Intelligence What intelligence means to you? - PowerPoint Presentation

1. Intelligence

2. What intelligence means to you?Succeeding in school and in in higher level jobs and occupation?Ability to respond adaptively to the demands of a particular environment.Intelligence is socially constructed concept.(sternberg, 2004)People differ widely in how effectively they learn, remember, think and behave?

3. Intelligence- intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and reason effectively, and to deal adaptively with the environment.

4. Sir francis Galton (book Heredity genius, 1869)Galton’s research convinced him that eminent people had” inherited mental constitutions” that made them more fit for thinking than their less successful counterparts.He also found that people who were more socially and occupationally successful would also perform better on a variety of laboratory tasks thought to measure the “efficiency of the nervous system”He developed measures of reaction speed, hand strength, and sensory acuity.He measured the size of people’s sculls, believing that skull size reflected brain volume and hence intelligence. Historical perspective

5. Alfred binet as commissioned by France’s Ministry of public education to develop the test to recognize the students who were not getting benefitted from normal public schooling. Binet made two assumptions about intelligence :i. mental ability develop with age.Ii. The rate at which people gain mental competence is a characteristic of the person and is fairly constant over time.Alfred Binet

6. THE FIRST INTELLIGENCE TEST WAS DEVELOPED BY Alfred Binet (1873-1961) and Theodore Simon (1873-1961).They had used logical reasoning ,finding rhyming words and naming objects to assess intelligence.Mental age:The concept of mental age was expanded by German psychologist William Stern to provide a relative score- a common yardstick of intellectual attainment- for the people of different chronological ages.Intelligence quotient (I.Q)- MA/CA X 100Lewis Terman , a professor at Stanford University, revised the Binet’s test for use in the United States.Terman’s revised test became known as the Stanford-Binet test.

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9. By the mid 1920s ,it had became widely accepted in North America as the gold standard for measuring mental aptitude. The stanford-Binet contained mostly verbal items, and yielded a single IQ score.Army Alpha, a verbally oriented test that was used to screen large numbers of U.S Army recruits for intellectual fitness.Army Beta non verbal test (mazes, picture completion problems, and digit- symbol task)

10. David wechsler developed WAIS (1939) and WISC (1955) and WPPSI (1967). The Wechsler scales have undergone several revisions. Today, the Wechsler tests (WAIS-IV and WISC-IV) are the most popular individually administered intelligence tests in United States.

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13. Psychometrics is the statistical study of psychological tests. Psychometric approach to intelligence tries to identify and measure the abilities that underlie individual differences in performance. In essence ,it tries to provide a measurement based map of the mind.The psychometric Approach: the structure of intelligence

14. We try to find out number of possible abilities or factors of intelligence.Factor analysis reduces a large number of measures to a smaller number of clusters, or factors, with each cluster containing variables that correlate highly with one another but less highly with variables in other cluster.A factor analysis would tell us that there two different factors.But what are these two sets of tests measuring ? The factor analysis cannot answer this question; it can only identify the clusters for us.Factor analysis

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16. Test1-measure of vocabularyTest2- measures reading comprehensionTest3- complete sentenceTest 1,2 and 3( verbal ability)Test 4,5 and 6 involves use of numbers and mathematical problems (mathematical reasoning.

17. British psychologist Charles Sperman (1923)Spearman concluded that intellectual performance determined partly by a g factor or general factor intelligence, and partly by whatever special abilities might be required to perform that particular task.Spearman contended that because the general factor –g factor- cuts across virtually all tasks, it constitute the core of intelligence.The G factor: intelligence as general mental capacity

18. g matters a great deal as a predictor of both academic and job performance.Nathan Kuncel and coworkers (2004) concluded that general mental ability is significantly related to success in both areas of life.

