Issues Raised by Genetic Research - PDF document

1 YourYour Issues Raised by Genetic Resear
YourYour Issues Raised by Genetic Research 5 Table of Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7Martin Needs Medical Treatment . . . . . . . . . . .9 . . . . . . . . . . .14HowardÕs Health Is Up to Him . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26(or can they?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45John and Elsa Will Profit from (or will they?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52Dr. LuÕs Patients Have the Right to Be Tall (or do they?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 . . . . . . . . .70Glossary . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .70Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81Science + Literacy for HealthHuman Genome Project Advisory Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 Acknowledgments hadto study up on genetics and the issues involved. Then I had to try toexplainthem in a way that other newcomers to the subject couldI am therefore indebted to the members of the AAAS Advisory Panel(listed on page 82). At an all-day meeting in the spring of 1995, theyhere. Many months later, several pane

3 l members provided very usefulreviews of
l members provided very usefulreviews of the manuscript. For this, I would like to thank Ruth Allen,Jeffrey Botkin, Ron Cole-Turner, Robert Cook-Deegan, and Joan Weiss.From the AAAS, Mark Frankel, Jerry Bell, and Shirley Malcom provideddetailed critiques, as did Daniel Drell of the Department of EnergyÕsHuman Genome Program. Dr. Drell and Dr. Cook-Deegan are to beFinally, my colleague from the literacy field, Mike Fox, provided abibliography, the Washington PostÕsdisorders. The web site of the Center for Bioethics (in particular, thearticles posted by Arthur Caplan, Mary B. Mahowald, Glenn McGee,Mark Philpott, and Antonie van den Beld) suggested issues to includeFinally, I thank Maria Sosa for her brilliant idea that th

4 e worldsections in which I failed to mak
e worldsections in which I failed to make things clear. Your Genes, Your Choices science behind it, and the ethical, legal, and social issues that arefor Health project of the American Association for the Advancement ofScience (AAAS) and funded by the U.S. Department of Energy.Human Resources Programs, AAAS has been a leader in identifying andlives they lead, and the decisions that they make day by day. NothingYour Genes, Your Choices your own health care and that of your family, and even yourways they sometimes donÕt work very well). This curiosity goes beyondimmediate concerns about any specific health condition. We hope thatYour Genes, Your Choices Shirley MalcomIntroductionby Maria Sosa Treatment Martin came home fro

5 m school the other day with a black eye
m school the other day with a black eye andbroken glasses. Another boy had called him a freak and punched him.which means that his skin has no color. He is verypale and his hair is white. His eyes are pink and he doesnÕt see very well.MartinÕs mother loves her son very much just the way he is. Butwhen she sees other children tease him, she wishes he were not sodifferent. If he werenÕt, then perhaps he wouldnÕt be picked on somuch. It makes her wonder why everyone canÕt be the same.Do you ever wonder about this yourself? If it were up to you,would you want everyone to be alike?Only you have your combination of looks, personality, and behavior.traits, you may look like your father or share your motherÕs sense of humor

6 .You also have traits that you share wit
.You also have traits that you share with earth. For example, every person has blood, lungs, and a brain. All genes.inside the cells of your body. They contain theheredity. behave and in your bodyÕs health.donÕt yet know the exact number of bases. Millions more bases link the genes together. Add upYet of these 3 billion pieces, only about 3 million areNow, 3 million is a huge number, but it is not much compared to 3the same set of instructions. We are all really quite similar. Genes determine physical traits like eye color. genetics.one generation to another. It is the study of how each living thing iscells divide to form new cells. As more powerfulgeneration to the next. And they learned howevolution.Slowly, scientists

7 began to unravel the mysteryof genetics
began to unravel the mysteryof genetics. Today, powerful computers and other modern researchpace. They are figuring out how genes work to do what they do. And instructions that construct and operate the human body. This newus together, as a society.Questions Raised by the ÒNew GeneticsÓTo get an idea of the many choices that come with the new geneticfor his bodyÕs production of and hair. The result is that Martin is very pale. He must avoid the sunbecause he is at high risk of sunburn and skin cancer. Strong lighthurts his eyes, and his vision is poor, so he needs glasses.Suppose researchers discover a way to treat MartinÕs genes so thatgenetic treatment may be possible someday. It would mean thatMartinÕs skin and e

8 yes would regain color. He no longer wou
yes would regain color. He no longer would have tostay out of the sun all the time. Plus, he wouldnÕt stand out from otherchildren. These changes could make a big difference in MartinÕs life.Your answers to these questions are important, because geneticMaybe you say yes. However, the cost of this treatment for people whoWould that change your answer?Think about the choices MartinÕs mother would have to make. Ifto treat him? Also, many medical treatments Adoption is another choice Martin and his wife could make, insteadofrisking bearing children who are albino. With adoption, the childrenwould not be their own, genetically. But Martin and his wife couldItÕs possible that when Martin grows up, he will be comfortablewe k

9 now how to keep this from happening? Ano
now how to keep this from happening? Another way to ask this is,Alot of people donÕt like their skin color. They would rather bedarker or lighter. When these people learn about the treatment thatPerhaps you say, ÒSure, if they want to pay for it.Ó But what if skinFinally, there is the question of where society should put its timeand money. Perhaps along with research into the treatment of geneticsocial issues.protections that laws or regulations should provide. And social issuesaffected by events. To really get into all of these issues, you first need toknow some of the basic science of genetics. That comes in our next chapter. Priya has just lost her mother to an illness called HuntingtonÕsdisease.It was hard for Pri

10 ya to watch her mother die. First hermot
ya to watch her mother die. First hermother had strange changes of mood. Then her arms and legsbegan twitching. Soon she couldnÕt talk or control her movements.In the end, she was totally bedridden and could barely get fooddown without choking. Priya knows that HuntingtonÕs disease usually strikes people inmiddle age. It is always fatal, and there is no treatment. She alsoknows that since the disease is inherited, she has a strong chanceof getting it herself. Priya just learned about a test she can take. The test will tell ifshe carries the gene for HuntingtonÕs disease.She is tempted to take the test. She thinks that if she couldfind out once and for all whether she will get the disease, shecould plan for her future.

11 On the other hand, she wonders if it isb
On the other hand, she wonders if it isbetter not knowing. At least then Priya would still have some hope.If you were Priya, what would you do? genome.single instruction. You have a copy of this instruction book insidenearly every one of the trillions of cells in your body. The book is writtenWe will have to learn this language if we want to learn all theHuman Genome Project.huge undertaking that involves researchers in biology, physics,but they repeat one after the other in an ever-changing order throughouttogether in some strange language to spell out each geneÕs instruction. This photograph shows a personÕschromosome to each pair. You With just four letters, the alphabet of this mysterious language isvery short. Howe

12 ver, the words written in this language
ver, the words written in this language are not shortat all. Asingle gene has thousands of bases. Some genes have millionstogether a copy of the human instruction book, letter by letter. HavingDNA. The DNAis curled into tight coils, so they have to uncurl it. Thenthey have to look at the DNAto see which of the four bases comes first,It may sound simple, but it isnÕt. This is a job that involvesseem to be an impossible task. Yet, because of advances in computers, Chromosome Your Unique Genomeany other particular personÕs genome. This is because every humanbeing is different. Each personÕs genome is unique.Your unique genome was given to you by your parents. This tookConception is when a manÕs spermfertilizes a womanÕs

