A chemical compound such as protein fat carbohydrate vitamins or minerals that make up foods These compounds are used by the body to function and grow Nutrient can be classified as ID: 780066
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Slide1
NUTRIENT INTERACTION
Slide2Nutrient
A chemical compound (such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins, or minerals) that make up foods. These compounds are used by the body to function and grow.
Nutrient can be classified as
Macronutrients
There are three macronutrients defined as being the classes of chemical compounds humans consume in the largest quantities and which provide bulk energy .These are organic nutrients like PROTEIN, FAT and CARBOHYDRATES.
Micronutrients
These are inorganic nutrients such as minerals and vitamins which are required by body in very small quantities.
Nutrient Interaction
It can be defined as the physical chemical interaction between nutrients, or between nutrients and other components of the diet or other compounds, including desirable or undesirable results.
Slide3Carbohydrate –carbohydrate interaction
Carbohydrates are important nutrient which provide energy to our body .It is an organic compound made up by carbon ,hydrogen and oxygen.
Inter- relation between Fructose and Sucrose
When fructose is ingested as a part of the dissaccharide sucrose ,absorption capacity is much higher because fructose exists in a 1 : 1 ratio with glucose.
In addition ,serum galactose levels following galactose ingestion are reduced when accompanied by glucose.
Inter –relation between Carbohydrate – Fiber
FIBER is a type of polysaccharides which found in plants and it gives structure to plants.
There is a 2 type of fibers like soluble and insoluble fiber.
Soluble fiber such as pectin etc mixes with water to form gummy substances that coats the insides of the intestinal tract
Slide4During digestion, wave-like currents caused by contractions of the intestinal muscles bring nutrients to the surface of the intestinal wall for absorption. After soluble fiber dissolves in water, however, it traps nutrients inside its gummy gel and slows down considerably while moving through the digestive tract. Inside the gel, nutrients are shielded from digestive enzymes and less likely to reach the wall of the intestines.
Dietary sugars like carbohydrates and starch are among the nutrients trapped inside this gel. Consequently, sugar is absorbed into the bloodstream more slowly, blunting the sharp spike in blood glucose typically experienced by diabetic patients after a meal. Fewer spikes in blood glucose lead to greater sensitivity to the action of insulin. Avoiding high peaks and low valleys in blood glucose places less stress on the pancreas and is important not only to diabetics but also to those who want to prevent the development of type 2 diabetes
Glycemic Index
The
glycemic index
is a measure of the effects of carbohydrates in food on blood sugar levels. It estimates how much each gram of available carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus fiber) in a food raises a person's blood glucose level following consumption of the food, relative to consumption of glucose.
Plasma glucose level rise 5-45 min after any meal that contains sugars or digestible starch and return to fasting levels 2-hours
later.White
bread has a
glycemic
index of 100 and other foods have a lower
glycemic
index.
Foods with a high
glycemic
index, such as processed starches and the sugar in soft drinks, break down into glucose and enter the bloodstream relatively quickly.
Unrefined, complex carbohydrates, on the other hand, have a low
glycemic
index and digest more slowly. Diabetic patients should consume food with a low
glycemic
index because rapid increases in blood glucose exacerbate overproduction of insulin by the pancreas and insulin resistance.
The
glycemic
index depends on:
1.Composition and size of starch particles
Smaller the particle size more is the
glycemic
effect .Raw foods with large particles therefore have a lower effect on
glycemic
index.
2.Their digestibility
Presence of
amylopectin
that gets rapidly digested also has a greater
glycemic
effect whereas the amount of
amylose
which is digested slowly has low
gycemic
index.
3.Cooking methods employed
Foods cooked by boiling and long cooking process makes it easy to digest and reduces the particle size thus increasing the
glycemic
index.
Slide7Carbohydrate –Protein Inter-relations
1.
Carbohydrate and Hormones
Glucagon
, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, raises blood glucose levels. Its effect is opposite that of insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels.
The pancreas releases glucagon when
blood sugar
(glucose) levels fall too low. Glucagon causes the
liver
to convert stored
glycogen
into
glucose
, which is released into the bloodstream and also from non CHO substances like amino acids etc.
High blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin. Insulin allows glucose to be taken up and used by insulin-dependent tissues.