19. L.L. Thurstone of the University Of Chicago challenged the Spearman’s 2 Factor theory.Thurstone concluded that human mental performance depends not on a general factor but rather on seven distinct abilities, which he called Primary mental abilities.L.L. Thurstone’s primary mental ability

20. S-SPACE- Reasoning about visual scenesV-verbal comprehension-understanding verbal sentenceW-Word fluency- producing verbal statements N- Number facility– dealing with numbersP-Perceptual speed—recogninzing visual patternsM-Rote Memory- MemorizationR-Reasoning- Dealig with novel problems

21. Raymond Cattell (1971) and John Horn (1985) ,they broke down Spearman’s general intelligence in to two distinct but related subtypes of g(with a correlation of about.50)Crystallized intelligence(g) is the ability to apply previously acquired knowledge in current problems.ex- vocabulary and information test.It is dependent on previous learning and practice.Crystallized and Fluid intelligece

22. Second general factor is Fluid intelligence(g)- defined as the ability to deal with novel problem solving situations for which personal experience doesn't provide a solution.It involves inductive reasoning and creative problem solving skills.Fluid intelligence is dependent primarily on the efficient functioning of the central nervous system rather than on prior experience and cultural contextPeople high in fluid intelligence can perceive relations among stimulus patterns and draw inferences from relationships.Nine dot problem and tower of Hanoi

23. Fluid intelligence requires the abilities to reason abstractly, think logically, and manage information in working (short term) memory so that new problems can be solved on “the black board of the mind”

24. John B. Carroll (2005) used factor analysis to reanalyse more than 450 different sets of data obtained by researchers around the world between 1935 and 1980. Carroll’s analysis resulted in an integrative model of intelligence that contains elements of Spearman’s, Thurstone’s, and Cattell- Horn’s models.The three stratum theory of cognitive abilities establishes three levels of mental skills- general, broad and narrow- arranged in a hierarchical model.Carroll’s three stratum model :A modern synthesis

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27. Psychometric theories of intelligence are statistical sophisticated ways of providing a map of the mind and describing how people differ from one another. what psychometric theory doesn't explain is WHY people vary in these mental skills.Cognitive processes theories explore the specific information –processing and cognitive processes that underlie intellectual ability.Cognitive process approaches: the nature of intelligent thinking

28. Robert Sternberg (1988,2004) is a leading proponent of the cognitive processes approach to intelligence.His triarchic theory of intelligence addresses both the psychological processes involved in intelligent behaviour and the diverse forms that intelligence can take.Sternberg theory divides the cognitive processes that underlie intelligent behaviour into three specific components.

29. Meta components- these are the higher order processes used to plan and regulate task performance.They include problem solving skills such as identifying problem, formulating hypotheses and strategies, testing them logically, and evaluating performance feedback.Sternberg believes that meta components are the fundamental sources of individual differences in fluid intelligence.

30. Performance components- are the actual mental processes used to perform the task. They include perceptual processing, retrieving appropriate memories and schemas from long term memory, and generating responses.Knowledge acquisition components-allow us to learn from our experiences, store information in memory, and combine new insights with previously acquired information.These abilities underlie individual differences in crystallized intelligece.

31. Sternberg believes in 3 different types of intelligence-1. analytical intelligence- it involves the kind of academically oriented problem- solving skills measured by traditional intelligence tests.2. practical intelligence- refers to the skills needed to cope with everyday demands and to manage one self and other people effectively.3. creative intelligence- comprises the mental skills needed to deal adaptively with novel problems.

32. Triarchic theory of intelligence

33. This theory suggest that psychometric views of intelligence is too limited.Gardner first outline his theory in his book “Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligence.Where he proposed that all people have different kinds of intelligences.He has suggested the there are 8 different types of intelligences.Howard Gardner ‘s multiple intelligence theory

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35. Gardner's definition of intelligence is too broad and that his 8 different ”intelligences” simply represent talents, personality traits, abilities.Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research.There is no specific test which can assess these 8 different types of intelligence.Contrary to Gardner’s claims, strong correlations have also been found between the 8 intelligences, which indicate and support the theory of general intelligence and not 8 different modalities.Criticisms

36. John Mayer (2008) has given the concept of personal intelligence after Gardner’s multiple intelligence concept of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence.Personal intelligence- is the ability to understand who one is, and who he wants to be. Like other cognitive forms of intelligence, it involves the ability to carryout abstract reasoning in a valid and accurate manner.Mayer suggested that personal intelligence involves 4 key abilities:Personal and emotional intelligence

37. 1. the ability to process and reason about personally relevant information through introspection (looking within) and by observing your self, other people and people react to you.2. the ability to incorporate the information gained through introspection and observation in to an accurate self knowledge of your traits, abilities, and values as well as accurate models of others personalities. This short of knowledge helps enhance interpersonal relationship.3. the ability to use personally relevant knowledge to guide your choices, such as choice of occupation or marriage partner, when and whether to begin a family, and where to reside. Accurate compatibility choices enhance occupational success and personal well-being.

