerment among urban educators is likely enhanced by high quality professional development and associated follow-up activities (

Desimone

, Porter,

Garet

, Yoon, &

Birman

, 2002).

Slide34

Findings from the Literature ReviewContinuedFindings from the Rinke (2011) study on urban educators indicated that those who exercised greater degrees of choice and self-determination in their schools felt higher psychological

empowerment,

as well as increased school commitment.

Given

numerous environmental barriers to successful student schooling experiences, high psychological empowerment among teachers becomes even more salient to optimal school functioning (Maynard, Mathieu, Marsh, & Ruddy, 2007).

One

primary challenge becomes how to restructure schools organizationally so that psychological empowerment of teachers and other staff is seen as a priority (

Cattaneo

& Chapman, 2010).

In

addition, school principals and other leaders need to embrace psychological empowerment as a critical component of their work (Conger &

Kanungo

, 1988; Spreitzer,

Kizilos

, &

Nason

, 1997).

Teachers

’ choice and self-determination are vital aspects to advance role commitment, competence, and overall role functioning (Menon, 2001).

As

a result, research pertaining to teachers’ perceived levels of psychological empowerment

is warranted

(

Liden

, Wayne, & Sparrow, 2000).

Slide35

MethodThe purpose of this mixed methods study was

to explore and compare the levels of psychological empowerment among K-12 urban school teachers at early-, middle-, and late-career stages at the Columbus City Schools District in Columbus, Ohio.

The Columbus City Schools District is 58.07% African American, 25.58% Caucasian, 6.74 % Hispanic, 5.29% Multi-racial, 2.09% Asian, 0.2%American Indian/Native Alaskan, and 2.03% Other (Columbus City Schools, 2012).

Convenience sampling

was

used to select the sample.

The results of this study may likely be generalizable to other communities of similar size and demographics.

Slide36

Method ContinuedThis mixed methods study used (a) a

survey of 90 K-12 urban school teachers using

Spreitzer’s

(1995) Psychological Empowerment Instrument

and (b)in-depth,

semistructured

interviews with 12 of the 90 K-12 urban school teachers, four from each career stage

.

Quantitative

Data

A

nalysis:

In

order to determine whether there are statistically significant differences in the school teachers’ psychological empowerment at the early, middle, and late career stages, an analysis of variance (

ANOVA)

was conducted. The quantitative research question examined the difference of the total scores of psychological empowerment to the stages of the school teachers in the Columbus City School District. An ANOVA was run and a post hoc was conducted to ensure which of the participants made significant differences.

Slide37

Method ContinuedQualitative Thematic Analysis: For the qualitative section of the study, I utilized a thematic analysis on the 12 interviews with the participants who are in their early, middle, and late stages of their teaching careers. The in-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted face-to-face with the participants, using open-ended questions to guide me in gathering the needed information; and at the same time, ensuring that new meanings and ideas would emerge from the responses. I also employed

NVivo

to warrant the validity and reliability of the qualitative component of the study. The computer software allowed me to properly secure the interview transcripts and more importantly aided in the coding of the responses of the participants as well. I then proceeded to the data analysis portion which followed

Attride

-Stirling's (2001) six steps or stages on how to conduct a thematic analysis.

Slide38

Quantitative Results

As

shown in Table 6, there

is a statistically

significant

difference

in the scores of school teachers depending on their stages in their career life (

p

value = .000). This finding indicated that teachers feel more empowered based on whether they are at the early, middle, or late stage in their career.

Table 6

Difference between Psychological Empowerment Scores and Career Stages

 

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Between Groups

3513.267

2

1756.633

8.932

.000

Within Groups

17110.333

87

196.670

 

 

Total

20623.600

89

 

 

 

Slide39

Quantitative Results Continued

As shown in Table 7, there is a statistically significant negative difference in the score of middle-early career stage and middle-late career stage. Moreover, it showed that both early and late career stages have higher scores in the psychological empowerment of the school teachers in the Columbus City School District. Thus, this means that the teachers who are in the middle stages of their career did not demonstrate higher levels of psychological empowerment than teachers in the early and late career stages.