Thus, glucagon and insulin are part of a feedback system that keeps blood glucose levels at a stable level.
So, Glucagon is responsible for
gluconeogenesis
and
glycogenolysis
.
Slide8Cortisol
It is a hormone produced by adrenal gland .
Its function is to increase blood sugar through
gluconeogenesis
; suppress the immune system; and aid in fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism so , it is an overall catabolic hormone ,which decreases lean body mass and muscle mass and may increase energy expenditure.
Cortisol
withdrawal increase insulin sensitivity
interms
of increased glucose oxidation and decrease glucose production . This may include hypoglycemia in
adrenocortical
failure.
2.Protein sparing action
During fasting or starvation or insufficient carbohydrates and fats for fuel ,body stores of glycogen are
exhausted.Body
adapts to use of muscle protein to meet most of the need of glucose production ,mainly needed for brain , RBCs etc, and this is done by
gluconeogenesis
.
But to use protein instead of carbohydrates to give energy is not a wise contribution as the urinary nitrogen excretion increases during starvation.
If
carbohydreates
are sufficient, then protein can be spared of tissue building process
.
Slide93.Glucose and
Alanine
Alanine
plays a key role in glucose–
alanine
cycle between tissues and liver. In muscle and other tissues that degrade amino acids for fuel, amino groups are collected in the form of
glutamate
by
transamination
. Glutamate can then transfer its amino group through the action of
alanine
aminotransferase
to
pyruvate
forming
alanine
and α-
ketoglutarate
. The
alanine
formed is passed into the blood and transported to the liver.
A reverse of the
alanine
aminotransferase
reaction takes place in liver.
Pyruvate
regenerated forms glucose through
gluconeogenesis
, which returns to muscle through the circulation system. Glutamate in the liver enters
mitochondria
and degrades into
ammonium ion
through the action of
glutamate
dehydrogenase
, which in turn participate in the
urea cycle
to form
urea
.
The glucose–
alanine
cycle enables
pyruvate
and glutamate to be removed from the muscle and find their way to the liver. Glucose is regenerated from
pyruvate
and then returned to muscle: the energetic burden of
gluconeogenesis
is thus imposed on the liver instead of the muscle. All available
ATP
in muscle is devoted to muscle contraction
Slide10Slide114.Fiber and
Trypsin
Fiber i.e. cellulose has also been shown to reduce the
actvitiy
of human pancreatic
trypsin
in protein
digestion.This
is shown as slightly increased
faecal
loses of nitrogen on increased fiber diet . In addition amylase and lipase activity is also depressed.
5.
Maillard
reaction
When a reducing sugar is heated with protein , a
maillard
reaction occurs that reduces the availability of some amino acids , like lysine. The monosaccharide in intestinal lumen may influence rate of uptake of certain amino acids ,fructose seeming to accelerate this reaction e.g.
During milk processing or heat treatment ,milk sugar lactose react with free side chains of lysine residues to render it unavailable .
Under sever heating
conditions,in
presence of sugar ,food protein becomes resistant to digestion so that availability of amino acid is reduced.
Slide126.Enzymes and carbohydrate hydrolysis
When enzymes concerned with hydrolysis of carbohydrate are missing or inadequate, common symptom is osmotic diarrhea .This condition may arise because of congenital absence of appropriate enzyme required for digestion of lactose ,sucrose or maltose.
Inadequancies
of these enzyme may also be secondary to gut mucosal damage due to such condition as celiac
disoder
or protein deficiency.
7. Glucose and tryptophan
Amino acid uptake across the blood brain
barrrier
is influenced indirectly by serum glucose in that the insulin concentration is directly related to movement of tryptophan into brain.
The disorders fructose
malabsorption
and lactose intolerance cause improper absorption of tryptophan in the intestine, reduced levels of tryptophan in the blood
and depression.
8.Glucosamine and Collagen
Glucosamine (an amino monosaccharide found in chitin ,
glycoproteins
and
glycosaminoglycans
such as
hyaluronic
acid and heparin sulfate) provides the primary substrate for both collagen and
proteoglycan
synthesis.