13 egg.found in the maleÕs testes and in
egg.found in the maleÕs testes and in the femaleÕs ovaries. Like most othernot one long strand of DNA. Rather, it is divided into separate strandschromosomes,To make sperm (in a man) or eggs (in a woman), a germ cell goes When a sperm and an egg join together, they combine their halfdifferent ways that your parentsÕchromosomes can be combined, thatcrossing over.dividing. In crossing over, a section of one chromosome switches placeswith the same section from its pair. This makes the copied chromosomeDominant and Recessive Genesand in the genes they carry. The one exception to this rule involves thetwo chromosomes that determine sex, nicknamed X and Y. Apersoninherits one X and one Y chromosome (XY) is male. The X chrom

14 osomeis larger and contains genes that a
osomeis larger and contains genes that are not found on its partner Yrecessive. any pair, if one gene is dominant over the other, its instructions arefollowed. Arecessive geneÕs instructions come into play only if neitherFor example, the gene for Type Ablood is dominant over the genefor Type O blood. Therefore, if you inherit the Type Agene from oneparent and the Type O gene from your other parent, you will have TypeAblood. The gene for Type B also is dominant over the gene for TypeO. So if you inherit one Type B gene and one Type O gene, you willType B blood. Because the Type O gene is recessive, you will have Type Oblood only if you inherit two Type O genes, one from each parent. Something very interesting happens, how

15 ever, if you inherit oneType Agene and o
ever, if you inherit oneType Agene and one Type B gene. In this case, you will have Type ABdominates over the other. In fact, many of your traits are shaped byboth genes in a pair. In addition, most traits are affected by more thanof genes working together. FemaleFemaleFather FemaleFemaleFathergene and the disorder.genes and developing the disorder, one chance in How Genes Instruct Your Bodyprotein.For example, one protein carries oxygen in the blood. Anotherbody, proteins are involved, and the production of these proteins isAgene in one person may carry a slightly different instruction thangene donÕt cause any problems to health. For example, a person whoseVariations in the instruction carried by a gene come about throu

16 ghAmutation is a change that occurs to t
ghAmutation is a change that occurs to the orderof the bases appearing in the DNAinside a cell. Mutations can happenHowever, most mutations occur as germ cells make copies of theirmillions of bases must be copied in exactly the right order. Mostly, theyare. However, with every copy of DNA, there are some errors. Abase isOthers are new, occurring to a person during his or her lifetime. Newmutations may bepassed on to the next generation if they appear in Most mutations are harmless because they donÕt result in anythe new trait is helpful to the survival of a species. However,sometimesmutations cause problems in how your body functions.disorders.is a disease caused by parasitesbloodstream. The parasites feed off red blood

17 cells. However, theydamage they can do i
cells. However, theydamage they can do inside the body.copies of this gene variation, however, areflow. The symptoms for sickle cell anemia range from mild to severe.Genetic Testingprenatal.embryo fetus, Inherited mutations are carried in the DNAof reproductive cells. Normal Red Blood CellSickle Cell Blood Cell suggest what the personÕs is for developing a disorder.the disorder. They also may study the personÕsTo find some disorders, doctors may take a bloodsample in order to look at the personÕs chromosomesVery advanced tests can look inside a section of aConcerns About Genetic TestingHowever, progress in the treatment of genetic disorders has been muchslower. That is the problem for Priya, the woman who fears that s

18 hemay have inherited HuntingtonÕs disea
hemay have inherited HuntingtonÕs disease (HD). HD affects 1 in every 10,000 people. Amutation in one gene meansthat the protein it instructs the body to make gets produced abnormally.For reasons that are not yet clear, this leads to a breakdown in thedisease to take hold. PriyaÕs mother had the gene and, therefore, thedisease. If Priya inherited the HD gene from her mother, she too willthe disorder. However, no treatment is available. If Priya finds out throughtesting that she has the gene, there is little she can do. No tell when the disease will hit or how quickly it will take over her body. Doctors can perform many tests before birthto check for abnormalities. stands, one way or the other. Such news could change her

19 life, but notout from testing that she
life, but notout from testing that she has been spared the disease. However, it ispossible that she will feel ÒsurvivorÕs guiltÓ if other members of hershe has been avoiding. Finding out that she doesnÕt have HD may beYou might also think that Priya would be sad to find out fromthe test results. And she cannot predict other problemsorder to find out how HD is passed down in her family,genetic linkagestudy. Priya will have to ask them totake part in the study. Asking such a thing can be veryHereÕs another problem Priya must consider: Supposechildren? When does she tell her employer, now or whencompany, which at some point may have to provide fair to herself and to others. However, it may not be entirely in herrecords

20 , both her employer and her health insur
, both her employer and her health insurance company may findPriyaÕs decision whether to get tested may be affected by recentworking on a cure. Treatment may come in time to help someoneThe Need for Genetic CounselingHD is unusual because if you carry the gene for the disorder, youThatÕs why many people feel that With counseling from professional advisors who are experts on genetics,them. Finally, counselors can explain to people what their choices areHowever, genetic counseling is a new field, and there arenÕt verybillion-dollar industry. New tests are coming out faster than newcounselors are being trained. There simply arenÕt enough genetic to get worse before it gets better.directly to the public. As people hearche

21 aper, more accurate, and easiermaynot kn
aper, more accurate, and easiermaynot know how to ask for this.answer their patientsÕquestions.not for the counseling to go with it. All of this means that a lot of peopleThereÕs one more reason why genetic counseling is so important.With many genetic disorders, genes are only one of the factors involved.understand what they can do to avoid triggering a genetic disorder.These kinds of choices are covered in our next chapter. HowardÕs Health Is Up to HimHoward will turn 50 soon, and it worries him. His grandfatherdied of a heart attack in his fifties, and so did his father anduncle.Several years ago, a doctor told Howard that he was at high riskfor heart disease because of his family history. But the doctor saidthat How

22 ard could improve his chances if he lost
ard could improve his chances if he lost some weight,stopped smoking, and exercised. The doctor also told Howard tocome back every year for a checkup.Howard hasnÕt gone on a diet, and he hasnÕt given up hiscigarettes or taken up exercise. He also hasnÕt been back to thedoctor. HeÕs afraid of what the doctor might find.Howard canÕt make up his mind. Sometimes he thinks heshould try to take better care of his health. Other times, he thinksthat he should just accept the fact that he wonÕt live much longerand should get as much fun out of life while he can.If you were Howard, what would you do?Researchers now believe that some of the roots of cancer, highcertain cases of obesity, some types of depression, and diabetes.