Therefore, both the null and alternative hypotheses were rejected.

Table 7

Post Hoc Analysis between Early, Middle, and Late Career Stages of School

Teachers

(I) Range

(J) Range

Mean Difference (I-J)

Std. Error

Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Early

Middle

10.36667

*

3.62096

.014

1.7326

19.0008

Late

-4.56667

3.62096

.421

-13.2008

4.0674

Middle

Early

-10.36667

*

3.62096

.014

-19.0008

-1.7326

Late

-14.93333

*

3.62096

.000

-23.5674

-6.2992

Late

Early

4.56667

3.62096

.421

-4.0674

13.2008

Middle

14.93333

*

3.62096

.000

6.2992

23.5674

Note. * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

* Dependent variable: Total

Slide40

Qualitative Results ContinuedI related and connected the established meanings from the interviews with the 12 participants to

Spreitzer’s

(1995) Psychological Empowerment work roles of teachers, where the psychological empowerment work roles or factors functioned as themes (see Table 8). T

eachers

have diverse psychological empowerment factors depending on their career stage.

Table 8

Formed Themes and their Connection to

Spreitzer’s

(1995) Psychological Empowerment

Themes

Connection to

Spreitzer’s

(1995) Psychological Empowerment

Developed great confidence in skills and capabilities to complete any task or responsibility assigned to them

Competence

 

Work has increasingly become meaningful with the participants’ commitment and passion to see their children grow and be successful

 

Meaning

 

Freedom or autonomy in making classroom decisions for the children to learn and develop

 

Self-determination

Limited freedom in the classroom, depending on the administration and situation

 

Significant impact to the students, school community and society through their shared knowledge and dedication for the students to excel and be successful

 

Impact

 

Feeling of belongingness and connectedness within one team

 

Others

Lack of acknowledgement from their co-teachers with their hard work

Still in the process of learning and acquiring skills and knowledge

 

Slide41

Results for Teachers at the Early Career StageTeachers on the early stage of their career have experienced impact

and

self-determination

as their most prevalent psychological empowerment knowledge.

Teachers

in their early career stage reported that they have seen a significant impact on the students, school community, and society through their shared knowledge and dedication for the students to excel and be successful; and at the same time experienced freedom or autonomy in making classroom decisions for the children to learn and develop while following parameters at the same time.

The Teachers' Experiences of Psychological Empowerment at the Early Stage of Their Careers

Themes

# of occurrences

% of occurrences

Significant impact to the students, school community and society through their shared knowledge and dedication for the students to excel and be successful

4

100%

 

Freedom or autonomy in making classroom decisions for the children to learn and develop while following parameters at the same time

4

100%

 

Work has increasingly become meaningful with the participants’ commitment and passion to see their children grow and be successful

3

75%

 

Developed great confidence in skills and capabilities to complete any task or responsibility assigned to them

3

75%

 

Still in the process of learning and acquiring skills and knowledge

1

25%

Slide42

Results for Teachers at the Middle Career StageTeachers on the middle stages of their career have all developed a valuable

meaning

to their profession wherein they stated how much they have realized the magnitude of their occupation even to their personal lives. For the impact on the middle stage of the teachers’ careers, they stated that they have started to recognize how much their profession can affect and change the lives of the children under them. The self-determination of these middle stage teachers have also increased with the autonomy that they have gained in their average years of teaching and their competence can also be noted.

The Teachers' Experiences of Psychological Empowerment at the Middle Stage of Their Careers

Themes

# of occurrences

% of occurrences

Work has increasingly become meaningful with the participants’ commitment and passion to see their children grow and be successful

4

100%

 

Significant impact to the students, school community and society through their shared knowledge and dedication for the students to excel and be successful

3

75%

 

Limited freedom in the classroom, depending on the administration and situation

3

75%

 

Developed great confidence in skills and capabilities to complete any task or responsibility assigned to them

1

25%

 

Freedom or autonomy in making classroom decisions for the children to learn and develop

1

25%

Feeling of belongingness and connectedness within one team

1

25%

Slide43

Results for Teachers at the Late Career StageF

or

the teachers on their late career stage, it was found that with their extensive range of experiences, they have all developed great confidence in skills and capabilities to complete any task or responsibility assigned to them, they believed that their work has increasingly become meaningful, they acquire freedom or autonomy in making classroom decisions for the children to learn and grow, and they have realized that their profession has had a significant impact on the students, school community, and society

.