38. 4. the ability to select goals that are consistent and (rather than in conflict) with one another and that are realistic given your talents and resources. This may involve accurately deciding which competencies you need to increase to pursue your goals and how to increase them. The person high in personal intelligence can also draw on his or her personal memories and “life story” for self direction and to recognize changes in goals and values as they occur over the life span.

39. E.I involves the abilities to read others emotions accurately, to respond to them appropriately, to motivate oneself, to be aware of one’s own emotions, and to regulate and control one’s own emotional responses.(Mayer 2008)Emotional intelligence includes 4 components or branches:Emotional intelligence

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41. Proponents of the E.I point to the important adaptive advantages of emotional skills in meeting the challenges of daily life and they believe that the ability t read, respond to and manage emotion has evolutionary roots. Emotionally intelligent people form stronger emotional bonds with other; enjoy greater success in careers, marriage and child rearing. They modulate their own emotions so as to avoid strong depression, anger and anxiety and work more effectively towards long term goals by being able to control impulses for immediate gratification.

42. Intelligence clearly has a strong genetic component, with heritability coefficient between .50 and .70 being reported consistently in both twin and adoption studies. This indicates that more than half, and perhaps more than two thirds, of the within group variation in IQ is attributed to genetic factors.The more genes people have in common , the more similar they tend to be in IQ.Heredity , environment and intelligence

43. In identical twins, the IQ correlation remains at .80 from age 4 through adulthood. In adulthood correlation for fraternal twins drop to around .40This correlation gets doubled in adulthood (.80) , indicating that genetic factors become even more important as we age.Although genes are important foundations of the g factor , there clearly is not single “intelligence gene”Diverse abilities measured by intelligence tests are undoubtly influenced by large numbers of interacting genes, and different combinations seem to underlie specific abilities.

44. Genes are not the whole story, however. IQ correlations for identical twins raised together are slightly higher than those for identical twins raised apart.This rule out an entirely genetic explanation.Environment seems to account for 30 to 50 percent of IQ variation among people. Both shared and unshared environmental factors are involved.The importance of the home environment is also shown in studies of children who are removed from deprived environment and placed in middle or upper class adaptive homes.

45. When deprived children remain in their impoverished environments, either they show no improvement in IQ or they actually deteriorate intellectually over time.Scores in general intelligence correlate around .40 with the socioeconomic status of the family in which a child is reared.Flynn effect more likely they are due to better and longer schooling over the past century, more complex and stimulating environments provided by better educated parents, technological advances( even television and video games), and better nutrition.

46. Flynn effect

47. As we might expect, educational experiences can have a significant positive impact on intelligence .Many studies have shown that school attendance can raise IQ and lack of attendance can lower scores.It appears that the opportunity to practice mental skills like those assessed on cognitive tests is important in solidifying mental skills. Research on intelligence has had a strong impact on educational curricula and much has been learned about what, when and how to teach.

48. School related gains in intelligence are most likely to be observed under the following conditions(Mayer, 2000; Nisbett,2009)Rather than “teaching to” general mental ability , help students learn the specific cognitive skills and problem solving approaches that underlie success in particular subjects.Replace the traditional emphasis on repetition and rote learning of facts with instruction in how to learn, critically think about, and apply course content. In this approach, teachers function as “ mental coaches.”

49. Rather than waiting until low- level skills have been mastered before teaching learning tools such as memory-enhancement strategies , apply this ”learning to learn” approach from the very beginning so that the skills are applied to even the most basic course content.

50. Because of many genetic and environmental influences on the intelligence there are people at both the ends of distributions. at the upper end are the “Intellectually gifted” at the low end “ mentally retarded”Intellectually gifted people whose IQ is 130 or higher place them in the top 10 % of the population.Even people having IQ above 150 large discrepancies are often found between verbal and spatial-mathematical skills.Extremes of intelligence

51. Joseph Renzulli (2002) has studies this rare group and believed that their success is product of three interacting factors-i. Highly developed mental ability- not only general intelligence but also specific mental abilities related to one’s chosen field.Thus Einstein was blessed with unusual mathematical an spatial skills(but not exceptional verbal skill)Ii. The second factor is the ability to engage in creative problems solving- that is to come up with novel and unconventional ideas., to judge their potential value, and to apply them to challenging problems.What distinguishes the thought processes of the gifted?