23 The more However, the truth is always co
The more However, the truth is always complicated. It isnÕt so simple as Òifenvironment.them at risk for cancer. However, their chance of actually gettingthey may only begin to wheeze and cough when cats are nearby. of a gene-related disorder. Some factors in your environment areunder your control, and some are not. Either way, they can affectAn example of a single-gene disorder is HuntingtonÕsdisease, which was discussed in the last chapter. One error indisorders include breast cancer, asthma, and diabetes. genetic expression.Take two people whomildly. The failures in its instruction for producing a protein arerather minor.it appears. In the other person, the gene Òexpresses itselfÓ strongly.Thefailures in its instr

24 uction for making a protein are major. A
uction for making a protein are major. Aamounts. The body cannot stay healthy. That person becomes ill hair. With other mutations, the entire body has no pigment.However, the genes involved are different, and the result isthey are different from those of many other people. However,these unusual gene variations donÕt necessarily lead to disease.Some people carry a gene mutation that causes a disorder, but aregene mutation is recessive. You need to inherit two such mutatedyou inherit only one, you wonÕt get sick. You will, however, be asymptoms yourself. Your children will be at risk for getting theboth you and their other parent. An example of a recessive disorderis sickle cell anemia, which was discussed in the last cha

25 pter.It also can happen if you come into
pter.It also can happen if you come into contact with cancer-causingcarcinogens.how many, different disorders may be triggered. Some peopleÕs genes. Your genes may never cause you trouble...a disorder...your genes for disorders donÕt express themselves strongly...or disorder...one copy, and...However, it is easy to fall into that simple way of thinking. Thematter what he does, he will die of a heart attack just like his father,uncle and grandfather. The fact that three of HowardÕs close relatives Researchers donÕt yet know how many genes areHowever, researchers do know something about theSo maybe the reason that HowardÕs relatives died ofOn the other hand, it is possible that HowardÕs familystrongly. It is possible

26 that no matter what Howard does to keepc
that no matter what Howard does to keepcanÕt of death could have nothing to do with genes. Acar accidentor a bolt of lightningcould get him tomorrow. No matter how muchDealing with Genetic Knowledgelives. More and more, however, our decisions will be influenced bythousands of your genes. The test will reveal whether any of these genesgenetic profilesuggest what health-related behaviors you should follow. It could tip for you. As we said earlier, everyone has a number of ÒproblemÓ genes.For the most part, you donÕt know what your problem genes are, andyou never will find out unless a health problem surfaces. Apiece ofthe choices they make based on such fears. People may choose not to marryorAbig question is whether chi

27 ldren should be told informationabout th
ldren should be told informationabout the genes they carry or, if so, at what age they should be told. Itcan be difficult for children to understand some of the important factsaboutgenetics, such as the difference between a risk and a sure thing.the best thing is to avoid getting this information. However,genetic disorders. That way, the parents can be prepared ÒproblemÓ genes can bringextra trouble. Forplans. In other cases, they have been told thatnot be covered. In still others, they have been toldYou might think that it makes sense to keepfamilyÕs medical history. Also, the results ofbecome sick, because of a genetic disorder. UnderAmericans with Disabilities Act (ADA),Commission has ruled that the ADAalso protects

28 people fromHowever, the fear of being d
people fromHowever, the fear of being discriminated against may lead people In HowardÕs case, it didnÕt take any special genetic test to revealthat he is at risk for a heart attack. His risk is clear from his familyÕsIf Howard rejects his doctorÕs advice, is that because his genes havebehavioral genetics.is called the question of Ònature versus nurture.Ó For a long time,took one position or the other. They believed that eithernature or nurture was responsible, but not both. Today, most scientistsagree that both genes (nature) and environment (nurture) help makework together.temperament.According to this theory, we may inherit ourtendency to be shy or bold, risk-taking or cautious. However, anytry out new situations

29 may learn to be more outgoing. Another
may learn to be more outgoing. Another shy childAgirl who is never allowed to play sports may never develop herinborn athletic talent. The reverse also is true. Agirl whose genes doencouraged to play, practices hard, and keeps at it. behavior. Research into these areas is very controversial and raisesif there are any genes that contribute to homosexuality. But what ifthere are, and what if there arenÕt? If homosexual identity is caused inmore use of the education? And takebehavior. If such a link is found, shouldof behavior. They say that these theories are often based on fancifulshaper of behavior as genes. And there is still the role of personalresponsibility. Shy or bold, risk-taking or cautious, it is still withinH

30 owardÕs power to choose whether to quit
owardÕs power to choose whether to quit smoking, to give up sweets,fully explain our behavior.As you can see, genetic research doesnÕt give us all the answers. ButThatÕs the subject of our next chapter. Carlos and Mollie Can Have a Perfectly Healthy Baby (or can they?)Carlos and Mollie want to have children. However, they havtried to start a family yet because they disagree on somethingimportant. Carlos wants Mollie to get tested to see if she is acarrier for cystic fibrosis (CF).Mollie doesnÕt want to do it.People with CF have mutations in one or more genes. Thesemutated genes give faulty instructions for the production ofproteins that help move salt in the body. One result is that thelungs become clogged with mucus,

31 making it hard to breathe.Another resul
making it hard to breathe.Another result is that the body has a hard time digesting food. TheCarlos had a brother with CF. He hated seeing his brother sufferso much. His parents struggled with the hardship and expense ofcaring for a sick child who never made it to adulthood. Carlos doesnÕtwant to repeat that experience in his own life. ThatÕs why he hadhimself tested for CF. Unfortunately, he found out that he is a carrier. recessive disorder.That means his children will have thedisease only if they inherit the mutated gene from both parents.does, then when she gets pregnant they can have the fetus testedto make sure it does not have two CF genes and is therefore free ofthe disease. Mollie would prefer simply not knowi

32 ng what the risks are. Shefigures that o
ng what the risks are. Shefigures that once a baby is in their arms, they will be glad they hadIf you were Mollie or Carlos, what would you do? ÒItÕs a boy!Ó or ÒItÕs a girl!ÓNo longer. Many parents already know the sex of their child before itoften done when there is a risk for a disorder. These risks include:Afamily history of a genetic disorder.a genetic disorder caused by a new mutation. However, babiesinheriting that disorder.The age of the mother.For reasons that are not yet clear, oldergiven birth to a stillborn child for unknown reasons. Testing maymore widely used than it is today.Types of Prenatal Testsalpha-fetoproteinAsample of the motherÕs blood is taken to measure theamount of a special protein produc

33 ed by the fetus. Too much or tooTherefor
ed by the fetus. Too much or tooTherefore, the brain or spine of the fetus may not be developing properly. the body. Some diseases are caused when the gene that gives theinstructions for producing an enzyme doesnÕt work. When that happens,not occur. This leads to the disease. Aparticular enzyme test is usuallyif the disease runs in the family.ultrasound imaging.uses sound waves to create an image of the baby inside the mother.some cells surrounding the fetus. These cells are treated with a and Y, willnot match.) Aspecial technique isused torearrange the chromosomes into pairs.The picture that is created is called a karyotype.cells for analysis at the DNAlevel. If there isgenetic disorder, the gene involved can be lookedm

34 arker.inherited along with the disorder.
arker.inherited along with the disorder. With amnio and CVS, the procedure for obtaining cells is uncomfortableare now developing a test that they hope will be totally safe and easy.For this test, all that will be needed is a sample of the motherÕs blood. Thethe motherÕs blood. Because this test will be safe and simple to perform, Normal male karyotype, with one large Xchromosome and one small Y chromosome.Normal female karyotype, with two largeX chromosomes. DNAmarkers can be Reproductive Technologyreproductive technology.way, and then injected into his partnerÕs uterus. If the male in a coupledisorder, the couple maychoose artificial insemination using spermgiven by a donor. The couplemight alsorecessivedisorder. Int

35 he recessive disorder.in vitroAcommon te
he recessive disorder.in vitroAcommon termmeans Òin glass.Ó) Actually, no test tubes areher partner. Eggs that become fertilized arethen implanted in the womanÕs uterus, withfetus. Artificial insemination involves injecting a manÕssperm into a womanÕs uterus. Ex uteroDNAanalysisto in the motherÕs uterus. have children. However, combined with to a baby with a terrible genetic disorder.More Decisions to Makepeople the opportunity to be parents of healthy children. However,that want to have a baby.Carlos doesnÕt want the baby to inherit CF. CF is a recessiveScientists have discovered the gene involved in CF. Many differentmutations of this gene lead to CF. Atest is available that can identifymutation. Since CF is a r

