JOURNAL for the of RELIGION CreatingaGodlessCommunityTheCollective IdentityWorkofContemporary AmericanAtheists J ESSE MS MITH DepartmentofSociology Basedon45indepthinterviewstextualanalysisandp ID: 285206
Download Pdf The PPT/PDF document "SCIENTIFIC STUDY" is the property of its rightful owner. Permission is granted to download and print the materials on this web site for personal, non-commercial use only, and to display it on your personal computer provided you do not modify the materials and that you retain all copyright notices contained in the materials. By downloading content from our website, you accept the terms of this agreement.
JOURNAL for the SCIENTIFIC STUDY of RELIGION CreatingaGodlessCommunity:TheCollective IdentityWorkofContemporary AmericanAtheists J ESSE M.S MITH DepartmentofSociology Basedon45in-depthinterviews,textualanalysis,andparticipantobservationwithsevendifferentatheistorgani- zations,thisarticleinvestigatesthecollectiveidentityworkofatheistsintheUnitedStates.Itexploresthesocial psychologicalandinteractionaldynamicsofatheistorganizationsaswellashowtheycontributetotheconstruc- tionandmaintenanceofatheistidentities.Idiscussthevariousstrategiesatheistsemployastheycollectively public.Thisisaccomplishedinpartthroughananalysisoftheidentitypoliticsandminoritydiscoursecontem- poraryatheistscurrentlyengage.Inaddition,andmorebroadly,thisstudyexplorestherelationshipbetween collectiveidentityandsocialactionthroughananalysisanddescriptionofcontemporaryatheistactivism. Keywords: atheists,collectiveidentity,collectiveaction,interactionism,qualitativemethods. I Therehavebeenatheistsinthiscountrysinceitsinception,butan expressed atheistpresence inU.S.societyhasneverbeenanythingotherthanaverysmallminority.Anddespitethe pervasivenessoftheism,andthehistoricalimportanceofreligioninAmerica,therehavefor sometimeexistedorganizationsthatinsteadprofferasecularand/orgodlessworldview.For theearly1940s.ButwiththeexceptionoftheAmericanAtheists,foundedbyMadalynMurray OHairin1963,onlywithinthelastdecadehaveexplicitlyatheistgroupsallacrossthecountry proliferatedandbecomeconspicuous.Thesegroupshavebecomeincreasinglyinterconnected, andanexpandingnetworkanAmericanatheistcommunityisdevelopingamorerecognizable placeinAmericanculture.TheInternetandnewsocialmediahavefacilitatedmuchofthis muchoftheatheistconversationindeedtakesplaceonline(SmithandCimino2012),butlike othergroupsandmovements,theInternetandsocialmediahavealsomobilizedindividualsand createdactiveconcretecommunities.Indeed,the2012WoodstockforAtheists,wheretens ofthousandsofatheists(thelargestgatheringinU.S.history)descendedontheNationalMall, underscoresthisreality.Increasingnumbersofpeoplejoiningatheistgroupsandengagingin Thisresearchexaminesthedevelopmentofacommunityviatheorganizingprinciples ofidentityandmeaningthatstandsoutsidetheAmericansymbolicandmoralstructurestra- ditionallysuffusedwiththeism.Itexaminestherelationshipbetweencollectiveidentityand socialaction.Thus,investigatingthecollectiveidentityworkofatheistswilladdtothebroader UCB327,Boulder,CO80309,USA.E-mail:jesse.m.smith@colorado.edu JournalfortheScientiÞcStudyofReligion(2013)52(1):80Ð99 C 2013TheSocietyfortheScienticStudyofReligion ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 81 understandingoftheprocessesofformation,negotiation,andmaintenanceofcontemporaryso- cialgroupsatthemargins.AtheistsintheUnitedStatesconstituteanespeciallysalientexample, particularlyusefultowardthisend,becauseunlikeotherminoritygroups,atheistsareviewed