241 Nuclear Radiation 242 Radioactive Decay includes decay rates amp radiochemical dating 243 Nuclear Reactions Transmutation Part only 244 Applications amp Effects of Nuclear Reactions except for radiation dose and intensitydistance ID: 808016
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Slide1
Chapter 24 Nuclear Chemistry
24.1 Nuclear Radiation
24.2 Radioactive Decay (includes decay rates & radiochemical dating)
24.3 Nuclear Reactions (Transmutation
Part only)
24.4 Applications & Effects of Nuclear Reactions (except for radiation dose and intensity/distance)
Slide2Section 24.1 Nuclear Radiation
Summarize
the
developments
that led to the discovery and understanding of nuclear radiation, including the names of the important scientists and the nature and significance of their contributions.Distinguish between chemical and nuclear reactions.Identify alpha, beta, and gamma radiations in terms of composition and key properties.Rank the penetrating power of the various types of radiation.Predict the effect of an electric field on the path of the various types of radiation.
Under certain conditions, some nuclei can emit alpha, beta, or gamma radiation.
Slide3Key Concepts
Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X rays in 1895
.
Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, and Pierre Curie pioneered the fields of radioactivity and nuclear chemistry.
Gamma radiation has the most and alpha particles the least penetrating power of the 3 basic types of nuclear radiation.Section 24.1 Nuclear Radiation
Slide4Chemical vs Nuclear Reactions
Chemical
Nuclear
Bonds broken & formed
Nuclei emit particles and/or rays
Atoms remain unchanged – may be rearranged or ionized
Atoms often changed into atoms of new element
Involve only valence electrons
May involve protons, neutrons, & electrons
Small energy changes
Large energy changes
Slide5Chemical vs Nuclear Reactions
Chemical
Nuclear
Reaction rate influenced by temperature, pressure, concentration, and catalysts
Rate not normally affected by temperature, pressure, or catalysts
Slide6Classifying
Classify each of the following as a
chemical
reaction, a
nuclear reaction, or neither:Thorium emits a beta particleTwo atoms share electrons to form a bondA sample of pure sulfur releases heat as it slowly coolsA piece of iron rustsNuclearChemicalNeitherChemical
?
Slide7Discovery of Radioactivity
Wilhelm Roentgen (Germany), 1895: invisible rays emitted when electrons bombarded surface of certain materials
Rays caused photographic plates to darken
Roentgen called these high energy rays called
X rays Roentgen in 1901 became first Nobel laureate in physics for this discovery
Slide8Discovery of Radioactivity
Antoine-Henri Becquerel 1896 (France) - experiment to determine if phosphorescent minerals also gave off X-rays
Image of Becquerel's photographic plate which has been fogged by exposure to radiation from a uranium salt. The shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed between the plate and the uranium salt is clearly visible.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Becquerel
Slide9Becquerel discovered that certain minerals were constantly producing penetrating energy rays he called
uranic
rays
like X-rays, but not related to fluorescence
Determined that all minerals that produced these rays contained uraniumrays were produced even though mineral was not exposed to outside energyEnergy apparently being produced from nothing??Discovery of Radioactivity
Slide10Discovery of Radioactivity
Henri Becquerel
uranium salt
K
2UO2(SO4)2Darkened photographic plates– even when not exposed to light –
Slide11Discovery of Radioactivity
Marie Curie (Polish born French physicist/chemist) ~ 1896-1898
Named process by which materials give off such rays
radioactivity
Emitted rays and particles she named radiationDeveloped device to measure radioactivity
Slide12Detecting Radiation: Electroscope
+++
+++
When positively charged, metal
foils in electroscope spread apart due to
like charge repulsion
When exposed to ionizing radiation, radiation knocks electrons off air molecules, which jump onto foils and discharge them, causing them to
