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ShortCommunicationExposuretoladmagazinesanddriveformuscularityindatingandnon-datingyoungmenDavidC.Giles,JessicaCloseDepartmentofPsychology,FacultyofSocialSciences,UniversityofWinchester,WestHill,WinchesterSO224NR,UKDepartmentofPsychology,FacultyofHealthandLifeSciences,CoventryUniversity,PrioryStreet,CoventryCV13FB,UK Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+447950968668.E-mailaddress:(D.C.Giles).www.elsevier.com/locate/paid Available online at www.sciencedirect.com PersonalityandIndividualDierences44(2008)1610 1616 1.IntroductionForseveralyearsnow,researchhasdemonstratedthatmalebodyimageis,likefemalebodyimage,vulnerabletotheinuenceofthemedia(Labre,2002;McCabe&Ricciardelli,2004;Tig-gemann,2005).Experimentalstudieshavefoundthatasingleexposuretomuscularandathleticmalebodiescanproducebodydissatisfactioninmales(Agliata&Tantle-Dunn,2004;Leit,Gray,&Pope,2002).Also,exposuretocertaintypesofmale-orientedmediahasbeenassociatedwithhigherdriveformuscularity(Vartanian,Giant,&Passino,2001Inrecentdecades,Westernculturalstandardshavemovedinthedirectionofamuscularidealforthemalebody(Leitetal.,2002;Pope,Olivardia,Gruber,&Borowiecki,1999).Atthesametimetherehasbeenincreasingobjecticationofthemalebody,particularlyinadvertising(linger,2002),andmarketingofcosmeticproductsforenhancingmaleappearance(Aubrey,2006PreoccupationwithenhancingmusculaturehasbeencoinedthedriveformuscularityMcCreary&Sasse,2000),andhasbeenlinkedspecicallytomediaimagery(Labre,2002;Vart-anianetal.,2001).Controlledpresentationofmuscularstimuliinbriefexposurestomaleexper-imentalparticipantshasbeenfoundtoproducebodydissatisfaction,andevenincreaseddepression(Agliata&Tantle-Dunn,2004;thoughseeJohnson,McCreary,&Miles,2007,foracounter-example).Thepresentstudysoughttoexaminetheinuenceonbodydissatisfactionanddriveformus-cularityofarelativelynewgenreofmedia,variouslydescribedasmenslifestylemagazinesladmagazines,ormorebroadly,ladmediaAubrey,2006).IntheUK,titlessuchaswerelaunchedintheearly1990s,andbytheendofthedecade,similartitles(suchas)hadappearedintheAmericanmarket.Thesemagazinesareaimedatyoungermalereadersthantraditionalmensmagazinessuchas,andhaveamoreexplicitcoverageofsexualthemes,leadingWal-Marttobantheirsalein2003(Taylor,2005Ladmediaingeneralhavebeenassociatedwithhigherbodysurveillance,andthisisinturnassociatedwiththeinternalizationofsocioculturalattitudestowardsappearance().Itwasthereforehypothesizedinthepresentstudythattheuseof,orexposureto,ladmag-azineswouldbeassociatedwithhigherdriveformuscularity,andthatthisassociationwouldbemediatedbytheinternalizationofsocioculturalattitudestowardsappearance.Twonotablefeaturesofladmagazinesaretheirfocusontheimportanceofheterosexualsuccessformen,andtheirderogationofbodytypesthatdiversifyfromthemuscularideal(Aubrey,2006;Taylor,2005).Arecentstudyfoundthatperceivedmuscularinadequacywasassociatedwithlackofsexualactivityinadultmales(Filiaut,2007).Followingfromthis,anexploratorygoalofthepresentstudywastoconsidertherolethatdatingrelationshipsmightplayinmoderatingtheasso-ciationbetweenladmagazinesanddriveformuscularity.2.Method2.1.ParticipantsandprocedureParticipantswere161malesbetweentheagesof18and36,withameanageof22.17(SD=3.45),whowereaskedtoindicate,followingcriteriadenedbySheetsandAjmereD.C.Giles,J.Close/PersonalityandIndividualDierences44(2008)1610 