asnotonlydifferinginsomewayfromtherestofsociety,butashavingrejectedwhatmany Americansconsidertheveryfoundationofamoralandfunctioningsociety:beliefinGod.And asscholarshaveonlyrecentlybeguntorespond,inafocusedway,totheadmonitionputforth byCampbell(1972)over40yearsagothatthestudyofirreligionshouldbeofsociologicalcon- cern,andthatdoingsowillyieldanalyticalfruit,thepresentstudyisintendedtomeaningfully contributetothisresponse. B ACKGROUND SurveysvaryontheirestimatesofadultatheistsintheUnitedStates.TheAmericanReligious IdenticationSurvey(2009)reportslessthan1percent,whereastheWorldValuesSurvey(2005) reportsover4percent.Accordingtothesesurveys,thereareanywherefrom1.6milliontonearly 13millionatheists.Eitherway,thisrepresentsnoticeablegrowthconsideringonlyafewdecades agothenumberofself-identiedatheistswasinthelowhundreds-of-thousands nationwide . Butthediscrepancyintheestimatesreectsdeeperdifcultiesintallyingthenumberofactual atheists.Inpart,thisstemsfromaninconsistencybetweenthetechnicalmeaningofatheismthe absenceofbeliefinagod 1 andotheridentities(freethinker,agnostic,naturalist,nontheist,etc.) thatmaynotcarrythesameconnotations.Difcultiesalsoariseinassessingwhethergrowthin thenumberofatheistsreectsmorewillingnessonthepartofthealreadyunbelievingpublic tousethelabel,oractualgrowthinthenumbersofthosewhodonotbelieveinGod.Italso seemsplausiblethatsurveysarenotcapturingtheactualnumbersofatheists,astheremaybe moreadultsinthegeneralpopulationwhoholdnobeliefinagod(technicallyatheist),butdonot self-identify,orreport,theiratheism. Irrespectiveofthetruecurrentnumber,atheistshavebecomeincreasinglyvisibleinthe media,andhavegainedinuenceifonlyincrementalinthepublicandpoliticalsphere. Thoughstillamarginalizedanddismissedgroupinmanyways,theatheistcommunityenjoysan emergingsenseofbroaderlegitimacyandcollectivesolidaritythatdidnotpreviouslyexist.New atheistmovementhasbeeninusesinceatleast2007,when Wired magazinerananarticleusing thephrase.Althoughpartofmyanalysisisframedwithinthesocialmovementliterature, 2 whether ornotthegrowingatheistcommunityconstitutesaveritablesocialmovementisnotthecentral concernofthisarticle.Rather,thisstudyisconcernedwiththeconstructionofcollectiveidentity andmeaning,andtheirrelationshipwithcollectiveaction.However,thereislittlereasontodoubt thatorganizedatheismintheUnitedStatestodayhasmoresalientlydenedsocialandsymbolic boundariesandsocial/politicalgoals,andthereisstrongevidencethatithasdevelopedamore distinctpoliticizedgroupidentitybothatleast elements oftheconceptofsocialmovements. AsthemissionstatementoftheAtheistAllianceofAmericaputsit:[Our]visionisto transform societyintoonethatunderstandsandrespectsatheism;thatsupportsandrespectsaworldview basedonthevaluesofreason,empiricismandnaturalism;andthatrespectsandprotectsthe separationofreligionandgovernmentandtheconstitutionalandhumanrightsofatheistsas membersofsocietyinfree,democraticandopennations(2011).Thisstatementischaracteristic ofmanyatheistorganizations,andalmostwithoutexception,organizedatheisminAmericatoday isorientedtowardthesesociopoliticalends. 1 SeeBullivantandRuse(2013)foradiscussionoftheusefulnessofthisversusotherdenitionsofatheismwithregards toconductingsocialscienticresearch. 2 Iusethesocialmovementliteraturebecausetheconceptofcollectiveidentityisemployedmostofteninthisliterature. 