drop down
Slide13Madam Curie
Used electroscope to detect uranic rays in samples
Discovered new elements by detecting their rays
radium named for its green phosphorescence polonium named for her homelandSince these rays were no longer just a property of uranium, she changed name from uranic rays to radioactivity
Slide14Discovery of Radioactivity
Curies in 1898, by processing
several tons
of uranium ore (pitchblende), identified
2 new radioactive elements: polonium, radiumCuries shared 1903 Nobel prize in physics with BecquerelMarie awarded 1911 Nobel prize in chemistry for work with polonium & radiumDied in 1934 from effects of radiation
Slide15Discovery of Radioactivity
Name, Date
Contribution
Wilhelm
Roentgen
, 1895
Discovery of X-Rays
Henri
Becquerel
, 1896
Uranium salt darkens photographic plate
Marie
Curie
, 1896-1898
(up to 1934)
Introduced terms radioactivity & radiation; developed device to measure radioactivity
Pierre & Marie
Curie
, 1898
Isolated polonium and radium & continued study of radiation
Slide16Properties of Radioactivity
Can ionize matter (cause uncharged matter to become charged)
basis of Geiger Counter and electroscope
Has high energy
Can penetrate matterCauses phosphorescent materials to glow basis of scintillation counter
Slide173 Common Types of Radiation
Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays
(two more types described in next section)
Slide18Alpha Radiation
Alpha particle
4
2
He+2 2 protons & 2 neutrons = nucleus of helium-4 atom +2 charge+
Slide19Beta Radiation
0
-1
b
Beta particles – fast moving electronsOriginate from decay of a neutron+
Slide20neutron
proton
Beta Decay In Neutron
electron
neutrino
W
–
boson
Example of
weak force
, of which
W
–
is a boson
Particle Symbol Relative mass
Electron e
-
1/1840
Proton p
+
1.000
Neutron n
0
1.001
Matter changed to energy plus other matter
Neutron (made of quarks - fundamental) does not “contain” an electron (a lepton)
Slide21Gamma Radiation
0
0
g
High energy radiation; masslessExcept for very unusual cases, gamma radiation always accompanies alpha and beta decay – few “pure” gamma emitters
Slide22Characteristics of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation
Slide23Alpha, Beta, Gamma Properties
Particle
Energy
Penetrating Power
alpha
~ 5 MeV
Blocked by paper
beta
0.05 to 1 MeV
Blocked by thin metal foil (aluminum foil)
gamma
~ 1 MeV
Blocked only by thick layers of lead or concrete
Slide24Penetrating Ability of Radioactive Rays
a
b
g
0.01 mm 1 mm 100 mm
Thickness of Lead
Slide25Effect of Electric Field on Trajectory of Subatomic Particles
Lead Block
Radioactive Source
Hole
Positive plateNegative plate
a
2+ charge
b
1- charge
g
0 charge
Slide26X-Rays
Not generated by
nuclear
processes (get by bombarding materials with electrons)
Like gamma rays – form of high energy electromagnetic radiation (gamma has higher energy)Both X and gamma rays highly penetrating & can be very damaging to living tissue
Slide27Practice
Nuclear Radiation
Problems 1-5, page 864
Problems 34-41, page 894
Slide28Chapter 24 Nuclear Chemistry
24.1 Nuclear Radiation
24.2 Radioactive Decay (includes decay rates & radiochemical dating)
24.3 Nuclear Reactions (Transmutation
Part only)24.4 Applications & Effects of Nuclear Reactions (except for radiation dose and intensity/distance)
Slide29Section 24.2 Radioactive Decay
Explain
why certain nuclei are
radioactive while others are stable.
Predict the type of radiation an unstable nucleus will emit.Apply your knowledge of radioactive decay to write balanced nuclear equations. Solve problems involving radioactive decay rates.Explain the basis for the technique of radiochemical dating, especially carbon dating.Describe the decay processes of positron emission and electron capture.
Unstable nuclei can break apart spontaneously, changing the identity of atoms.
Slide30Key Concepts
Radioisotopes emit radiation to attain more-stable atomic configurations.
Atomic number and mass number are conserved in nuclear reactions.
Radiochemical dating is a technique for determining the age of an object by measuring the amount of certain radioisotopes remaining in the object.