Psychological Empowerment Differences of Teachers by their Career Stages - Late Stage

Themes

# of occurrences

% of occurrences

Connection to Spreitzer’s (1995) Psychological Empowerment

Developed great confidence in skills and capabilities to complete any task or responsibility assigned to them

4

100%

Competence

Work has increasingly become meaningful with the participants’ commitment and passion to see their children grow and be successful

4

100%

Meaning

Freedom or autonomy in making classroom decisions for the children to learn and develop

4

100%

Self-determination

Significant impact to the students, school community and society through their shared knowledge and dedication for the students to excel and be successful

4

100%

Impact

Lack of acknowledgement from their co-teachers with their hard work

1

25%

Others

Slide44

Social Change/ConclusionThis research project added to the literature by filling a gap in the education and psychology literature with respect to psychological empowerment of teachers

.

Findings

from this research may be used to inform organizational and staff development in schools.

This

should have a positive impact on school climate and academic achievement outcomes for students.

By

disseminating the findings, positive social change in education organizations will be a result of this research project as findings may be shared in professional development settings for teachers and administrators.

The

long-term benefits of having a psychologically empowered staff include a higher level of work commitment, perseverance in the face of obstacles, and an orientation to work toward organizational goals.

Slide45

Social Change/ConclusionContinuedThus, it is evident that teachers with high psychological empowerment significantly influences others around them.

Consequently

, high levels of psychological empowerment should be encouraged and promoted in educators and others within the education community.

This

high level of psychological empowerment among educators will then lead to increased levels of student success, which will benefit schools, communities, and society at large.

Slide46

ReferencesAbbate-Vaughn, J. (2004). The things they carry: Ideology in an urban teacher

professional

community

. The Urban Review, 36

, 227-249. doi:10.1007/s11256-004-2082-0

Ahearne

, M., Mathieu, J. & Rapp, A. (2005). To empower or not to empower your sales

force

? An empirical examination of the influence of leadership empowerment behavior on customer satisfaction

and

performance.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 90

, 945-955. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.945

Anshel

, M. H., & Kang, M. (2007). Effect of an intervention on replacing negative habits

with

positive routines for improving full engagement at work: A test of the disconnected values model.

Consulting

Psychology

Journal: Practice and Research, 59

, 110-125.

Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986).

Making a difference: Teachers' sense of efficacy

and

student achievement

. New York: Longman.

Attride-Stirling

, J. A. (2001). Thematic networks: An analytic tool for qualitative

research

.

Qualitative Research, 1

, 385-205. doi:10.1177/146879410100100307

Bandura

, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.

Psychological

Review, 84

, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In E.

Barnouw

(Ed.),

International encyclopedia of

communications

(pp. 92-96). New York: Oxford University Press.

Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation.

Organizational Behavior

and

Human Decision Processes, 50

, 248-287.

Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning.

Educational

Psychologist, 28

, 117-148.

Bandura, A. (1997).

Self-efficacy: The exercise of control

. New York, NY: W. H.

Freeman

and Company.

Bandura, A. (Ed.). (1994).

Self-efficacy

. New York: Academic Press.

Bennett, R. (2011). What makes a marketer? Development of ‘marketing professional

identity

’ among marketing graduates during early career experiences.

Journal of Marketing Management, 27

(1), 8-27.

Boston University School of Public Health. (2013).

The social cognitive theory

.

Retrieved

from http://sph.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/SB/SB721-Models/SB721-Models5.html

Slide47

References ContinuedButts, M. M., Vandenberg, R. J.,

DeJoy

, D. M., Schaffer, B. S., & Wilson, M. G. (2009).

Individual

reactions to high involvement work processes: Investigating the role of empowerment and perceived

organizational

support.