82 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION Variousdenitionsofcollectiveidentityhavebeenprofferedovertheyears(seeMelucci 1995;Snow2001;TaylorandWhittier1992).Theconcepthasfounditselfusefulincohering disparatetheoreticalframeworkssuchasstructuralistaccountsofsocialactionandrational choicetheoriesofgroupparticipation(FriedmanandMcAdam1992);itisofstrongimportinthe constructivistparadigm(Melucci1995);andasmentioned,theusefulnessofcollectiveidentity asaconceptualtoolintheanalysisofsocialmovementshasbecomewellestablished.Beyond this,theconceptofcollectiveidentityisstudiedinitsownright,anditrepresentsanimportant partoftheanalyticalrepertoireforunderstandingsocialmeaningandactionmorebroadly.As scholarshaveshiftedfocusfromthestructuralandmaterialdimensionsofsocialactionand movementstowardmorethoroughtreatmentoftheissuessurroundingidentitygenerally,our scholarlyunderstandingofthemicro,socialpsychological,andinterpretiveprocessesunderlying socialactionhasdeepened.Scholarsgenerallyagreethatcollectiveidentityisessentialfor understandingtheseprocesses,andthatatbase,theconceptreferstotheshareddenitionof agroupthatderivesfrommemberscommoninterests,experience,andsolidarity(Taylorand Whittier1992:105),aswellasasharedandinteractivesenseofwe-nessandcollective agency(Snow2001:1).Evenmoresimply,collectiveidentityisapublicpronouncementof status(FriedmanandMcAdam1992)awayofindicatingtoselfandotherssomemeaningful identity.Butitisalsoimportantnottooverlyabstracttheconcept.AsPollettaandJasperoffer: collectiveidentity[is]anindividualscognitive,moral,andemotionalconnectionwithabroader community,category,practice,orinstitution(2001:285).Collectiveidentityisthusaconcept withempiricalgrounding. Thescholarshiponcollectiveidentitymostrecentlyhashighlighteditssociallyconstructed nature.Takingfromthismyanalyticalpointofdeparture,Iemploytheconstructionistapproachin analyzingthecollectiveidentityworkofatheists.Inthisview,collectiveidentityisnotsomething apriori tocollectiveaction.Norisitsomethingthatbyitselfexplainscollectiveaction.Rather, collectiveidentity,likeotherformsofidentity,isconstructedinandthroughtheongoingdynamics ofsocialactionasitisplayedout,inrealtime,inthesocialarena.AsSnownotes:collective identityisa process ,ratherthanapropertyofsocialactors(2001:4).Ithighlightstheimportance ofmeaning,consciousness,andthesubjectiveinthediscussionofwhatpropelscollectiveaction andhowitoperatesinthecourseofeverydaysociallife. Althoughqualitativeworkonatheistsremainsinthebeginningstages,thelastfewyears haveproducedseveralstudiesinpursuitofunderstandingthesociodemographiccorrelatesof atheism(BakerandSmith2009;Cragun,Hammer,andSmithForthcoming);thesocialandmoral boundariesbetweenatheistsandtheists(Edgell,Gerteis,andHartmann2006);thepersonal identitydevelopmentofatheists(Smith2011);howatheistsnegotiatetheiridentities(Fitzgerald 2003);andhowatheistsrelatetoreligiousfamilyandcommunities(EcklundandLee2011). Somesociologicalanalysesexaminetheorganizationalstrategiesofatheists(CiminoandSmith 2007).Butnoextantqualitativestudydescribesthecollectiveidentityprocessesofatheiststhat is,howtheygoaboutconstructingasharedunderstandingofthemselvesandhowthisrelatesto thecollectiveaction(s)ofthegrowingatheistcommunity. Closelyconnectedtocollectiveidentityconceptually,andempiricallyconnectedbyway offormationandprocess,isthenotionof identitywork .Inanowclassicstatement,Snow andAndersondeneidentityworkasagenericprocessthatreferstotherangeofactivities individualsengageintocreate,present,andsustainpersonalidentitiesthatarecongruentwith andsupportiveoftheself-concept(1987:1348).Althoughtheyfocusedonpersonalidentity, Iaddtothisliteraturebydiscussinghowidentityworkfunctionswithincollectiveidentity. Takinginsightsfromeachoftheseconcepts,combinedwiththebroaderconceptualframework