Slide139.Genetic errors
Genetic errors may also occur in conversion of fructose and
galactose
.Absence of enzyme
fructokinase
in liver prevents fructose breakdown and is excreted in urine i.e.
fructosuria
.
Diminished activity of fructose -1-phosphate
aldose
in liver results in hypoglycemia and
hypophosphatemia
with associated vomiting.
Clinical forms of
glactosemia
occur as inborn errors of metabolism and result of enzyme
deficincies
.Deficient enzyme is galactokinase in which galactose is not phosphorylated.This may lead to cataract in otherwise normal subject .Also glucose-6-phosphate dehdrogenase deficiency result in inability to maintain glutathione in reduced form during exposure to drugs such as sulfonamides or some antimalarials ,leading to haemolysis or anemia.
Slide14Carbohydrate – Fat Inter-relation
1.Conversion into fat
Glucose is a six-carbon sugar molecule and body first converts this molecule into two three-carbon
pyruvate
molecules through the process of
glycolysis
and then into acetyl
CoA
. When body requires immediate energy, acetyl
CoA
enters the Citric Acid Cycle creating energy molecules in the form of ATP. But when glucose intake exceeds then acetyl
CoA
begins the process of fatty acid synthesis becoming triglycerides that are stored in the fat tissues of body. These triglycerides are stored energy molecules which can be broken down later to give energy when need , for example, get up off the couch and go for a bike ride.
Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
Fatty acid synthesis is influenced by foods which we eat and hormones we release. When blood glucose levels are high, such as after eating a sugary meal, body releases insulin. Insulin stimulates the formation of Fatty Acid
Synthase
, an enzyme that increases fat storage.
Slide15On the other hand, polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease the formation of the Fatty Acid
Synthase
enzyme, implying that eating foods containing polyunsaturated fats may not lead to as much increased fat storage as eating sugary foods. In addition, when fat cells increase their fat storage, a molecule called
leptin
is produced.
Leptin
leads to decreased food intake, increased energy expenditure, as well as inhibition of fatty acid synthesis.
Slide16Slide172.Prevent ketosis
The primary function of CHO is to provide energy .However during low CHO intake ,fats are mobilized to meet the energy requirement of body . This result in increased plasma free fatty acids and
ketone
bodies .Hence, sufficient amount of CHO spares fats from being broken down
.
3.Chitin and Cholesterol
Chitin (a polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of some invertebrates e.g. Insects ,crustaceans0 and
chitosan
, have
hypocholestrolemic
effect . The strong positive charge on
chitosan
binds negatively charged lipids blocking their absorption
.
4.Fiber and Lipid
Serum lipid concentration can be modified by insoluble fibers such as cellulose ,
lignin,chitin
and more soluble fibers because
Fibers bind
faecal
bile acid and increases excretion of bile acid-derived cholesterol.
Fiber prevents dietary fat and cholesterol absorption by binding bile acids or fats and lipids.
Slide18Fermentable oligosaccharides and dietary fiber are converted by intestinal bacteria to short chain fatty acids, which lower blood lipids by mechanisms that are currently unclear.
So Fiber decreases the absorption of dietary cholesterol from the intestine.
Further ,fiber binds with bile salts and reduces their
enterohepatic
circulation.This
cause increased degradation of cholesterol to bile salts and its disposal from the body.
Carbohydrate-Mineral inter-relations
Carbohydrate and Zinc
Highe
fiber diet is associated with zinc deficiency .Zinc absorption may be enhanced by glucose and lactose intake
.
Slide19Carbohydrate and Calcium
It is seen that lactose improves the absorption of calcium from the gut . Even in adults with lactose intolerance ,lactose probably improves Ca absorption. Sugars and organic acids produced by microbial fermentation of sugars in the gut increases the solubility of calcium salts and increases their absorption .
Fiber may decrease calcium absorption ,this process occurs if calcium intake is more than 30gm per day.
3. Carbohydrate and Iron
Wheat bran includes low serum iron levels as they contains
phytate
which inhibits iron absorption . In this regard iron absorption from unpolished rice is significantly worse then from polished rice.
Slide204.Phosphorus and Carbohydrates
Phosphorus plays an essential part in carbohydrate metabolism in
phoshoryalation
of
glycogen.Phosphorus
is an essential constituent of coenzyme I and co-
carboxylase
enzyme system in the oxidation of carbohydrate , fat and protein.