Journal of Occupational Healthy Psychology, 14

, 122-136. doi:10.1037/a0014114

Cattaneo

, L. B., & Chapman, A. R. (2010). The process of empowerment: A model for

use

in research and practice.

American Psychologist, 6

5, 646-659.

doi:10.1037/a0018854

Chen, G., Kirkman, B. L., Kanfer, R., Allen, D., & Rosen, B. (2007). African American

women

principals in urban schools: Realities, (re)constructions, and resolutions.

Educational Administration

Quarterly

, 39

, 339-369. doi:10:1177/0013161X03253413

Chen, G., Kirkman, B. L., Kanfer, R., Allen, D., & Rosen, B. (2007). A multilevel study

of

leadership empowerment, and performance in teams.

Journal of Applied

Psychology

,

92, 331-346. Doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.331

Chen, Z., Lam, W.,

Zhong

, J. A. (2007). Leader-member exchange and member

performance

: A new look at individual-level negative feedback-seeking behavior and team-level

empowerment

climate.

Journal of

Applied

Psychology, 9

2, 202-212. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.202

Chiang, C. F., & Jang, S. S. (2008). The antecedents and consequences of psychological

empowerment

: The case of Taiwan's hotel companies.

Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 32

, 40-61.

doi:10.1177/1096348007309568

Columbus City Schools. (2012).

Columbus city schools: By the numbers

. Retrieved

from http://www.colubus.k12.oh.us/website.nsf/(cs_pages)/CCS_By_the_Numbers?opendocument

Conger

, J. A., &

Kanungo

, R. N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory

and

practice

. Academy of Management Review, 13

, 471-482.

Corsun

, D. L., &

Enz

, C A. (1999). Predicting psychological empowerment among

service

workers: The effect of support-based

relationships

.

Human

Relations, 52

, 205-224. doi:10.1177/001872679905200202

Curwin

, R. L. (2010). Motivating urban youth.

Reclaiming Children and Youth, 19

, 35-

39

.

Greene

, J. C.,

Caracelli

, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework

for

mixed-method evaluation design.

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis

,

11

(3), 255-74

.

Slide48

References ContinuedDavidsdottir, S., & Lisi

, P. (2007). Effects of deliberative democracy on school self

evaluation.

Evaluation, 13

, 371-386.

doi:10.1177/1356389007078628

Davis

, W.,

Mero

, N. P., & Goodman, J. M. (2007). The interactive effects of goal

orientation

and accountability on performance. 

Human Performance, 20

, 1-21.

Deci, E. L., Connell, J. P., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Self-determination in a work organization.

Journal of

Applied Psychology, 74

(4), 580-590.

Dee

, J. R.,

Henkin

, A. B., & Singleton, C. A. (2006). Organizational commitment of

teachers

in urban schools: Examining the effects of team structures.

Urban

Education

, 41

, 603-627.

doi:10.1177/0042085906292512

Desimone

, L., Porter, A. C.,

Garet

, M., Yoon, K. S. &

Birman

, B. (2002). Does

professional

development change teachers' instruction? Results from a three-year

study

.

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24

, 81-112.

DiBara

, J. A. (2007). Responsible to the kids: The goals and struggles of urban high

school

teachers.

The New Educator, 3

, 11-30. doi:10.1080//15476880601141672

Donnell, K. (2007). Getting to we: A transformative urban teaching practice.

Urban

Education

, 42

, 223-249. doi:10.1177/0042085907300541

Dragoni, L. (2005). Understanding the emergence of state goal orientation in organizational

work

groups: The role of leadership and multilevel climate perceptions.

Journal of Applied Psychology

,

90

, 1084-1095.

Eylon

, D., & Bamberger, P. (2000). Empowerment cognitions and empowerment acts:

Recognizing

the importance of gender.

Group and Organization Management, 25

, 354-372.

doi:10.1177/1059601100254003

Fetterman

, D., & Abraham, W. (2007). Empowerment evaluation: Yesterday, today, and

tomorrow

.