ofthesociallyconstructednatureofcollectiveidentityandaction,isthebasisofthefollowing analysis.Iexploretheprocessesofcollectiveidentityconstructionandhowcontemporary Americanatheistsarebuildinganactivecommunity.Ibeginwithadiscussionofthemethods usedinthestudybeforeofferingananalysisofthecollectiveidentityworkofatheistsbyway ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 83 oftwogenericconceptualcategories,seekingcommunityandseekingchange.Within these,Idescribeanddiscusshowatheistscollectivelydenethemselves,offersupporttoone another,challengeandcompetewithreligionthroughidentitypolitics,andengageinsocial activism. M ETHODS Thisarticledrawsondatacollectedaspartofabroaderprojectonatheistidentity.Iemploy acombinationofqualitativemethodsincludingparticipantobservation,in-depthinterviews,and interpretiveandtextualanalysisofvariouskindsofdocumentation.Duringmultiyeareldwork withsevendifferentatheistgroupsinColoradoandTexas,Iparticipatedindozensofatheist functionsincludingsmalllocalgroupmeetings,largerconferencesandworkshops,volunteer workactivities,sitesofatheistactivism,formaldebates,informalsocials,andanationalatheist convention.Theinterviewsampleconsistsof22malesand23femalesbetweentheagesof 18and74.Themajorityofrespondentswerewhite( n = 42)andhighlyeducated(38hada bachelorsdegreeorbeyond;seetheAppendixforfurtherdemographicinformation).Interviews lastedbetweenoneandtwohours.Allparticipantsself-identiedasatheists,mostwere recruitedbysolicitationatatheistfunctions,andseveralwererecruitedinasnowballsampling fashion.Thus,thisstudyisbasedonandcanonlymakeanargumentaboutatheistswho organize. Semi-structured,yetopenandconversational-style,interviewsallowedparticipantstospeak freelyabouttheissuesimportanttothemwhilestilladdressingthebasicconcernsoftheresearch. Idigitallyrecordedandtranscribedallinterviews.Idisclosedmyroleasaresearchertoeveryone Iinterviewed,andleftthemwithcontactinformationsotheycouldfollowupwithmelaterifthey chose.Aftertranscribingallinterviews,Iusedacombinationofline-by-lineandfocusedcoding tobegintheanalysis(Emerson2001).Ialsokeptdetailedeldnotesthroughouttheresearch.I identiedpatternsinboththeinterviewandeldnotedata,madeandelaboratedonconceptual connections,andsortedthedatabydominantthemes. Finally,asubstantialaspectofthedatacollectionforthisarticlecomesfromotherdocument sources.From2008on,afterconnectingwithseveralatheistgroups,joininge-maillists,visiting dozensofatheistwebsites,subscribingtopopularatheist/secularmagazines,andengagingwith varioussocialmedia,Icollectedalargebodyofrelevanttextualdata.Thesedatainclude700 + e-mail,blog,andmessageboardcommunicationsbetweenatheistsfromsixdifferentatheist organizations.Ialsofollowednewsandthegeneraldiscourseregardingatheismfromvarious onlineandprintnewspapers,magazines,andsocialmediasources.Iprinted,reviewed,andcoded alloftherelevantdocumentationforanalysis.Iconstructedmyargumentaftercarefullysifting throughallthetextualdataandcomparingthemwiththeinterviewandparticipantobservation dataIhadobtainedintheeld. Consistentwithmuchqualitativeresearchofthiskind,Itookaninductiveandgrounded theoryapproachinanalyzingthedata(Charmaz2001).Idevelopedtheconceptsandarguments belowoutoftheempiricaldatacollectedthroughouttheresearchprocess.Ratherthannarrowing inonlyonthedatathatsupportedwhatwasbecomingsalientintheanalysis,Ialsoscrutinized anycountervailingevidenceorotherkindsofinformationthatdidnotseemtotproperly withinthedevelopinganalysis.Asqualitative,interview-basedresearch,thisstudyhaslimited generalizability.However,giventhedepthofthedatacollected,thenationalrepresentation ofatheistsinpartsoftheresearchsetting,andtheanalysisofdocumentationthatextends wellbeyondtheregionalsettingoftheeldwork,theforthcominganalysisisnevertheless suggestive ofthebroadercollectiveidentityprocessesoftheorganizedatheistcommunityat large. 