.
5.Copper and Fiber
Dietary fiber do not inhibits copper absorption.
6.Chromium and Carbohydrates
The high sugar diet enhanced urinary chromium losses
7.Magnesium and carbohydrates
Magnesium deficiency has been linked to insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome because
magnisium
is required for CHO metabolism.
Increased intakes of dietary fiber have been reported to decrease magnesium utilization in humans presumably by decreasing absorption.
Slide21Vitamin- Carbohydrates inter-relations
Vitamin –C and Carbohydrate
Vitamin –
C has been found to affect the regulating CHO metabolism either at the level of rate of absorption of CHO from intestine ,or of glycogen level alteration of liver and other tissues . It has been found that in scorbutic animals ,there is a diminution of glutathione levels with simultaneously depression in insulin secretion. This is due to the reason as there is an increase in
dehydro
ascorbic level in tissues which may combine with
sulfydral
groups of glutathione making it unavailable for the protective role in beta cells of pancreas and causes diminished insulin secretion.
Slide22There is a severe depression in
hexokinase
activity and in the turnover rate of
phosphorylated
intermediates of CHO metabolism in scorbutic conditions.
A depression in
phosphoglucomutase
and
phosphohexoseisomerase
activity with stimulation in glucose -6-phosphate
dehydrogenase
activity were
noted
.
The
depression in glycogen synthesis in scurvy was mostly due to the limiting availability of
uridine
triphosphate
and the diminished activities of
hexokinase
and
phosphoglucomutase
under vitamin-C deprivation . In scorbutic conditions, there is also a depression in the TCA cycle and electron transport chain
whee
V-C act as electron acceptor and its function is highly specific.
Slide232.Biotin and Carbohydrate
Replacing glucose in the diet with other carbohydrates of low molecular weight like
sorbitol
and fructose elevates the severity of biotin
deficiency.Since
glucose utilization is impaired ,it is likely that provision of other CHO, improves the energy supply.
Slide24LIPID-LIPID INTER-RELATIONSHIPS
Lipids may be regarded as organic substances relatively insoluble in water ,soluble in organic solvents (
alcohol,ether
etc ) ,actually or potentially related to fatty acids and utilized by the living cells.
Lipids are the concentrated form of energy.
Lipid
lipid
interaction is that in which TRANS FATTY acids inhibit the
desaturation
and elongation of
linoleic
acid and alpha –
linolenic
acid to form long chain essential fatty acids .
Trans fatty acid -----
Linoleic
acid --------- alpha –
linolenic
acid----
Essential fatty acid
Trans fatty acids
The food industry incorporates fats and oils into margarines ,
biscuits,cake,chocolates
and other manufactures
products.Food
manufactures use fats and oils that have been
Slide25altered by the process of
hydrogenation,i.e
. adding hydrogen
atoms to the double bonds in monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids in order to increase the degree of saturation of fatty acids in the oils.
Hydrogenation changes the configuration of some monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Cis
fatty acids have two hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon on the same side of the double bond and molecule bends at the double
bond.In
trans fatty acids , the hydrogen atoms are placed on the opposite sides of the double bond and the molecule stays straight at the double bond.
Trans fatty acids behave biologically as saturated fats rather than like
cis
unsaturated fatty acids .The bulk of trans fatty acids in hydrogenated fats are monounsaturated fatty acid –
Eladic
acid which is trans equivalent to oleic acid.
Slide26Most of the dietary intake of fatty acids is derived from margarine ,
dalda
and other foods manufactures from hydrogenated fats.
Saturated and short chain fatty acids
Stearic
acid is a saturated fatty acid with no double bond .
It lowers the HDL but does not raise serum cholesterol reducing both total and saturated fat.
Short chain fatty acids are organic
anoins
predominantly acetate , butyrate and propionate. In the
caecum
, these exist in the production of 70%, 20% and 10% respectively.
Short chain fatty acids are produced by the colonic bacteria from unabsorbed
carbohygrates
. They are utilized as a source of energy by large intestine and stimulate its mucosal growth . The fatty acids hydrolyzed from short chain fatty acids are transported to the liver as free acids via the portal vein. They enter the mitochondria of the liver cells and are
oxidised
rapidly.