36 ecessive disorder, he risks having a chi
ecessive disorder, he risks having a child withchance of having a child with the disease is one in four. The risk is the CF. It will be negative if she is not a carrier unusual mutation leading to CF. This means that even with a negativehave a child with CF.whether to have a child together. Here again they may want todecide to go ahead and conceive together, their next choice is whetherdecision of keeping or aborting the pregnancy.also may be affected by new findings about CF.CF alive into their thirties. Another importantbut have no other health problems. Right now,the genetic test for CF canÕt always tell howwonÕt know how bad the news is. The baby thatfairly healthy. Because of this uncertainty, the couple may decide

37 to continue thetreatment of CF, because
to continue thetreatment of CF, because medical research may well lead to betterBased on his own family experience, however, Carlos may be determinednot to have a child with CF. In this case, the couple has other choices.mutation. Another possibility is genetic testing. MollieÕs eggs andCarlosÕs sperm would be mixed together. Cells from any eggs thatbecome fertilized would be removed for DNAanalysis. The embryos thatdo not carry genes with the CF mutation could then be implanted in MollieÕsuterus. The child would be theirs, and he or she would not develop CF.also that to facethe fact that this procedure can cost tens of thousands of dollarsand maynot be covered by their has a highfailure rate and maya lot of tfertiliz

38 ation doesnÕt succeedright away.If the
ation doesnÕt succeedright away.If the couple decides to go with an egg or sperm donor, they willto decide what kind of relationship to have with their donor. everything in their power to avoid having a child with CF, they couldstill end up with a sick baby. After all, CF is only one of many possiblethe present time. ItÕs also important to remember that many healthCarlos do to add a child to their family, they have no guarantee that hechoices. The same is true for couples that have disorders other than CFintheir family trees. As more genes involved with disorders are located, moreThe Possibility of Endless Decisionsyour baby, such as the hair color and body shape? ScientistsIn one way, this already is being done. Some

39 parents areHowever, some parents do it a
parents areHowever, some parents do it anyway.much else about a childÕs features. There could come a time,however, when genetic testing makes available endless YouÕll read about this in our next chapter. Donita Should Cooperate with the Police The body of a young woman was found in the locker room ofthe factory where Donita works. Police say the woman was stabbed.The only clues are some strands of hair clutched in the hand of thevictim. The hair is not hers, so police think it belongs to themurderer.According to the factory guards, no outsiders were in thebuilding at the time of the murder. For that reason, police believethe killer is one of the 500 women who work there. But whichone? To find out, the police decide to

40 do a mass DNA screening.They ask each wo
do a mass DNA screening.They ask each worker to give a saliva sample. They want to comparethe DNA from the hair to each workerÕs DNA. If they find a match,chances are they will have the killer.Donita was friends with the woman who died. For the sake ofher friend, Donita feels that she should give police a saliva sample.She figures that it is a painless and simple thing to do. Moreimportantly, she wants the murderer to be found, and she realizesthat the DNA screening will flush out the killer only if everyonecooperates. Still, the whole thing makes her uncomfortable. Shebelieves that you are innocent until proven guilty, not the otherway around. Donita didnÕt do the crime, and the police have noreason to suspect she did.

41 If you were Donita, what would you do? F
If you were Donita, what would you do? Fingerprints arenÕt always helpful in catching criminals, however.arrested before, police wonÕt find a match.Using fingerprints isnÕt always useful for identifying bodies, either.Prints canÕt be taken from a badly damaged corpse such as one burnedof who the person might be, and that personÕs prints are in recordssomewhere, the fingerprints from the body arenÕt of any use.as it is also called. In many ways, DNAtyping is a muchinvolved in DNAtyping is quite complicated. What it does, however, israther simple: It turns each DNAsample into a set of lines, like the bar DNAtyping at crime Asure match between two samples can be made only if entire DNAsequences are compared. ThatÕs su

42 ch a huge task that itÕs not yetpossibl
ch a huge task that itÕs not yetpossible. So what DNAtechnicians do instead is compare severalfrom the same person. DNAtesting cannot absolutely prove a match,One of the great advantages of DNAtyping is that there are so manyways to get a Òprint.Ó You can use hair, blood, saliva, semen, skin, andFor identifying bodies, DNAtyping is better than fingerprintingbecause DNAlasts longer. After someone dies, the flesh decays quickly.This makes it difficult to get fingerprints. However, bones, teeth, andhair last a long time, and DNAtyping using these materials can beDNAcan also be analyzed for special information that fingerprintsdonÕt give. For example, DNAcan be used to tell whether two peoplecome from the same family. DNA

43 can also be examined for important clues
can also be examined for important cluesUses for DNA TypingDNAtyping was first introduced in the early 1980s. Here are someTo prove innocence.DNAtyping has been submitted as evidenceinthousands of cases in the U.S. and other countries. In about one-thirdof showing that their DNAdoes behind bars, including some death row DNAtyping did not exist or was still tootried. DNAevidence can last for years, for example, in semen stains To prove guilt.It is harder to use DNAas evidence to convict aa reasonable doubt.Ó DNAtyping by itself leaves some doubtaccused has matching DNAfor the sections that were tested.There also is the chance that someone ÒplantedÓ the DNAto pinmistake. However, testing labs have improved their procedur

44 escombine DNAtyping with other evidence
escombine DNAtyping with other evidence to strengthen their case.using DNAto pin the accused to the scene of a crime.To identify relatives.live here. Immigration officers have sometimes tried to block theentryof people they suspected were not really the children ofresidents. DNAtyping has been used to prove a familyand allow legal entry.To prove fatherhood.DNAtyping has been used to prove orpaternity, support from a man who denies that he is the father. It also hasbut the woman denies that he is the father.To identify bodies.DNAtyping has helped identify numerousmurder and accident victims. For example, DNAtyping was usedbuilding in Oklahoma City. Long after all the bodies of the knownvictims were recovered, a leg was fou

45 nd in the rubble. DNAtestingconcluded th
nd in the rubble. DNAtestingconcluded that it belonged to an African-American woman. Theyused this clue to help identify her.To identify soldiers.identify the remains of soldiers. Now it uses DNAtyping. Bloodand saliva samples are taken from new recruits and stored. If thatsoldier dies in combat and the body is too damaged to identify,DNAfrom the body can be compared to the DNAin the storedsamples. DNAtyping was first used to identify soldiers killed inthe Persian Gulf War. To uncover history.Examining the DNAof people long dead hasDNAtesting was used to identify the bodies of Czar Nicholas IIand his family. This royal family was murdered at the beginningfound. In 1995, researchers used DNAtyping to confirm that thebodies

46 in a mass grave belonged to members of
in a mass grave belonged to members of the CzarÕs family.To study human evolution.Scientists are collecting DNAsamplesfrom people worldwide. They also are collecting DNAfrom theIssues of PrivacyComputers are part of what makes DNAtyping such a powerfultool. They can store information from millions of DNAsamples. Plus,It is this power that concerns Donita, the woman who doesnÕt know ifshe should take part in the DNAscreening.If Donita cooperates, her DNAprint will go into the policeÕs compared to the DNAfrom the hairs found in the victimÕs hand. Unlessthose hairs came from DonitaÕs head, her DNAsample should removeBut her DNAsample may not be removed from the police computer.From DonitaÕs point of view, this is a pe