84 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION T HE C OLLECTIVE I DENTITY W ORKOF A THEISTS AlthoughmillionsofAmericansdonotbelieveintheexistenceofagod,thisnonbeliefitself doesnotimplyaneedtojoinacommunityofnonbelievers,oreventoidentifywithoneofthe manytermsassociatedwithnonbelief.Nevertheless,evidencesuggeststheatheistcommunityis becomingmoremember-based.Despiteoftrepeatedsentiments(oftenbyatheiststhemselves) alongthelinesoforganizingatheistsislikeherdingcats,accumulatingevidencesuggests atheistscan,andare,organizingthemselvesanddoingsowithsomemeasureofsuccess.The diffusionanddisorganizationthathascharacterizedatheistsappearsincreasinglytobesomething ofthepast.Thismeansthetheoreticalimportofcollectiveidentityworkisnowmoresignicant andmeaningfulintermsoftheneedforbetterconceptualizationandbroaderunderstandingof theatheistcommunity. SeekingCommunity:IdentityandGroupConsciousness Socialmediahaveplayedanimportantroleinthegrowthanddevelopmentoftheatheist communityoverthelastdecade.Localgroupscannowconnectandworkmoreeffectivelytoward growingtheirmembership.Muchoftheeffortincreatingamorevibrantatheistcommunity, bothonlineandoff,hasrevolvedaroundappealingtotheperceivedscoresofatheistswho arealreadyoutthere,butwhoarenotyetoutorinvolvedinthecommunity.Thephrase seekingcommunityisparticularlyaptinthecaseofatheistsbecauseactivistshavefocused ondrawingoutandmobilizingnonbelieversalreadypresentinsociety.Atheists,sometimes lamentingtheorganizationalstrengthsoftheirreligiouscounterparts,investworkinbuilding anactivecommunitybyrallyingandorganizinganalreadyextantconstituencybyencouraging closetedatheiststocomeout. Buttherearereasonsforanonbelievertoavoidreferringtohimselforherselfasanatheist,let alonejoinofcialgroups.Avoidingidenticationwithatheismprimarilyhastodowithitsdeviant andstigmatizedstatusinAmericanculture.Edgell,Gerteis,andHartman(2006)discusshow atheistsintheUnitedStatesareviewedasanessentialotheranundesirableorevenevilthreat tothebasicmoralorder.Itisnotsurprisingthen,asCragun,Hammer,andSmith(forthcoming) recentlyobserved,thatthisattitudesometimesresultsindiscriminationagainstatheists.Given thatthepublicsdistrustofatheistsisevenmoresalientthantheirdistrustofalmostanyother minoritygroup,itisnotsurprisingthatanonbelieverwouldresistthelabelatheist.Butthese arethepeoplewhotheorganizingatheistcommunityisattemptingtobringintotheirranks.This ofteninvolvesorganizersdeclaringthatthereisindeedacommunityofatheistsoutthereandthat theyarepoisedtoofferasupportivesocialstructuretothosethatdesireit. AtheistAwarenessandIdentitySupport TheAmericanchapteroftheOutCampaign, 3 sponsoredbytheRichardDawkinsFoun- dation,isanotableexampleofthesekindsofefforts.Anappealtothepublicasoutlinedon theFoundationswebsitereads:ComeOut:Atheistsarefarmorenumerousthanmostpeople realize.COMEOUTofthecloset!Youllfeelliberated,andyourexamplewillencourageothers toCOMEOUTtoo...ReachOut:...letothersknowtheyarenotalone(RichardDawkins Foundation2011).Suchpronouncementsarenotputforwardonlybyhigh-prolepublicatheists. OnelocalorganizerofasmallColoradogroupremarksplainly:Forpeoplewhoarecloseted nonbelievers,wejustwantthemtoknowthereareotherpeopleouttherewhothinkthesame waytheydo.CommentsfromordinaryatheistsoftenreecttheimplicationmadebytheOut Campaignthattherearemanymoreatheistsouttherethanisrealizedtheyjustneedtobecome 3 OtherexamplesincludetheWeAreAtheism,andtheGoodwithoutGodcampaign. ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 85 moreawareofeachother.Asonebloggerremarked:Therearemoreofusouttherethanthere areofmanyotherminoritygroupsthatgetspecicrecognition,yetpeopleoftenseemtothink wearepracticallynonexistent.Likewise,therecentatheistbillboardandbuscampaignsmade similarappealstoclosetedatheists.Oneleaderremarkedonthepurposeofaprojecthewas involvedin:Thesinglemajorgoalofthisbillboardprojectistoreachouttothe450,000citizens ofColorado(10percentofthetotalpopulation)whodontbelieveingodandarefeelingisolated andmarginalized. Theimplicationthatatheismisaccompaniedbyisolationandsocialmarginalizationisalso apparentinthecommentsofeverydayatheists;asAmy 4 remarksinanonlineposting:Many atheistsarealone,likeyingaglidersolo.Wetakeresponsibilityforouractionsandstandon ourowntwofeet...wedonothavethesupportofreligion[or]thepromiseoflifeafterdeath. Thesuggestionthatatheists,lackingthesocialbenets,inclusion,andtheready-madeanswers toexistentialquestionsthatreligionprovides,andwhoarethuscompelledtomakeitontheir own,signiesthesentimentsofmanyoftheatheistsIencountered.Therhetoricofisolation andthefeelingsofyingsoloareimportantforbothincentivizingthebuildingofanatheist community,andforsharingadistinctsenseofcollectiveexperience. Groupsacrossthecountryhaveadvertisedonbillboardsandthesidesofbuseswithstatements suchasDontBelieveinGod:YouareNotAloneandNoGod,NoProblem:BeGoodfor GoodnessSake.Thesevisiblepublicspacemessages,inadditiontoattractingmediaattention androusingcontroversy,appeartohavehadsomeintendedeffect.Cynthiascommentstoalocal organizerreectthesentimentsofsomereachedbythecampaign:Isawyourbillboardjust downthestreetfromwhereIcurrentlylive.Itreallyencouragedme,Ihavebeenaloneforso longsurroundedbymyChristianfamily.Howmanyrespondedtotheawarenesscampaignby joininggroupsisdifculttoassess.OneCaliforniagroupreportedthatthebillboardeffortgained them60newmembersinjustonemonth.Butregardlessofactualmembergrowth,theseefforts hadtheeffectofheighteningthecollectiveawarenessoftheatheistcommunity.Althoughsome simplyjoinedafterlearningabouttheexistenceofalocalgroup,mostweredrawninnotmerely bydintoflearningtherewerelike-mindedindividualsgettingtogetherintheircommunities, butafterbeingpersuadedbythestrategiesoforganizers.Thesestrategies,discussedbelow,are characteristicofsocialmovements,andpromotecollectiveidentity.ButasFriedmanandMcAdam (1992)note,collectiveidentitiesandmovementsarenotcreatedfromscratchorbecauseisolated individualssimplychoosetoidentifywithandjointhem.Rather,theytypicallycomeembedded inexistingsocialarrangementsthatincorporateothervaluedidentitiesandorientations.This meansatheistgroupshavehadtoemployavarietyofidentityincentivesinordertogrow.Indeed, Ifoundorganizersrarelyincentivizeparticipationinthecommunitybyappealingonlytothe sharedattributeofabsenceofbeliefinGod.Instead,thepositivesocialvaluesoffreethinking, scienticprogress,socialjusticeandequality,charity,andissuesofcitizenshipappearinthe rhetoricofrecruiters.WebsitestypicallymakestatementssimilartothisonefromaColorado group:Wevalueandpromotescience,reason,andcriticalthinking....Weholdthatbeliefsmust