Section 24.2 Radioactive Decay
Slide31Key Concepts
A half-life is the time required for half of the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay. The number of nuclei
N
remaining after a certain number of half-lives
n or after some time t can be calculated from:Section 24.2 Radioactive Decay
Slide32Nuclear Reactions
Involve a change in atom’s nucleus
Radioactive materials spontaneously emit radiation
Called radioactive decay
Do this because a radioactive nucleus is unstableGain stability by losing energy
Slide33Pencil Analogy for Stability
Gravitational Potential Energy
Slide34Forces Between Nucleons
Green:
Strong Force (attractive)
Purple:
EM Force (repulsive for protons)
Slide35Nuclear Stability - Forces
Nucleons (protons, neutrons) held together by strong force
Overcomes electrostatic repulsion by protons
Neutrons don’t have repulsion
Stability tied to neutron/proton ratio (n/p)High atomic number nuclei need relatively more neutrons for stabilityRange for stable nuclei: 1:1 light to 1.5:1 heavy (Pb, AN 82)
Slide36Neutron-to-Proton Ratio
Shaded region corresponds to “band” or “belt” of stability
Slide37Nuclear Stability
Radioactive nuclei are found outside band of stability – above/below/beyond
Undergo decay to gain stability
All elements with atomic number (AN) > 82 (lead) are radioactive
Isotopes of elements with AN ≤ 82 but outside band of stability are radioactive
Slide38Nuclear Stability – Decay Series
Various decay types change n/p in different ways
Unstable nuclei
lose energy
through radioactive decay in order to form a nucleus with a stable n/p ratioEventually, radioactive atoms undergo enough decays to form stable atoms Lead-206 is final decay product of Uranium-238 (14 steps)
Slide39Decay of
238
U to
206
Pb
Slide40Practice
Nuclear Stability
Problems 12 - 14 page 874
Problems 42, 45 – 48, 50 page 894
Slide41Nuclear Equations
Atomic number (AN) and mass numbers (MN) are shown
Atomic and mass numbers are
conserved
AN: 88 = 86 +2 MN: 226 = 222 + 4
Slide425 Types of Radiation
Alpha
Beta
Positron Emission *
Electron Capture *Gamma* New in this section
Slide43Alpha Radiation
Alpha particle emission
changes the element
Leaves n/p about the same (for heavier elements)
In example below, start with radium, end up with radon
n/p: 138/88=1.57 136/86 =1.58
Slide44Beta Radiation
0
-1
b
Beta particles – fast moving electronsOriginate from decay of neutronBeta emission changes elementLowers n/pIn example below, start with carbon, end up with nitrogen
n/p: 8/6=1.43 7/7 =1.00
Slide45Positron Emission (
+
Decay)
Slide46Positron Emission (
+
Decay)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Neutron-deficient isotopes can decay by proton decay (emitting positrons – antiparticle of electron)
+
anti-neutrino
positron
Net effect: one proton replaced by
neutron
anti-neutrino
positron
Slide47Electron Capture
Like positron emission, also reduces number of protons (increase n/p)
Nucleus draws in surrounding electron (usually from lowest energy level)
Electron combines with proton to form neutron with X-ray emission
11p + 0-1e 10n + X-ray 8137Rb + 0
-1e 8136
Kr + X-ray
Slide48Decay Processes that Increase n/p
Positron Emission
Electron Capture
+
Slide49Particle Changes
Positron Emission: proton
neutron
Electron Capture: proton neutron
Beta Emission: neutron
proton
Slide50Decay Process Summary
Decay
Particle
Mass # Change
AN Change
alpha
4
2
He
-4
-2
beta
0
-1
0
+1
Positron Emission
0
1
0
-1
Electron Capture
X-Ray Photon
0
-1
gamma
0
0
0
0
Slide51Nuclear Equations
Atomic number (AN) and mass numbers (MN) are shown
Atomic and mass numbers are
conserved
AN: 88 = 86 +2 MN: 226 = 222 + 4
Slide52Nuclear Equations
60
27
Co
6028Ni + ?Conserve mass number: 60 = 60 + 0Conserve atomic number: 27 = 28 + (-1) Particle must be 0-1b
24195Am
237
93
Np +
?
Conserve mass number: 241 = 237 + 4
Conserve atomic number: 95 = 93 +2
Particle must be
4
2
He
Slide53Practice: Write Nuclear equation for each of Following
Alpha emission from U-238
Beta emission from Ne-24
Positron emission from N-13
Electron capture by Be-7
Slide54Practice
Writing & Balancing Nuclear Equations
Problems 6 - 8 page 869
Problems 51 - 54, page 894
Slide55Half Life
Time for ½ of radioisotope in sample to undergo nuclear decay
Half life remains constant
In 7 half lives, <1% of original radioactivity remains
½½½½½½½ =1/2
7 = 1/128 = 0.8%
Decay of Strontium-90
Slide56Half Life
General expression for remaining material after an integer number (n) of half-lives have passed (page 871, text)
Remaining (N) = Initial Amount (N
0) (1/2)nIf value of half life = T & elapsed time = t (both quantities in same units of time) Remaining (N) = Initial Amount (N0
) (1/2)t/T
Expression works for non-integer t/
T
t/T = 1.5, (1/2)
1.5
= 0.354
Has form of
exponential decay function
Slide57Exponential Decay
If value of half life =
T
& elapsed time =
t (both quantities in same units of time) N = N0 (1/2)t/TExpression works for non-integer t/T Define decay parameter = T
ln(0.5) ln
(0.5) = 0.693
Then equivalent expression to above is
N= N
0
e
-t/
More typical form for expressing decay
Slide58Half Lives of Radon (Rn)
Same element; isotopes have different half lives (more stable as n/p ratio becomes closer to ideal)
Isotope Half Life
Rn-217 0.6 milliseconds
Rn-218 35.0 milliseconds Rn-219 3.96 seconds Rn-220 55.6 seconds Rn-212 24.0 minutes Rn-211 14.6 hours Rn-222 3.82 days
Slide59Half Life Reflects Stability
Isotope
Half life Ra-216 <0.2 nsec (shortest, spin dependent) C-15 2.4 sec Ra-224 3.6 days I-125 60 days C-14 5730 years U-238 4.5x109 years
Te-128 7.7x1024 years (longest)
Slide60Practice
Radioactive Decay
Problems 16 – 17*, page 874
Problems 55 – 58*, page 895
Problems 4 - 6, page 991* Problems 17, 57 & 58 require knowing that: if c = ab then log(c) = b log(a)
Slide61Radiochemical Dating
Nuclear decay rates not affected by temperature, pressure, concentration, catalyst
Can take advantage of constancy of half-life to date objects
Carbon dating
commonly used to measure age of objects that were once living - based on radioactive carbon-14Other nuclei also useful for specialized dating applications
Slide62Isotope
t
1/2
(years)
Useful Range
(years)
Applications
H-3
12.3
1 to 100
Aged wines
Pb-210
22
1 to 75
Skeletal remains
C-14
5730
500 to 50,000
Organic material
K-40
1.3x10
9
10
4
to oldest Earth samples
Earth & moon’s crust
U-238
4.5x10
9
10
7
to oldest Earth samples
Earth’s crust
Re-187
4.3x10
10
4x10
7
to oldest samples in universe
Meteorites
Isotopes Useful in Radioactive Dating
Slide63% C-14 (compared to living organism)
Object’s Age (in years)
100%
0
90%
870
80%
1850
60%
4220
50%
5730
40%
7580
25%
11,500
10%
19,000
5%
24,800
1%
38,100
Radiocarbon Dating
Slide6414
C Dating Overview
Slide65Cosmic ray protons blast nuclei in upper atmosphere, producing large variety of particles (including neutrons)
C-14 Formation Process
Top of Atmosphere
Cosmic ray proton collides with nucleus in atmosphere
Neutron
Slide66These neutrons in turn bombard nitrogen (major constituent of atmosphere)
Absorption of neutron by N-14 causes it to emit a proton, forming radioactive isotope C-14
C-14 Formation Process
Slide67Carbon-14 Formation Rate
Fairly constant over time
C-14 dating calibrated against tree rings so formation rate variations and other factors that affect C-14 to C-12 ratio (other than C-14 decay) have, in principle, been corrected for
Slide6814
C Dating
14
C combines with oxygen to become C-14 labeled carbon dioxide
14C becomes part of natural carbon cycle - becomes incorporated into organisms
Slide6914
C Dating
Living organism continues to take in
14
C while simultaneously 14C decaysWhen it dies 14C continues to decay without being replenished14C dating measures time of death
Slide70Radiocarbon Dating Summary
Based on radioactive carbon-14
C-14
formed in upper atmosphere
from nitrogen at ~ constant rate percent of C-14 in atmosphere ~ fixedLiving organism exchanges CO2 with atmosphere and ingests other carbon compounds (e.g. carbohydrates)Living organism has fixed % of C-14 in all carbon containing molecules present
Slide71Radiocarbon Dating Summary
Living
organism has
fixed % of C-14
in all carbon containing molecules presentUpon death of organism, supply of new C-14 stopsC-14 already present decays 146C
147N +
0
-1
½ life = 5730 yrs
Amounts of stable C-12 & C-13 remain unchanged
Measuring
C-14 / (C-12 + C-13)
in sample and comparing to atmosphere gives age
Slide72Practice
Radiochemical Dating
Problem 18, page 874
Slide73Chapter 24 Nuclear Chemistry
24.1 Nuclear Radiation
24.2 Radioactive Decay (includes decay rates & radiochemical dating)
24.3 Nuclear Reactions (Transmutation
Part only)24.4 Applications & Effects of Nuclear Reactions (except for radiation dose and intensity/distance)
Slide74Section 24.3 Nuclear Reactions
Describe
the transmutation process and its role in the development of new isotopes and elements.