1616 ,whethertheircurrentromanticrelationshipstatuswasexclusive=71),casual=28),orwhethertheywerenot-dating=62).Inordertomaximizestatisticalpower,itwasdecidedtocombinecasualandexclusivedatingparticipantsintoonegroupforanalytic2.2.Measures2.2.1.LadmagazineexposureAmagazineexposurescale(MES)wasdevelopedforthisstudylooselybasedonasimilarmea-sureemployedbyMorryandStaska(2001).Respondentswereaskedtoindicate,onasix-pointscalefromve(always)to0(never),howfrequentlytheyreadeachofthesetitles(2.2.2.SocioculturalattitudestowardsappearanceThiswasmeasuredbythe21-itemSocioculturalAttitudesTowardsAppearanceQuestionnaire Revised:MaleVersion(SATAQ-M)(Heinberg,Thompson,&Stormer1995).TheSATAQcon-sistsoftwosubscales:Internalization,whichmeasuresthedegreetowhichrespondentshaveper-sonallyinternalisedtheprevalentattitudesofthemediatowardsthin(female)ormuscular(male)bodyshapes;andAwareness,whichmeasurestheiracceptanceofthesestandardsasgeneralisedsocialnorms.Bothsubscalesshowedgoodreliability(=.92forInternalizationand.87for2.2.3.DriveformuscularityThiswasmeasuredusingthe15-itemDriveforMuscularityScale(DMS)ofMcCrearyandSasse(2000).Recentliteraturebythescaleauthors(McCreary,Sasse,Saucier,&Dorsch,2004hasidentiedatwo-factorstructure attitudinalandbehavioural formalerespondents,andthiswasreplicatedinthepresentsample.Theresultingsubscalesweresubsequentlyenteredintotheanalysisandarehenceforthreferredtoasattitude(DMS-A)andbehaviour(DMS-B).Reliabilitiesforbothsubscaleswerefoundtobegood(respective=.90and.89).3.Results3.1.RelationshipsbetweenstudymeasuresThecorrelationsbetweenthestudymeasuresforthewholesamplearedisplayedinTable1.Ageisincludedinthetablebecauseitwasshowntodierentiatethethreedatingstatusgroups;itshowedonlysmall,mostlynegative,thoughnonsignicantcorrelationswiththestudymeasures.Allotherrelationshipsinthetablewerepositive,andallbutonereachedsignicanceat.05.3.2.MediationanalysesAseriesofregressionanalyseswasconductedinordertotestthehypothesisthatInternalization(ofsocioculturalattitudestoappearance)mediatestherelationshipsbetweenmagazineexposureD.C.Giles,J.Close/PersonalityandIndividualDierences44(2008)1610 1616 anddriveformuscularity,andbetweenmagazineexposureandeatingdisturbance.AsummaryoftherelevantstatisticalvaluesisdisplayedinTable2BaronandKenny(1986)procedureformedi-ationanalysiswasfollowed,inwhichthefollowingthreeconditionsneedtobemet:(1)Thepre-dictorvariable(mediaexposure)shouldsignicantlypredictboththeoutcomeandthemediator(Internalization);(2)Thepathfrommediatortooutcomeneedstobesignicantwhencontrollingforthepredictor;and(3)Thepathfrompredictortooutcomevariableneedstobesignicantlyreducedwhencontrollingforthemediator.3.2.1.Driveformuscularity(Attitude)asoutcomemeasureMediaexposurewasfoundtosignicantlypredictAttitude(=.17,=.04)andInternaliza-tion(=.31,.001).AmultipleregressionanalysiswasconductedusingAttitudeastheout-comemeasure,andwithmediaexposureandInternalizationenteredsimultaneouslyaspredictors.Theoverallregressionequationwassignicant,adjusted=.28,.001,andthepathfromInternalizationtoAttitudewassignicant,=.54,.001.TheinclusionofInternal- Table1CorrelationsamongstudymeasuresInternalizationAwarenessLadmagazinesAttitudeBehaviourInternalization.58Awareness.09.47Ladmagazines.05..01. Table2Correlations,partialcorrelations,andsignicancevaluesformediationvariablesPATHUnstandardizedregressioncoecient(error(Standardizedregressioncoecient(MES-Internalization.30.07.314.15Intern-DSM-A.46.06.548.04Intern-DSM-B.39.05.517.39MES-DSM-A.14.06.172.13MES-DSM-A(partial).06MES-DSM-B.28.06.375.00MES-DSM-B(partial).18.05Figuresinboldrepresentsignicantlyreducedpredictor-outcomepaths(.001)fromthemediationanalyses.Key:DSM-A=DriveforMuscularity(Attitude);DSM-B=DriveforMuscularity(Behaviour);MES=Magazineexposurescale..05..01.D.C.Giles,J.Close/PersonalityandIndividualDierences44(2008)1610 1616 izationinthemodelreducedthepathfrommediaexposuretoAttitudetononsignicance=.17,=.04;=.002,=.98).ThereforeitcanbesaidthatInternalizationfullymediatestherelationshipbetweenladmagazineexposureanddriveformuscularity(Attitude).3.2.2.Driveformuscularity(behaviour)astheoutcomemeasureMediaexposurewasfoundtosignicantlypredictBehaviour(=.37,.001)andInternali-zationandmediaexposure(=.31,.001).AmultipleregressionanalysiswasconductedusingBehaviourastheoutcomemeasureandwithmediaexposureandInternalizationenteredsimulta-neouslyaspredictors.Theoverallregressionequationwassignicant,adjusted=.30,.001,andthepathfromInternalizationtoBehaviourwassignicant,=.43,.001.TheinclusionofInternalizationinthemodelreducedthepathfrommediaexposuretoBehaviourfrom=.37,.001to=.23,=.002.ThisreductionwasfoundtobesignicantusingSobel(1982)=3.63,.001,soitcanbesaidthatInternalizationpartiallymediatestherelationshipbetweenladmagazineexposureanddriveformuscularity(Behaviour).3.3.RelationshipbetweendatingstatusandothermeasuresThehypothesisthatdatingstatuswouldmoderatetherelationshipsbetweenladmagazineexposureanddriveformuscularity,andbetweenladmagazineexposureandeatingdisturbance,wastestedbyrunningcorrelationanalysesfordatingandnon-datingparticipants,respectively.Fornon-daters(=62),thecorrelationbetweenmediaexposureandBehaviourwas=.50.001).Fordaters(=99),thesamecorrelationwasconsiderablyweaker,at=.26=.04).UsingFisherstransformation,thisdierencewasfoundtobesignicant,=1.65,=.045.AsimilarpatternwasobservedfortherelationshipbetweenmediaexposureandAttitude,whichwasstrongerfornon-daters,=.21(=.11)thanfordaters,=.11(=.4),thoughneitherstatisticreachedsignicance,norwasthedierencebetweenthecoecientsfoundtoreachsignicance,=.58,=.3.4.DiscussionThemainaimofthisstudywastoexaminetherelationshipbetweenexposuretoladmaga-andthedriveformuscularity,alongwithothervariablesrelatingtocognitionsaboutappearanceinasampleofyoungadultmales.Italsoconsideredtheimpactofdatingstatusonthesevariables.Itwashypothesizedthatladmagazineexposurewouldbeassociatedwithhighdriveformuscularity,andthatthisassociationwouldbemediatedbytheinternalizationofsocio-culturalattitudestoappearanceconsistentwiththoseprevalentinthemedia.Thedataprovidesomesupportforthishypothesis.Amoretentativestudypredictionwasthattheassociationbe-tweenladmagazineuseanddriveformuscularitywouldbestrongeramongnon-datingmalesthanmalesreportedlyinvarioustypesofdatingrelationships,andthiswasfoundtobethecase.Amajoromissionfromthepresentstudyisinformationonsexualorientation,althoughthemeasuresusedwerenotgender-specic,andthereisnospecicreasontoanticipatedierencesonanyofthemeasuresbetweenhomosexualandheterosexualmen(seeDuggan&McCreary,D.C.Giles,J.Close/PersonalityandIndividualDierences44(2008)1610 1616 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