American Journal of Evaluation, 28

, 179-198. doi:10.1177/1098214007301350

Follo

, E.,

Hoerr

, B., &

Vorheis

-Sargent, A. (2002). Where will urban high school

teachers

for the 21st century come from

? American Secondary Education, 30

, 2-

22

.

Fredrickson, B. L., &

Losada

, M. F. (2005). Positive affect and the complex dynamics of

human flourishing.

American Psychologist, 60

, 678-686. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.7.678

Slide49

References ContinuedGuthrie, J. (2001). High-involvement work practices, turnover, and productivity: Evidence

from

New Zealand.

Academy of Management Journal, 44

, 180-192.

Hechanova, M.,

Alampay

, R., & Franco, E. (2006). Psychological empowerment, job

satisfaction

, and performance among Filipino service workers.

Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9

, 72-78.

Hochwarter

, W. A., Witt, L. A.,

Treadway

, D. C., & Ferris, G. R. (2006). The interaction

of

social skill and organizational support on job performance.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 91

, 482-489.

Holden, D. J., Evans, D.,

Hinnant

, L. W., &

Messeri

, P. (2005). Modeling psychological

empowerment

among youth involved in local tobacco control efforts. Health

Education & Behavior, 32

,

264-278

. doi:10.1177/1090198104272336

Houghton, J. D., & Yoho, S. K. (2005). Toward a contingency model of leadership and

psychological

empowerment: When should self-leadership be encouraged?

Journal of Leadership & Organizational

Studies

, 11

, 65-83. doi:10.1177/107179190501100406

Janssen

, O., & Van

Yperen

, N. W. (2004).

Employees' goal orientations, the quality of

leader-member

exchange, and the outcomes of job performance and job satisfaction.

Academy of Management

Journal

, 47

, 368-384.

Kearney, J. E. (2008). Factors affecting satisfaction and retention of African American

and

European American teachers in an urban school district: Implications for building and maintaining

teachers

employed in school districts across the nation.

Education and Urban Society, 40

, 613-627.

doi:10.1177/0013124508316047

Keiser, N. M., &

Shen

, J. (2000). Principals' and teachers' perceptions of teacher

empowerment

. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 7

, 115-121. doi:10.1177/107179190000700308

Khoury-Kassabri

, M.,

Benbenishty

, R., Astor, R. V., &

Zeira

, A. (2004). The

contributions

of community, family, and school variables to student victimization.

American Journal of Community

Psychology

, 34

, 187-204.

Slide50

References ContinuedKim, T. Y., & Kim, M. (2013). Leaders’ moral competence and employee outcomes: The

effects

of psychological empowerment and person-supervisor fit.

Journal of

Business

Ethics, 112

, 155-166.

King, S. H. (1993). The limited presence of African-American teachers.

Review of

Educational

Research, 63

, 115-149. doi:10.3102/00346543063002115

Kirkman

, B. L., & Shapiro, D. L. (2001). The impact of team members’ cultural values on

productivity

, cooperation and empowerment in self-managing work teams.

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology

,

32(5

), 597-617.

Klassen

. R. M., & Chiu, M. M. (2010). Effects of teachers’ self-efficacy and job

satisfaction

: teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 102

(3), 741-756.

Klassen

, R. M., Usher, E. L., & Bong, M. (2010). Teachers' collective efficacy, job

satisfaction

, and job stress in cross-cultural context. J

ournal of Experimental Education, 78

, 464-486.

doi:10.1080/00220970903292975

Kuipers

, B. S., & de Witte, M. C. (2005). The control structure of team-based

organizations

: A diagnostic model for empowerment.

Economic and Industrial Democracy, 26

, 621-643.

doi:10.1177/0143831X05057504

Laschinger

, H. K. S.,

Finegan

, J. E.,

Shamian

, J., &

Wilk

, P. (2004). A longitudinal

analysis

of the impact of workplace empowerment on work satisfaction.

Journal of Organizational Behaviors

, 24,

527- 545

.

Langfred

, C. W., &

Moye

, N. A. (2004). Effects of task autonomy of performance: An

extended

model considering motivational, informational, and structural mechanisms.