52. Iii. Motivation and dedication- eminence involves a great deal of elbow grease and a determination to attain the highest levels of performance.Intellectually gifted children often need special educational abilities.They may be come bored in regular classrooms and even drop out of school if they are sufficiently challenged.

53. About 3-5% of U.S population or about 10 Million people are classified as having mental retardation or cognitive disability.Mental retardation

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55. i. Genetic abnormalities account for about 28% of all mental retardation cases. Down syndrome- which is characterized by mild to severe mental retardation, is caused by an abnormal division of the 21 chromosome pair.Cases of profound retardation are more likely to be caused by genetic accident instead of an inherited genotype.Causes of cognitive disabilty

56. Mental retardation can also be caused by accidents at birth, such as severe oxygen deprivation(Anoxia).And by the disease experienced by the mother during pregnancy such as rubella or syphilis.Drug and alcohol taken by the mother especially in the first week of the pregnancy can cause neural damage and mental retardation.

57. The most controversial debate. That ethnic and social –class group differences exist.It has inspired stereotypes about certain groups and influence the self-image of group members.Ethnic group differences-In the year 1969 an article by Arthur Jenson in Harvard Educational Review claimed that the heritability of intelligence is substantial, genetic differences are “strongly implicated” in ethnic group differences in intelligence.Group differences in intelligence

58. A quarter century later in New york times best seller title “ the Bell Curve” claimed also that ethnic groups that lag behind in genetically influenced mental competencies.National comparison indicates that Japanese children have the highest mean IQ in the world (Hunt, 1995).Their mean score of 111 places 77% of Japanese children above the mean scores of U.S and European children.Within United States , significant ethnic differences also exist.African Americans, score on average about 12 to 15 IQ points below the white American average.

59. .Social psychologists have expressed concerns that these tests underestimate the mental competence of minority group members because the tests are biased on Euro-American White Culture and therefore are culturally biased.Test bias can actually take 2 forms i. Outcome bias-ii. Predictive bias-Where do these differences come from ?are the tests biased?

60. Outcome bias refers to the extent that a test underestimates a person’s true intellectual ability.Predictive bias occurs if the test successfully predicts measures , such as school or job performance, for some groups but not for others.What tests developers are saying to defend their tests-i. they point out that ethnic group differences appears throughout intelligence tests, not just on those items that would, at face value, appear to be culturally biased.

61. Ii. They also point out that intelligence test scores predict the performance of minority group members as accurately as they predict White people’s performance.For example- even though African American as a group score lower than White Americans, the test predicts academic and occupational performance with equal accuracy for both racial groups, indicating that they are measuring relevant mental skills.

62. The nature-nurture debate.Difference between white Americans and black Americans.Differences exist because white Americans are raised and schooled in enriched environments that optimize the development of cognitive skills.Social changes over the past 25 years have provided African Americans with grater access to educational and vocational opportunities and have coincided with an increase in African American IQs.What factors underlie the differences?

63. The gap of IQ divisions are also believed to be decreased due to nutritional factors to educational opportunities.(Grigorenko, 2003; Nisbett,1998)Meredith Phillips and co-workers (1998) analysed that wide range of family environment factors in relation to intellectual differences between 5 and 6 year old African American and White children.They concluded that family environment factors alone could account for about two-thirds of the test score gap.Henry Goddard (1917) study on Italian American.Cultural assimilation and educational and economic opportunities seem much more reasonable explanations for this pronounced increase in test scores.

64. Recent researches suggest that white and blacks differ in their explanation for individual differences in mental skills?According to recent study 600 blacks and 600 whites students , when they were asked 3 questions i.e., how important three factors were in intelligence and mathematical aptitude:Genetic factorEnvironmental factorPersonal factor and personal choiceAnother factor tendency

65. Men and women differ in physical attributes and reproductive functions.They also differ in their performance on certain types of intellectual tasks.The gender difference lie not in levels of general intelligence but rather in the patterns of cognitive skills that men and women exhibit.Men are more accurate in target directed skills , such as throwing and catching objects and they tend to perform slightly better on tests of mathematical reasoning.Sex differences in cognitive abilities:

66. Women on average , perform better on tests of perceptual speed, verbal fluency and mathematical calculation and o precise manual tasks requiring fine motor coordination.