==========================================
Fission, the splitting of nuclei, and fusion, the combining of nuclei, release tremendous amounts of energy.
Slide75Key Concepts
Induced transmutation is the bombardment of nuclei with particles in order to create new elements
.
These particles can be other nuclei, neutrons or protons.
==========================================Section 24.3 Nuclear Reactions
Slide76Transmutation
All
natural
radioactive processes except gamma emission involve transmutation –
conversion of atom of one element to an atom of another elementAbove is natural or spontaneous transmutationCan have induced transmutation by bombarding nuclei with particles All transuranium elements created this way
Slide77Transmutation
Particles used in bombardment
include:
Neutrons
ProtonsCharged nuclei of other elementsTransmutation reactions also can produce neutrons and protons as products (not seen in natural radiation processes)
Slide78Transmutation
First induced transformation by E. Rutherford, 1919, using alpha particles
+
+
Slide79Transmutation
What element is produced?
?
22
10Ne + 24495Am 266105Db (Dubnium)
Slide80Transuranium Elements
All elements following uranium on periodic table (AN>92)
All are
synthetic
elements – produced in lab by induced transmutationFirst discovered in 1940, neptunium (Np) and plutonium (Pu) produced by bombarding U-238 with neutrons 23892U + 10n 239
92U 239
93
Np
+
0
-1
239
93
Np
239
94
Pu
+
0
-1
Slide81Transmutation
If particle used to bombard nucleus has
+
charge (common), need high-velocity (high energy) to overcome charge repulsion with positively charged nucleusHigh energy created in particle acceleratorsSuccess in producing a somewhat stable new nucleus depends on obtaining favorable neutron to proton ratio
Slide82Practice
Induced Transmutation
Problems 19 - 21, page 876
Problems 59, 69 - 71, page 895
Slide83Chapter 24 Nuclear Chemistry
24.1 Nuclear Radiation
24.2 Radioactive Decay (includes decay rates & radiochemical dating)
24.3 Nuclear Reactions (Transmutation
Part only)24.4 Applications & Effects of Nuclear Reactions (except for radiation dose and intensity/distance)
Slide84Section 24.4 Applications and Effects of Nuclear Reactions
Name
and
describe several methods used to detect and measure radiation.Name and describe several non-medical applications of radiationDescribe and explain
several ways that radiation is used to diagnose and to treat disease.
Describe
some of the damaging effects of radiation on biological
systems and how it can be used as an advantage in the treatment of disease.
Nuclear reactions have many useful applications, but they also have harmful biological effects.
Slide85Key Concepts
Different types of counters are used to detect and measure radiation
.