Journal of Applied Psychology,

89

, 934-945. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.934

Leach, D. J., Wall, T. D., & Jackson, P. R. (2003). The effect of empowerment on job

knowledge

: An empirical test involving operators of complex technology.

Journal of Occupational and Organizational

Psychology

, 76

, 27-52. doi:10.1348/096317903321208871

Slide51

References ContinuedLee, J., Weaver, C., & Hrostowski

, S. (2011). Psychological empowerment and child

welfare

worker outcomes: A path analysis.

Child Youth Care Forum,

40, 479-497.

Lee, T. W., & Johnson, D. R. (1994). Reactions to job transfer by job type and career

stage

.

Journal of Business and Psychology, 8

(3), 377-390.

Lee, V. E.,

Bryk

, A. S., & Smith, J. B. (1993). The organization of effective secondary

schools

.

Review of Research in Education, 19,

171-267.

Lee, V. E., & Smith, J. B. (1997). What works best, and for whom?

Educational

Evaluation

and Policy Analysis, 19

, 205-227.

Leistyna

, P.,

Lavandez

, M., & Nelson, T. (2004).

Critical pedagogy: Revitalizing and

democratizing

teacher education.

Teacher Education Quarterly,

31(1).

Liden

, R. C., Wayne, S. J., &

Sparrowe

, R. T. (2000). An examination of the mediating

role

of psychological empowerment on the relations between the job,

interpersonal

relationships, and work outcomes.

Journal of Applied Psychology,

85

, 407-416. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407

Maddux , J. E. (2001). Self-efficacy: The power of believing you can. In C. R. Snyder &

S

. J. Lopez (Eds.),

Handbook of positive psychology

(227-287). New York: Oxford University Press.

Mathieu, J. E., Gilson, L. L., & Ruddy, T. M. (2006). Empowerment and team

effectiveness

: An empirical test of integrated model.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 91

, 97-108.

doi:10.1037/0021- 9010.91.1.97

Maynard, M. T., Mathieu, J. E., Marsh, W. M., & Ruddy, T. M. (2007). A multilevel

investigation

of the influences of employees’ resistance to empowerment.

Human Performance, 20

, 147-171.

Menon, S. T. (2001). Employee empowerment: An integrative psychological approach.

Applied

Psychology: An International Review, 50

(1), 153-180.

Miller, R. J., & Rowan, B. (2006). Effects of organic management on student

achievement

.

American Educational Research Journal, 43

, 219-253. doi:10.3102/00028312043002219

Slide52

References ContinuedMir, A., & Mir, R. (2005). Producing the governable employee: The strategic deployment

of

workplace empowerment.

Cultural Dynamics, 17

, 51-72. doi:10.1177/0921374005057601

Mabokela

, R. O., &

Madsen

, J. A. (2003).

Intergroup differences and their impact on

African

American teachers

. Urban Education, 38

, 725-749.

doi:10.1177/0042085903257091

Mone

, E.,

Eisinger

, C., Guggenheim, K., Price, B., & Stine, C. (2011). Performance

management

at the wheel: Driving employee engagement in organizations.

Journal of Business Psychology, 26

,

205- 212

.

Nelson, L. P., McMahan, S. K., & Torres, T. (2012). The impact of a junior high school

community

intervention project: Moving beyond the testing juggernaut and into a

community

of creative learners.

School Community Journal,

22(1), 125-144.

Nir

, A. E., &

Kranot

, N. (2006). School principal's leadership style and teachers self

efficacy

.

Planning and Changing, 37

, 205-218.

Patterson, J. H., Collins, L., & Abbott, G. (2007). A study of teacher resilience in urban

schools

.

Journal of Instructional Psychology, 31

, 3-11.

Payne, D., &

Wolfson

, T. (2000). Teacher professional development - The principal's

critical

role

. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 84

, 13-21. doi:10.1177/019263650008461803

Peterson, N. A., Lowe, J. B.,

Hughey

, J., Reid, R. J., Zimmerman, M. A., &

Speer

, P. W.

(

2006). Measuring the intrapersonal component of psychological empowerment: Confirmatory factor analysis

of the

sociopolitical control scale.