Short chain fatty acids Carbohydrates Large intestine
Protein- Lipids inter- relationships
Starvation Conditions
If
gluconeogenesis
were to
contiue
at accelerated rate during early starvation ,skeletal muscles would soon be exhausted. An adaptation in lipid metabolism occurs in long term starvation so that
ketone
bodies (
acetoacetate
, beta
hydroxybutyrate
) are formed.
Ketone
bodies cross blood barrier to provide energy to brain and thereby spare body protein from degradation .Production and utilization of these
ketone
bodies result in reduction in protein degradation and oxidation of amino acids . These adaptations help conserve both energy and amino acids and is reflected in output of nitrogen in urine , which is decreased from 12gms in early starvation to 3gms nitrogen per day by several weeks of starvation .
Slide28When body fats stores are exhausted , body protein is again mobilized for energy by means of an increase in muscle protein degradation .This final increase in degradation of body protein cannot be sustained for long if feeding does not occur and death ensues.
2.Methionine and
choline
The most abundant phospholipids in eukaryotic cells are
phosphatidylcholine
and
phosphatidylethanolamine
. Both can be synthesized from
phosphatidylserine
or through alternative pathways that start with free
choline
or ethanolamine respectively. 3 methyl groups of
choline
are derived from amino acid
methionine
.
Choline
Phosphoatidycholine
/
phosphatidyethanolamine
3. Glucagon and Lipid
Glucagon promotes fatty acid oxidation resulting in energy production and
ketone
body synthesis .
Fatty acid
___oxidation_______
ATP +
ketone
bodies
Fat – Mineral inter-relation
1. Fats and Calcium
An individual suffering from fat
malabsorption
shows decreased calcium absorption due to the formation of fatty acid soaps which are not absorbed and are excreted in
faeces
as ca soaps.
Fat intake has a negative impact on ca balance only during
steaorrhoea
. Ca forms insoluble soaps with fatty acids in the gut
.
2.Lipids and Phosphorus
Phosphorus is bound with lipids to form
phospholipids,like
lecithin and
cephlain
, which are present in every cell membrane in the body
These are the integral part of cell structure and also act as an intermediate in fat transport and absorption.
3.Iron and Fats
Poor fat digestion leads to
steaorrhoea
which also leads to a decrease in iron absorption.
4.Fats and Sodium
Bacterial action on CHO and fibers in large bowel generates short chain fatty acids: acetate, propionate and butyrate. These are widely absorbed and stimulates sodium absorption.
Slide31Fat – Vitamin inter-relation
1.Vitamin -c and Cholesterol
a) Ascorbic acid participates in hydroxylation of certain steroid hormones synthesis in adrenal
tissues.V
- C con. decreases in periods of stress when adrenal cortical hormone activity is high .
V-C
when
Adernal
cortical hormone
During periods of emotional , psychological stress , urinary excretion of V – C
inreacses
.
b) The rate limiting step of bile acid synthesis in liver involves the
Cholesterol
7- alpha-
hydroxylase
The activity of this pathway is reduced in V – C deficient animals and is associated with elevated plasma cholesterol con. This leads to
hypercholesterolemia.
Slide323. Vitamin –A and Fat
Retinoids
and
Cartenoids
are incorporated into micelles along with other lipids for passive absorption into mucosal cells of small intestines . These then are incorporated
chylomicrons
for transport
lymph
and eventually
blood stream
which then finally pass to
liver
and
tissues
.
The absorption of alpha ,beta, gamma ,carotene (
provitamin
A ) requires fat.
In the absence of fat in diet , they are not absorbed .
Rancid fats destroy the
vitamin A
and
beta carotene
present in the diet.
Slide332.V- D and Cholesterol
2 sterols
one in lipids of animals i.e
. 7-dehydrocholesterol
and one in plants
i.e
ergosterol
- serve as
precursor of V- D
And
7-dehydrocholesterol
under UV rays
cholecalciferol
(vitamin-D3).
Ergosterol
Ergocalciferol
(Vitamin D2)
Then these D2 and D3 require further metabolism to yield metabolically active form of 1,25
dehydroxy
vitamin D or
cacitriol
.