47 rmanent invasion of privacy.alone.Ó As
rmanent invasion of privacy.alone.Ó As long as her print is on file, Donita is not being left alone. SheÒlookingÓ at her. whatinformation others can know about you.Ó By giving police her DNA,learn many things about her. The effect on Donita may be a feeling ofsafeguard these files? Will they permit the use of the files for purposesthat donÕt have to do with law enforcement? Finally, if privacy is the right to decide what information others canlearn about yourself. If DonitaÕs DNAsample is typed, she may learnto disease. Perhaps she will learn that she doesnÕt share certain geneticsorts of information that DNAcan reveal that people may not want toControls on DNA FilesMass DNAscreenings like the one at DonitaÕs fac

48 tory have beenWales, and Germany. Anew l
tory have beenWales, and Germany. Anew law in England allows the police to takehair or saliva samples from suspects for DNAtyping, even withoutpermission. England also has created the worldÕs first nationwide DNAMass DNAscreening to solve crimes has not yet happened in theU.S. This country has a strong tradition of protecting privacy. TheFourth Amendment to the Constitution protects citizens againstÒunreasonable search and seizure.Ó In DonitaÕs case, there is no reasonto suspect her of the murder, except that she worked at the factorywhere it took place. Therefore, taking her DNAmight be ruled anÒunreasonable searchÓ by a U.S. court. Also, even though she is being However, we donÕt know for certain how U.S. courts

49 would rule.There hasnÕt been a court ca
would rule.There hasnÕt been a court case around this issue yet, so we just donÕtknow. ItÕs possible that someday mass DNAscreenings could become aEven without mass DNAscreenings, however, U.S. law enforcementDNAdata banks are growing. Many states require convicted felons andsexoffenders to give blood or saliva samples for DNAtyping as abanks to catch repeat offenders. The FBI also is building a DNAdatabank of criminals. It is possible that DNAsamples may someday bethat even if you get stopped for speeding, your DNAcould end up inIt is also possible that information from your DNAcould end up inother types of data banks. Today, there are many instances where youresults of any DNAtests become part of your records, you ma

50 y have toRight now, there are no laws co
y have toRight now, there are no laws concerning DNAdata banks. There istesting canÕt be used for another purpose. There is no law that limitsgives you the right to check your DNAfile to find out what informationdata banks operate. They say it would be easier to set up the rules now,before the practice of storing and sharing DNAinformation incomputers grows any larger. But technology often moves faster thanthey have had their DNAon file somewhere.Our growing ability to gather DNAinformation is making manychanges in our ways of life. However, it is not just we humans who areas well. We look at these changes in our next chapter. DNAdata banks John and Elsa Will Profit from Biotech Farming (or will they?)Elsa and John are

51 dairy farmers. They need to make a decis
dairy farmers. They need to make a decisionthat could mean whether or not they stay in business.They need to decide whether to inject their cows with a drugthat increases the amount of milk their cows produce. The drug wasdeveloped through genetic research.The government has approved the use of this drug. Hundreds ofstudies show that milk from cows given the drug is safe andhealthy to drink.However, many consumers are afraid of drinking milk fromtreated cows. They donÕt trust the studies that say the milk is safe.They point out that sometimes scientific claims are proven to bewrong as new evidence is collected.Elsa and John run a family farm. They pride themselves on beingÒnaturalÓ and Òold-fashionedÓ farmers. Howeve

52 r, if they donÕt usethe drug, their far
r, if they donÕt usethe drug, their farm may not be as productive as other dairy farmsthat do use it. On the other hand, they really canÕt afford any moreexpenses. They already are having trouble keeping up.If you were Elsa or John, what would you do? species. Yet in many ways, we areother species on earth. And in some ways, we are like However, there are some genes that are found both in humans and inother species. And some parts of our DNAare found in nearly everyother species. All but a small fraction of human DNAis the same aschimpanzee DNA. The DNAof mice, rats, and rabbits have much ingenomes of a form of yeast, a fruit fly, a mouse, a plant, and manyreproduce quickly.) Researchers are studying the genomes of thes

53 especies to learn about the similar, but
especies to learn about the similar, but more complicated, genome ofmake changes to a gene and how to replace one gene with another.and itÕs a very Say, for example, that researchers want to find out what differentdoesnÕt have any petals, it means the gene they cut out is important forthis way, they are able to match genes to the instructions they give.clues also can help researchers find genes that control growth in animals.biotechnology,Biotechnology is not new. People have long known how to use yeast toto age cheese. In todayÕs biotechnology industry, modern biologicalselectivebreeding.best plants for use as next yearÕs crop, andmate together. Through trial and error,andthe traits of numerous species.Many of todayÃ

54 •s to genes, new forms of plants and ani
•s to genes, new forms of plants and animals can be created in one generation.overcome the barriers between species. Many new biotech products aremade by transferring genes from one species into another.Atransgenicother countries. Here are some examples of whatÕs coming out of or that taste better. Vegetables that stay ripe longer.tomatoes so that they take longer to rot. Normally, tomatoes thatdonÕt spoil before reaching the stores. The new tomatoes can beleft to ripen on the vine, which gives them a better flavor.who need it, preventing starvation as the worldÕsare putting human genes into pigs and baboons. They are trying tointo the human body. This could solve the problem of long waitingTransgenic plants and animal

55 s that make important drugs.medicines at
s that make important drugs.medicines at less expense. That way, the medicines could beavailable to more people who need them. Tobacco plants havebeen engineered to produce a drug that helps fight AIDS. Sheephave been inserted into bacteria. As the bacteria grow, they create Square tomatoes? Some farmers want to immune disorders such as AIDS. (An immune disorder interfereswith the bodyÕs ability to fight infection.) Other mice have beenPros and Cons of Biotech Farmingfrom medicine to industry. Agriculture also is being affected. Farmers hormone.produce BGH artificially. ÒTo cloneÓ means Òto make an exact copy of.ÓSome cells are removed from a cow, and the gene for BGH is cut out ofreproduce very quickly. As each new

56 cell of bacteria is made, a newcopy of t
cell of bacteria is made, a newcopy of the gene also is made. In this way, millions of copies of the geneare produced in a short time. With millions of copies of the gene, lotsHowever, to make that extra money,This is because some studies suggestsuffermore health problems thanuntreated cows. Also, there will be thefrequently. This is because treatedcows Ògive outÓ more quickly. to stay healthy. Other Concerns About Biotech FarmingElsa and JohnÕs. Large corporate farms can afford the added costs ofhard on the cows. According to them, BGH is tailor made for a ÒfactoryÓfields. This could save the farmers money and be better on the environment.of weeds that are even harder to control. Sooner or later, pests andhave to us

57 e more spray. Or they would have to inve
e more spray. Or they would have to invest in new seed frommore productive crops and livestock. According to this argument, wedonÕt really need to produce more food. What we need to do is overcomecrops and animals that can be raised in whole new climates. However,food supply, we should change the worldÕs eating habits. One arguments by saying that we canÕt go back in time. The worldÕspopulation is growing rapidly. ItÕs too risky to assume that we will havediets. Abetter solution is to use biotech to develop more efficient waysthat these problems are not new, and biotech farming should not be thethat condemning biotechnology is not the answer.right to alter the genes of animals. Another big question is whether itbeen