American Journal of Community Psychology, 38

, 287-297.

doi:10.1007/s10464-006-9070- 3

Pitts, D. W. (2005). Leadership, empowerment, and public organizations.

Review of

Public

Personnel Administration, 25

, 5-28. doi:10.1177/0734371X04271293

Pomaki

, G.,

Karoly

, P., &

Maes

, S. (2009). Linking goal progress to subjective well-

being

at work: The moderating role of goal-related self-efficacy and attainability.

Journal of Occupational Health

Psychology

, 14

, 206-218. doi:10.1037/a0014605

Slide53

References Continued

Randolph, W. A., &

Kemery

, E. R. (2010). Managerial use of power bases in a model

of managerial empowerment practices and employee psychological empowerment.

Journal of

Leadership & Organizational Studies, 18

, 95-106. doi:10.1177/1548051810379798

Rinke, C. R. (2011). Career trajectories of urban teachers: A continuum of perspectives,

participation, and plans shaping retention in the education system.

Urban Education, 46

, 639-662.

doi:10.1177/0042085911399790

Seibert, S. E., Wang, G., &

Courtright

, S. H. (2011).

Antecedents and consequences of

psychological and team empowerment in organizations: A meta-analytic review.

Journal of

Applied Psychology, 96

,

981-1003. doi:10.1037/a0022676

Seider

, S., &

Huguley

, J. P. (2009).

Aspiring educators, urban teens, and conflicting

perspectives on the social contract.

Equity and Excellence in Education, 42

,

294-312. doi:10.1080/10665680902053235

Somech

, A. (2005). Teachers' personal and team empowerment and their relations to

organizational outcomes: Contradictory or compatible constructs

. Educational Administration

Quarterly, 41

, 237-266. doi:10.1177/0013161X04269592

Sparks, A. M. (2012). Psychological empowerment and job satisfaction between baby

boomer and generation x nurses.

Journal of Nursing Management,

20, 451-460.

Spreitzer, G. M. (1995).

Pscyhological

empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions,

measurement and validation

. Academy of Management Journal, 38

, 1442-1465. doi:10.2307/256865

Slide54

References ContinuedSpreitzer, G. M. (2007). Taking stock: A review of more than twenty years of research on

empowerment

at work. In J.

Barling

& C. L. Cooper (Eds.),

The sage handbook of organizational behavior: Volume 1 –

micro

approaches

(pp. 54-72). Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications.

Spreitzer, G. M.,

Kizilos

, M. A., &

Nason

, S. W. (2007). A dimensional analysis of the

relationship

between psychological empowerment and effectiveness, satisfaction, and strain. Journal of Management, 23(5),

679-704

.

Stenhouse

, V. L., & Jarrett, O.S. (2012). In the service of learning and activism: Service

learning

, critical pedagogy, and the problem solution project. Teacher Education

Quarterly

, 39(1), 51-76.

Sweetland

, S. R., & Hoy, W. K. (2000). School characteristics and educational outcomes:

Toward

an organizational model of student achievement in middle schools.

Educational Administration Quarterly,

36

, 703-729. doi:10.1177/00131610021969173

Thomas, K. W., &

Velthouse

, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment.

Academy

of Management Review, 15

, 666-681.

Wallace, J. C., Johnson, P. D.,

Mathe

, K., & Paul, J. (2011). Structural and psychological

empowerment

climates, performance, and the moderating role of shared felt

accountability

: A managerial perspective.

Journal of Applied Psychology,

96(4),

840-850

.

Wayne

, A. J., Suk Yoon, K., Zhu, P.,

Cronen

, S., &

Garet

, M. S. (2008). Experimenting

with

teacher professional development: Motives and methods.

Educational

Researcher

, 37

, 469-479.

doi:10.3102/0013189X08327154

Wiggan

, G. (2007). Race, school achievement, and educational inequality: Toward a

student-based

inquiry perspective.

Review of Educational Research, 77

(3), 310-333.

Yendol-Hoppey

, D., Jacobs, J., & Dana, N. F. (2009). Critical concepts of

mentoring

in an urban context.

New Educator, 5

, 25-44.