67. Psychologists have proposed explanation for these gender differences, citing both biological and environmental factors.The environmental explanation typically focus on the socialization experiences that male and female have as they grow up .Prior to early 1980s, boys were far more likely than girls to play sports that involve throwing and catching balls. Which might account for general superiority in this ability.Explanation for these gender differences?

68. Evolutionary theorists have also weighed in on the differences, suggesting that sex role specialization developed in ancestral environments.Men roles, such as navigating and hunting, favoured the development of visuospatial abilities that show up in sex-difference research.Women’s role such as child rearing and tool-making activities, favored the development of verbal and manual precision abilities.

69. Biological explanation increasingly focused on the effects of hormones on the developing brain.These influences begin during a critical period shortly after conception, when the sex hormones establish sexual differentiation. Hormones alter brain organization and appear to extend t a variety of behavioural differences between men and women, including aggression and problem solving.Biological explanation

70. Several studies have shown that fluctuations in women’s menstrual cycle are related to fluctuations in task performance.When women have high levels of the female hormones estrogen, they perform better on some of the “feminine ability” measures while showing decline in performance on some of the “male ability” measures.Testosterone levels are related to performance on “male” tasks .

71. Our beliefs about others’ capabilities can affect how we respond to them.Self –belief- our own self-beliefs tell us who we are and what we can cannot do.Our self concept is based on numerous experiences that convey to us who , we are, how valued we are and what we are capable of achieving in our lives.Our self concept can also be influenced by our membership in racial and gender groups.If certain stereotypes are widely associated with these groups, we may incorporate them in to our self concept.Beliefs, expectations and cognitive performance

72. Once accepted ,these beliefs may push us to behave in a way that is consistent with our self-concept.Stereotype threat- beliefs also influence group behaviours. Group members can experience stereotype threat if they believe that certain behaviours on their part would confirm a negative stereotype in the minds of others.

73. Claude steele (1997) and Judson (1995) study.

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75. Creativity is the ability to come up with new and novel way to solve a problem.Creative scientists think about their own discoveries and those of others, inventing new ways of studying nature and new theories to tie the discoveries together.Unlike ordinary solutions to problems, creative solutions are solutions that other people have not thought of before.The product of creative thinking may be a new and unique ways of conceptualizing the world around us. The emphasis in creative thinking is on the word NEW.Creativity and intelligence

76. Generally the creative ideas just “bubble up” into awareness or consciousness, in seemingly spontaneous manner.The sudden appearance of new ideas is called INSIGHT.Stages of creativity5 stages of creativity1. Preparation- in this stage thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials considered necessary for the new solution.

77. 2. Incubation-during this period ,some of the ideas that were interfering with the solution tend to fade. in addition , the creative thinker may have experiences that proves clues to the solution.3.Illumination- occurs with its “AHA! Insight experience; an idea for the solution suddenly wells up n consciousness.4. Evaluation- the apperent solution is tested to see if it is satisfactorily solves the problem or not.In other cases insight is generally satisfactory but needs some modification or the solution of minor problem to be really “good” new idea.

78. 5. Revision- revision is the last stage of creativity for checking the outcome is suitable for the required solution or not.

79. Guilford (1967) developed a battery of tests to assess creativity and came out with the concept of “convergent thinking” and “divergent thinking”Convergent thinking- this is concerned with a particular end result. The thinker gathers information relevant to the problem and then proceeds , by using problem solving rules, to work out the right solution. Convergent thinking is not the type of thinking people primarily use when they think creatively.Nature of creative thinker

80. Divergent thinking- is the variety of thoughts involved. When thinking creatively, people tend to think in a divergent manner, thus have having varied thoughts about a problem. divergen.t thinking includes ‘autistic thinking”.Most of the time creative thinker has some personal meaning for symbols that they use to solve anyproblem.

81. i. They prefer complexity and some degree of apparent imbalance in phenomena.They are more complex psychodynamic ally and have greater personal scope.They are more independent in their judgements.1v. They are more self-assertive and dominant.V. they reject suppression as a mechanism for the control of impulseCharacteristics of the creative thinker

82. A personality dimension called origence has been shown to be related to creativity.A person high on this dimension “resists conventional approaches that have been determined by others and would rather” do his own thing. Such a person is “more interested in artistic, literary, and aesthetic matters that do not have a “correct “ answer agreed upon by consensus and that allow a more individualized interpretation and expression”