58 used in service to people. As an example
used in service to people. As an example, they point out that wewill. Rather, they are unique living beings with the right to exist fortraits of a species so quickly. canÕt change just one thing. Altering one trait of a species may affect itin more than one way. Creating transgenic bacteria, bugs, plants, ordonÕt know enough about how genes operate to be doing this kind ofwork.They say that the researchers are Òplaying God.Ó These peoplerecognize that useful products are coming out of biotech. However, theyindustry. Finally, they say that it is easy to understand the questionsabout safety, but it isnÕt so easy to understand the answers becausehope to win more support for their industry.recklessly or carefully. The to

59 ols of biotech also are affecting thedev
ols of biotech also are affecting thedevelopment of one species in particularÑhuman beings. ThatÕsdiscussed in our final chapter. Dr. LuÕs Patients Have the Right to Be Tall (or do they?)Dr. Lu has two patients with the same problem, but she isnÕtsure if she should treat them both. The patients, Tim and Rico, areseven-year-old boys who are very short for their age.Tim will never grow much taller than 5 feet because his bodydoes not produce enough of a hormone needed to grow. When he isan adult, Tim will be much shorter than his mother and father, whoare both closer to 6 feet. Rico will never grow much taller than 5 feet either. Rico will beshort because he has inherited his body build from his parents,who are both abo

60 ut five feet tall.Researchers have used
ut five feet tall.Researchers have used genetic engineering to produce a growthhormone. Both sets of parents want this growth hormone to beprescribed for their sons to help them grow taller. They want thisbecause they feel that there are many advantages to being tall.Dr. Lu realizes that genes play a role in the height each child willreach. Tim will be short because of a single mutation in one gene thatinstructs for the production of a growth hormone. Rico will be shortdue to the many genes he inherited from two short parents. Despitethis difference, the end result for both boys will be the same.Dr. Lu is thinking about prescribing the hormone for Tim, butnot for Rico. However, she wonders if she is being fair. If you wer

61 eDr. Lu, what would you do? what is wron
eDr. Lu, what would you do? what is wrong. At the doctorÕs office, they will observe your symptomsand examine your body. They may look inside you using X rays andyour genes. Every day, genetic research is being applied in new waysSomeday, it also may be possible to going inside cells to the genes. Treating disorders by altering genes isgene therapy.of a needed protein. If so, new DNAwill be inserted into some of yourcells. This new DNAwill correct the geneÕs instruction for making thethrough gene therapy. In Chapter 4, we explained that with CF thevirus.We usually think of a virus ascausing illness. However, the kind of virus used in this experiment isreproduces by inserting part of itself into them. As it inserts its D

62 NAinto these cells, it also inserts the
NAinto these cells, it also inserts the corrected gene. Hopefully, theseverecombined immunodeficiency (SCID).fails to produce a particular enzyme. Without the enzyme, a personcannot make the special blood cells that resist infection. Afew young of research trials are under way using gene therapy. None has yetItÕs also important to realize that gene therapy may never work fortherapy for disorders that involve the actions of many genes. Also, forpartly responsible for whatÕs wrong. In such cases, gene therapy mayGerm-Line Therapywork in a part of a personÕs body. It will not affect the genes that aperson passes on to the next generation. However, even that may bepossible some day. The kind of treatment that could change

63 the genesgerm-line therapy.to alter the
the genesgerm-line therapy.to alter the DNAin your germ cells. If they succeed, this means thatthey would be able to alter the DNAthat is copied and passed onWith germ-line therapy, genes could be ÒcorrectedÓ in the egg or spermfrom your family tree forever. Your children would not inherit the Germ-line therapy is a long way off. However, it already is very for terrible diseases. However, they are concerned because makingthat personÕs descendants. They say that perhaps it is not right toGenetically Engineered Medicinesthrough biotechnology.Take, for example, the treatment of diabetes. In the past, the onlybeing created. Another benefit oftheir purity. This is important, since diseases. With genetic engineering, human g

64 rowth hormone can nowhormone more widely
rowth hormone can nowhormone more widely available. ThatÕs why Dr. Lu faces her decisionon treating Tim and Rico, the boys who are both very short.Without treatment, neither boy will end up much over five feet tall.However, Dr. Lu may feel that Tim should have treatment because his onegene is not working normally. She may even feel that Rico should havetreatment because his normal genes will cause him to be abnormally short.Suppose, however, that Dr. LuÕs next patients are children who willthem to be taller, what should she do? Where does she draw the line?ItÕs even possible that as people hear about this growth hormone, theywill demand it for their tall children to make them even taller. Whatwill Dr. Lu do for familie

65 s that want their boys to be seven-foot-
s that want their boys to be seven-foot-tallOne thing that Dr. Lu has to consider is that the treatment is notquick and easy. For it to work, the boys will have to receive a greatAlso, the treatment doesnÕt guarantee how much the boys will grow.Studies suggest that the treatment works better for children like Tim,his short build. Even so, all those years of shots may give Tim a fewDr. Lu also must consider the fact that the treatment would beperformed on children. Genetically engineered drugs are still new. ItÕsSince Tim and Rico are children, they canÕt make the decision themselves.On the other hand, Dr. Lu canÕt wait until they are adults for them to So perhaps the decision rests with the parents. Yet before she tur

66 nsthe decision over to them, Dr. Lu must
nsthe decision over to them, Dr. Lu must consider one more thing: the problem of being short is really a medical problemthat deservestreatment. The parents may feel that if their children are taller, theyprevent many kinds of diseases and disorders. However, it is quitelikely that the new techniques will be used in ways that donÕt alwaysIn Dr. LuÕs story, two families wanted a genetically engineeredthey wanted them to be taller. Genetically engineered drugs, genetherapy, and germ-line therapy could open the door for lots of peopletreatments that will make them look younger, have more hair, or loseability, people may try to use that knowledge, too, for example, totheir I.Q. or their athletic ability. There is nothing new

67 abouteugenics.That is what happened in
abouteugenics.That is what happened in Nazi Germany. Hundreds of thousands ofto prove Nazi eugenic theories. Even before the Nazis came to power, however, eugenic ideas werefirst half of the 1900s believed that crime, poverty, and other socialbloodÓ were people who were different from themÑpoor, uneducated, ofcolor, Catholic or Jewish, and descended from southern Europeans. Eugenic ideas are popular even today. China has a law that forbidsno longer on the books. However, the beliefs still persist. One new wayhuman beings. As a practical matter, this will probably never bepossible. ItÕs one thing to use gene therapy to get rid of an unwantedgene or two. ItÕs a whole lot more to pick and choose the whole rangethat idea

68 l. And then you would have to figure out
l. And then you would have to figure out how to raise all the political power to make it happen. Agrand plan tolimited ways, we may be able to shape our future. Weterrible diseases and disorders. We also may be able toto? We also need to think about whether these choiceswill be available to everyone. It probably wonÕt matter toomuch if some people donÕt get to select the eye color oftheir children. However, it will matter a great deal ifafford genetic medicines and gene therapy.We also need to worry about whether geneticprevent the birth of a child with a gene-related disorder,disorder? Will we think, Why is this child alive? Will wethink, Why didnÕt the parents Òdo somethingÓ to preventthe childÕs condition? Will w