Radiotracers are used to diagnose disease and to analyze chemical reactions
.Section 24.4 Applications and Effects of Nuclear Reactions
Slide86Detecting Radiation
Effect of radiation on photographic film similar to effect of light
Film used to provide quantitative measure of radioactivity
Common implementation is
film badge
Slide87Detecting Radiation
Geiger Counter
Ionizing radiation – energetic enough to ionize matter with which it collides
Geiger counter
responsive to ionizing radiation
Slide88Detecting Radiation
Scintillation Counter
D
etects bright flashes of light with photodetector when ionizing radiation excites electrons of certain types of atoms
Slide89Detecting Radiation
Scintillation counter
uses phosphor-coated surface to detect radiation
Scintillations = bright flashes of light
Number & brightness of scintillations can be detected & recorded by a variety of sensors sensitive to lightLuminous dials information ILuminous dials information II
Slide90Nonmedical Uses of Isotopes
Smoke detectors
Am-241 produces
radiation to ionize airSmoke blocks ionized air, breaks circuitInsect control - sterilize malesFood preservation
Slide91Smoke Detector
Ionization Chamber with radioactive Am-241 source
Electronic Horn
http://www.howstuffworks.com/inside-smoke.htm
Slide92P-32 behaves identically to P-31 (common, non-radioactive form of element) and is used by plant in same way
Geiger counter detects movement of P-32; information used to understand detailed mechanism of how plants utilize P to grow and reproduce
Agricultural Application
Solution of phosphate, with radioactive P-32, injected into root system of plant
Slide93Radiation - Medical Applications
Tracers
Imaging (use radiation to detect features inside the body)
Therapy (radiation put into
body to kill targeted cells)
Slide94Medical Radiotracers
Radioactive isotopes of an element have same
chemical
properties as non-radioactive isotopes
Certain organs absorb most or all of a particular elementIsotopes also can be bound in chemical structure that targets particular organsTracers used to track distribution & breakdown of substance in body
Slide95Some Medical Radiotracers
Radioactivity must be able to leave body and be detected – gamma is preferred, alpha totally useless
Slide96Bone Scans
Slide97Positron Emission Tomography
Cyclotron generated
positron (
0
1) emitting isotopes with short half lives: C-11 (~20 min), N-13 (~10 min), O-15 (~2 min), and F-18 (~110 min) 189F 01 + 188O
(positron emission) 0
1
+
0
-1
e = 2
(matter/anti-matter annihilation)
Isotopes incorporated into compounds normally used by body such as glucose, water or ammonia
Injected into body - trace where they are distributed (radiotracers)
Slide98Positron Emission Tomography
FDG taken up by high-glucose-using cells such as brain, kidney, and cancer cells
Oncology scans using FDG make up over 90% of all PET scans in current practice
Slide99+
+
+
Nucleus
Neutrons
Protons
Electrons
Positron (
+
) Decay
18
F-FDG
Slide100Positron Annihilation
Annihilation
of positron (antimatter) when it encounters an electron (matter)
gives
2 x rays (180 degrees apart) Line of responseScanner: photon counter Counts gamma-ray pairs vs. single gammas Time window ~ 1 ns
511 keV
511 keV
e
+
e
-
Slide101PET Imaging Overview
Synthesize radiotracer
Inject radiotracer
Measure gamma-ray emissions from isotope (~20-60 min)
Reconstruct images of radiotracer distribution
Slide102Positron Emission Tomography
x
Coincidence Processing Unit
Positron-electron annihilation to produce opposite photons Scintillator (detects pair of light bursts from passage of
photons)Image Reconstruction
Slide103Radiotherapy
Cancer treatment -
cancer cells more sensitive to radiation
than healthy cells – can be destroyed by radiation
treatmentOptions include:place radioisotope directly at site of canceruse radiation from outside bodyuse radioisotopes that naturally concentrate in one area of body
Slide104Gamma Knife System
One advanced application of
rays: successful treatment of brain tumors
Delivers precise beams of radiation to diseased brain tissue or tumor from large number of directions - 201 beams of radiation intersect on targeted area of abnormal or cancerous tissue within brainVery precise: damages and destroys unhealthy tissue while sparing adjacent normal, healthy brain tissue
Slide105201 small cobalt sources (gamma) arrayed in hemisphere within thickly shielded
structure
Energy
focused into overlapping beams by
collimatorsBeams focused on target through metal helmet, in which patient’s head is placed by using fixation of head frame attached to headGamma radiation at focal point of collimators extremely intense
Gamma Knife Treatment
Slide106Gamma Knife Treatment
Slide107Gamma Ray Treatment
Slide108Practice
Radiation detection and uses
Problems
28, 29, 31
, page 890 Problems 73, 75, page 895