Dietary vitamin D is incorporated into other lipids into
micells
and absorbed with lipids in intestine. Inside absorptive cells, vitamin is incorporated into
chylomicrons
, enters lymphatic system and subsequently enters
plasma,where
it delivered to cells.
Slide344. Vitamin E and Fat
Tocopherols
act as antioxidant i.e. they can prevent the oxidation of various other oxidized substances such as fats and vitamin –A.
It is located in the lipid portion of cell membranes it protects unsaturated phospholipids of the membrane from oxidative degradation from highly reactive oxygen species and other free radicals .Vitamin E perform this function through its ability to reduce such
radicls
into harmless metabolites by donating a hydrogen to them . This process is called free radicals scavenging
As a membrane free radicals scavenger, V – E is an important component of the cellular antioxidant
defence
system which involves other enzymes such as
SOD(superoxide
dismutases
), glutathione
peroxidases
(
GPxs
), GR ( glutathione
reductase
,
catalase
and
also non enzyme factors many of which depends on other essential nutrients. For
eg
–
GSHxs
, and TR depend on
on
slenium
status
etc . So, the antioxidant function of vitamin E can be affected by the levels of many other nutrients.
Fatty acids with 2 or more double bonds i.e. polyunsaturated fatty acids are abundant in cell membrane and have important
infulence
on membrane fluidity and function . However , their double bonds make them susceptible to oxidation by free radicals .
Fortunately ,
most V – E in body is found in cell membrane where it functions to protect polyunsaturated fatty acids from free radical attack
.V- E stabilizes free radicals and prevent it from reacting with adjacent polyunsaturated
Slide37fatty acids.
Also plasma lipoproteins, like cell membrane , contain an abundance of lipid including proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids .
They also contain fat soluble V- E which plays an essential role in protecting lipoproteins from oxidative damage.
This is particularly important in low density lipoproteins (LDL) because lipid peroxides can oxidize
apolipoprotein
B resulting in formation of
oxidatively
modified LDL.
apolipoprotein
B
LDL
This oxidized LDL accumulates in walls of arteries at greater rate than normal LDL which is non
oxidised
, thus accelerating development of
artherosclerotic
plaques
.
Slide38Morover
, V – E is absorbed in manner similar to most other dietary lipids and requires fat digestion to be functioning normally.
The presence of fat in small intestine enhances V – E absorption because the products of triglyceride breakdown into gut promote the formation of mixed
micells
, the vehicle from which V – E is absorbed into the mucosal cell lining of the small intestine.
Lack of the bile acids or fat digestive enzymes damage to gastrointestinal wall or inability to synthesize
chylomicrons
which will decrease V – E absorption
.
Disease in which V – E absorption is reduced includes pancreatic diseases and sometime other genetic inability to make
chylomicrons
.
Slide395.
Vitamin K and Fat
Like other fat soluble vitamin absorption of V - K is also depends upon on minimum amount of dietary fat and on bile salts and pancreatic juices . The absorbed V – K is incorporated to
chylomicrons
in lymph and taken to liver , where are incorporated VLDL and subsequently delivered to
to
peripheral tissues by LDL.
V- K
Chylomicrons
(lymph --- liver )
VLDL Tissues (LDL)
6. Fat and
Choline
Choline
is a methyl rich essential component of animal tissues , where it is a structural unit of lecithin (i.e.
phosphatidylcholine
or phospholipids containing
choline
which is a part of bile where it emulsifies fats and is a part of lipoprotein also) and neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Thus
choline
is widely distributed in fats , existing predominantly in form of lecithin in eggs , liver,
soyabeans
, beef , milk and peanuts.
Choline
has several functions:
As
phosphatidycholine
, it is a structural element of membrane.
A precursor to
spingolipids
( lipids esters attached to
spingosine
base rather than glycerol and present in nervous system of animals and membrane of plants and lower eukaryotes such as yeast)
A promoter to lipid transport
As acetylcholine , it is a neurotransmitter.
It functions as emulsifier in bile ,
thues
helping with absorption of fat i.e.
lipotropic
factor and prevents accumulation of fat in liver i.e. it prevents fatty liver.