69 e resent the medical and specialeducatio
e resent the medical and specialeducation costs spent on the child? Will we put pressure onthe idea that we are all Òcreated equal.Ó We know from the study of ourequal. And no matter how much we tinker with our genes, we neverHowever, that doesnÕt mean that we donÕt all have equal rights. ItÕs Mrs. Fister Can Replace Mrs. Fister is grieving. Just this morning, her family had beentogether, having breakfast. Then Mr. Fister and little Junior hadgone out on a walk to the corner store.They never returned. On the way home, a car hit them. Mr. Fisterwas killed instantly. His son lies in a coma at the hospital. The doctorssay JuniorÕs brain is dead. They have asked Mrs. Fister for permissionto remove him from the machines

70 that keep him breathing.Mrs. Fister can
that keep him breathing.Mrs. Fister cannot bear the thought of losing both her husbandand her child. She cannot imagine what it will be like to no longerbe a wife and mother.Mrs. Fister remembers reading an article about cloning. Shewonders if it might be possible to clone Junior to make a new childjust like him. She realizes the new baby would not be Junior, but itwould be as close as she could get. Plus, it would be a way to keepher beloved husbandÕs name alive, through the child of his own fleshand blood. She is thinking of keeping Junior on life support machinesat least long enough to find a doctor who can help her clone a baby.If you were Mrs. Fister, what would you do? Aweek later, photos of the two wide-eyed litt

71 le rhesus monkeysappeared in newspapers
le rhesus monkeysappeared in newspapers and on TV. What was their claim to fame?around the corner? And would that be a good thing or a bad thing?against dangerous experiments that threaten human dignity. Someethical issues involved in human cloning. At the same time, he issuedThey didnÕt have answers to all the questions being raised. At least,they didnÕt have all the same answers! But many of them agreed uponHow Cloning WorksWhen a maleÕs sperm fertilizes a female egg, it creates a single cell Asperm fertilizes an genes come into play. The geneticmake up the cellÕs structure and direct its activities. differentiation.Until recently, scientists had thought that once a cellwere able to do. First they removed some cells

72 from a six-year-oldsheep. These cells h
from a six-year-oldsheep. These cells happened to come from the sheepÕs udder.cultivated,divide into cells that could specialize anew, into anynucleus. The nucleus that had been removed from the first sheepÕsudder cell was inserted in to the nucleus-free egg. With a tiny jolt ofelectricity, the two parts fused together. The egg began dividing justsurrogate,to the world as Dolly.To produce the rhesus monkeys, a similar method was used. However, in Two Afertilized egg cellare from a rabbit liver. like the mature cells that had been used to produce Dolly. In otherTherefore they are not genetically identical to each other.)described above. However, there are lots of ways to clone, or makenuclear transfer technology.mother

73 and father. Rather, she is the geneticNu
and father. Rather, she is the geneticNuclear transfer technology is not new.Dolly experiment is that researchers have figured out how totransplanted the genetic material from a mature cell into an egg. AndObjectives of CloningYou might wonder why researchers are trying so hard to cloneanimals. Are they doing it just to see if it can be done? Are they Òmadspecifically, nuclear transfer, would allow breeders to more quickly interested in nuclear transfer. For one, it may make it much easier toto a particular disease. Acell from that pig could be removed andused for nuclear transfer. The result: a more perfect pig.produce transgenic animals. As discussed in Chapter 6, there aremedicine. LetÕs review how such a cow is crea

74 ted now, to betterprotein. Then you spli
ted now, to betterprotein. Then you splice this gene out of a human chromosome. YouIf the transplanted gene is successfully taken up by the egg cellÕsprotein in its milk. However, most times, the process fails. The eggexpress itself properly.be used for nuclear transfer. Breeding costs would be reduced because that arenÕt functioning? Can we stimulate thehelp answer.The Possibility of Human CloningMrs. Fister, who is hoping to clone her dying child in order to keep aa genetically related baby. If a couple shares the same recessive genesfor a disorder, cloning could give them a baby who wonÕt inherit thedisorder. (The baby would be a carrier, however, like the parent from But what, exactly, are we talking about when we

75 refer to a humanclone? Aclone would be a
refer to a humanclone? Aclone would be a genetic equal of the original, like an identicaltwin. It would not, however, be the same person come again. If youanother basketball superstar. The clone would be born at a differenttime, raised differently, and shaped by different experiences. Suchfactors would affect the personality, physical condition, ambition, anddestiny of Michael JordanÕs clone more than his genetic heritage.You also canÕt order a clone and have it delivered fully-grown toyour door. Acloned human would have to grow up like everybody else.Before you learn whether Michael JordanÕs clone can play basketballwho has come into the world so far. Babies as we know them now arebe the immediate descendent of just o

76 ne person, not two. ItÕs an openOr, tha
ne person, not two. ItÕs an openOr, that person could be considered the identical twin. The male andcould be considered the cloneÕs parents. Or, they could be consideredFisterÕs situation. If some doctor were able to grant her wish and makea clone of Junior, she would have to carry the baby for nine monthsup to JuniorÕs age.This new childÕs circumstances would be quite different from thoseof the first Junior. For one thing, Junior II wouldnÕt have a father (bothMr. Fister and Junior I would be dead). For another, Mrs. Fister wouldbe several years older than when she had her first boy. And of course,These kinds of differences would affect Junior IIÕs development in be less athletic than Junior I. Or, he may be more

77 athletic because heexercises more to inc
athletic because heexercises more to increase his lung power. To give another example,more timid than Junior I. Or, it may cause him to be more rebellious.child because he is her link to others she has loved. And quite possiblyBarriers to Human CloningFor Mrs. Fister, having a clone could involve responsibilities andrisks that cannot be taken lightly. But for another reason, Mrs. Fisterthe average consumer, at least in Mrs. FisterÕs lifetime.TodayÕs research into cloning is being done on animals, notin the cloned 3-year-old sheepsÕcells are behaving more like those of asix-year-old. Dolly, the cloned sheep, may be more likely to ageprematurely because her genes were copied from a six-year-old sheep. that cloning by def

78 inition means to make a copy, therefore,
inition means to make a copy, therefore, cloninguniqueness. Another reason against cloning is that it would lead awayfrom the bonds between men and women. Yet another reason againstclone such as the egg donor, the nucleus donor, thegenetic parents of the nucleus donor, and the womanMrs. FisterÕs case, there may be a question as tocould decide, if he were conscious. And some mightwords, once cells are removed from someoneÕs body, does he have legalcontrol over their use for cloning? Imagine another situation. An agentmarket his body tissues. Right now itÕs against the law for anyone to Other reasons against a ban have to do with our societyÕs values.be free to sell them. And, if people want to spend money on cloningpro

79 ducts, itÕs their business.technology,
ducts, itÕs their business.technology, which has helped many couples with fertility problemsFinally, our society strongly believes in freedom of inquiry. There isthe belief that the search for truth should not be restricted. Accordingapplied, but the research itself should be free to go forward. Alongforce it underground. An alternative would be to regulate the research,concerns clash with scientific discovery.Your Genes, Your Choicesresearch is changing the world we live in. ItÕs truly exciting. ItÕs alsooverwhelming. You may feel that you have little control over the way But you do have power. The way that society uses its knowledge ofYou help shape what happens through the way you express yourbeliefs and opinions an

80 d by the actions you take. You also affe
d by the actions you take. You also affect whatYou made a choice to gain some control of genetic issues by readingthis book. Now you have the choice to remain informed. You have the choicethe use of genetic research. And you have the choice to participatewhen issues involving genetics are raised in your community. Aprenatal test to measure the amount of a fetalprotein in the motherÕs blood. Abnormal amounts ofA1990 federal law that forbids discrimination againstAprenatal test in which cells surrounding a fetusThe injection of semen into a womanÕs uterus Very small, single-celled life-forms that can reproducequickly.Cancer-causing substances. Disabilities Act (ADA): Aperson who has one copy of the gene mutation fora rece

81 ssive disorder. Carriers are not affecte
ssive disorder. Carriers are not affected bythe disorder. However, they can pass on the mutatedsuch genes may be affected by the disorder.Aprenatal test in which cells surrounding annucleus of a cell. Normally, chromosomes appear incorresponding pairs. Agenome is made up of aTo make an exact copy of something.of the pair. This sometimes occurs when a germ cellArecessive genetic disorder affecting the mucusTo cause to grow and multiply, such as by growingAcollection of information organized so that specificfacts can be retrieved as needed. Today, many data chromosomes:clone:conception:crossing over:cystic fibrosis (CF):cultivate:data bank:disorders: genetic information. The scientific name for DNAisAterm for DNAtyping. (Se

82 e below.)Agene or other fragment of DNAw
e below.)Agene or other fragment of DNAwhose location inThe analysis of sections of DNAfor purposes ofaffect a personÕs conduct and health.Proteins that trigger activity in the cells of the body.life change slowly over time because of slight variations inDNAanalysis performed on cells of eggs that have DNAfingerprinting:DNAmarker:DNAtyping: genes:gene therapy:genetic counseling:genetic determinism:genetic engineering:genetic expression:genetic linkage study: The false belief that a personÕs fate is determinedThe effects of a geneÕs instruction on the cells of thebody.Examination of the DNAof family members toof family members with the disorder. These DNAdisorder. However, if they appear in the DNAofanother family membe

83 r, it can indicate thepersonÕs risk of
r, it can indicate thepersonÕs risk of inheriting the disorder. HuntingtonÕs disease Acollection of information about a personÕs genes.passed down from one generation to another,thing, organized in chromosomes. Acopy of theThe scientific mission to ÒreadÓ the order of bases asthey appear in the DNAof human chromosomes.TheAdominant genetic disorder in which a protein isproduced abnormally, leading to the breakdown in in vitrofertilization:karyotype:legal issues:mutation:nuclear transfertechnology:nuclei:nucleus:parasites:paternity:pigment:prenatal: Apicture of the chromosomes in a cell that is usedto check for abnormalities. Akaryotype is created byin the DNAinside a cell.Aprocedure for making a clone, or exact genet

84 iccopy, of an existing animal. In this p
iccopy, of an existing animal. In this procedure theskin, eye and hair. proteins:recessive:reproductive technology:severe combinedsocial issues:species:surrogate:temperament: Moving back and out of view. In genetics, a recessiveby the next generation.Arecessive genetic disorder in which red blood cellsas a whole and individuals in society.Asingle, distinct class of living creature withAsubstitute or stand-in. Asurrogate mother carriesApersonÕs way of responding to the world. Examplesof temperament include shy, bold, risk taking, and transgenic:ultrasound imaging:viruses: Ways of looking, thinking, or being. Traits that areAtechnique for looking inside the body by usingof a protein shell and a genome. Avirus reproduces by

85 inserting its genome into the cells of o
inserting its genome into the cells of other life-forms. References Books, Manuals, and ReportsAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science. Literacy.New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.Barker, Penelope. Genetics and Society. New York: The H. W. Wilson Company, 1The Gene Wars: Science, Politics, and the Human New York: Norton, 1995.Cooper, Necia Grant, ed. Los Alamos, NM: LosCutter, Mary Ann G., et al. Ethics, and Public Policy. Colorado Springs, CO: BSCS and the AmericanMedical Association, 1992.Mapping the Code: The Human Genome Project and the ChModern Science. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1990.Department of Energy. (Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research and Office of Envi

86 ronmentalDrlica, Karl A. Helix/Addison-W
ronmentalDrlica, Karl A. Helix/Addison-Wesley, 1995.Dudley, William, ed. Genetic Engneering: Opposing Viewpoints.Genetics and Heredity. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1990.Fox, Michael W. Superpigs and Wondercorn: The Brave New World ofBiotechnology...and Where It All May Lead.New York: Lyons & Burford, 1992. Frankel, Mark S., and Albert Teich, eds. The Genetic Frontier: Ethics, Law, andPolicy.Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science,Gallagher, Winifred. I.D.: How Heredity and Experience Make You Who You Are.New York: Random House, 1996.New York: Anchor/Doubleday, 1995.Kimbrell, Andrew. Lyon, Jeff, and Peter Gorner.New York: Norton) 1995.Maley, Julie A. Charlottesville, VA: for Biomedical

87 Ethics and Division of Medical Genetics,
Ethics and Division of Medical Genetics, University of Virginia,Murphy, Timothy F. and Marc A. LappŽ. Justice and the Human Genome Project.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994.Understanding Gene Testing. NIH-DOE Working Group on Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications of HumanTask Force on Genetic Information and Insurance. Thompson, Larry. Human Body. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994. Adato, Allison. ÒLiving Legacy: Knowing Your Medical Family Tree Can SaveYour Life.Ó Rennie, John. ÒGrading the Gene Tests.Ó Vol. 270,Nos. 6&7Wright, Lawrence. ÒDouble Mystery.Ó The New Yorker,BrochuresGenetics and IVF.IVF Institute, Fairfax, Virginia, 1995.Washington Post, Scienceand National Institutes of Health

88 Õs quarterly newsletter, Web sites main
Õs quarterly newsletter, Web sites maintained by the Hereditary Disease Foundation and the Center CreditsPage 10Coblyn DesignPage 10PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 11Expert Software, Inc.Page 15Index Stock Photography, Inc.Page 16LifeArt Inc. and Coblyn DesignPage 16LifeArt Inc.Page 19LifeArt Inc. and Coblyn DesignPage 19Coblyn DesignPage 22PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 23Index Stock Photography, Inc.Page 25Index Stock Photography, Inc.Page 30PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 31Photo Lab, Inc.Page 32Index Stock Photography, Inc.Page 34PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 38Coblyn DesignIndex Stock Photography, Inc.Page 39PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 40PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 41PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 43Index Stock Photography, Inc.Page 44PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 46PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 51PhotoDi

89 sc, Inc.Page 51PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 54Ind
sc, Inc.Page 51PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 54Index Stock Photography, Inc.Page 54Expert Software, Inc.Page 54Expert Software, Inc.Page 55Expert Software, Inc.Page 57PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 58Expert Software, Inc.Page 63Expert Software, Inc.Page 65Expert Software, Inc.Page 69Expert Software, Inc.Page 71PhotoDisc, Inc.Page 80Expert Software, Inc. with professional experience as a literacy instructor and program director.including two books on the brain published by AAAS. She conducts Science+Literacy for HealthHuman Genome Project Advisory Board New York City ProgramsJeffrey BotkinRon Cole-TurnerNational Academy of SciencesProject StaffTracy Gath, Mark FrankelScience and Society Programs AAASDNALearning CenterRobyn NishimiAssociation f