beformedonthebasisofscienceandlogicinsteadofemotion,authority,traditionordogma. Naturalisticandscienticworldviewsandhumanisticvaluesareeithermadeexplicit,orstrongly implied,inmuchatheistdiscourse.Thisisalsoapparentintheconversationsatheistshavewith oneanother.Insomecases,atheismisevenviewedasincidentaltoalthoughmostcompatible withscienceandhumanistvalues.AsSteve,a27-year-oldImetatagroupsocialtellingly remarkedwhenaskedabouthisviewsonreligion:Ireallyconsidermyselfmorepro-science thanIdoantireligious.Itsonlywhenreligiontriestoinuenceorblockscienticprogressthat Ibecomeangryaboutit.Fromourconversation,itbecameclearthattheatheistgroupwasfor 4 Allnamesusedthroughoutarepseudonyms.Quotesfrominterviewsarenoted;otherwise,theyreecttheonline communicationsdiscussedintheMethods. 86 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION Steveprimarilyavenueforadvocatingscienceandreason,andonlypartlyaboutjoiningothers intheirnonbelief.Thus,organizedatheismisnotmerelythecoalescenceofindividualsaround asingleissue:theirlackofbeliefinagod.Rather,ittendstoinvolveandimplyahostofother socialandpoliticalissues,andothergoal/value-orientedactivities.Thesesocialgoods,andthe individualbenetsofferedbyatheistgroups,arereadilyapparentinthelanguageofboththe publiccampaigns,andintheconversationsofatheists. Althoughatheistscannotemployanyclearinstitutionalstructureorsetofpreexisting solidarities(PolletaandJasper2001)tomotivateparticipation, 5 afocusonscience,education, rationality,evidence-basedthinking,andotherbasicEnlightenmentvaluesclearlyformpartof therhetoricalrepertoirethroughwhichtheymaketheirappealsappealsthatgureheavilyinthe identityframingstrategiesdiscussedbysocialmovementscholars.Peopledistillthesevalues byreferringtoindividualsofhistorical/culturalimportwhomtheythinkembodyorrepresent them.Forinstance,manylocalmeetingsincludepresentationsthathighlightprominentscientists, authors,philanthropists,andotherculturalelite(pastorpresent)whoareatheists,andwhoare generallyviewedbythepublicashavingpositivelycontributedtosociety.Thepointhereisthat whenanindividualjoinsanatheistgroup,heorsheisoftenafrmingotherpro-social,normative, andsociallydesirableidentitiesandvaluesthatareconsistentwiththatofthebroaderculture.This representsonewaythatthecollectiveeffortsofatheistsfocusoninuencingthepublicsview ofthem.Theafrmationofpro-socialandmainstreamvaluesispartoftheidentityframing processes(SnowandMcAdam2000)ofsocialgroups.Thatis,organizationsmusteffectively linkwiththepersonalmeaningstructuresandvalueorientationsofindividualsinordertosurvive andsucceed.Asatheistscollectivizeandcoordinate,thevalues,motives,andgoalstheyshare cometoreexivelyactbackonthegrowingcollectivity,eventuallyprovidinganorganizational andinterpretiveframeworkthatwillhelptosettheparametersforfutureparticipants. Structuralandnetworkexplanationsofwhypeoplejoinparticulargroupsormovements ultimatelylocatethecausesasbeingoutsidetheindividual(FriedmanandMcAdam1992). Regional,structural,andstatuspositionsareimportantinuencesintheidentitygroupswith whichpeoplecometoafliate.Theseexplanationsarerelevanttoatheistsgiventhefactthat whereonelives,whatsocialpositionsonecomestooccupy(e.g.,vocationalandeducational statuses),andwhatapersonssocialbackgroundwaslikegenerallywillplayaroleinones groupafliations.Thesefactors,alongwiththesocialanddemographiccorrelatesofatheism, arediscussedatlengthelsewhere(seeCragun,Hammer,andSmith2012).However,themicro andpersonalmeaningstructures,andthedesireofindividualstocarveoutmeaningfulself- conceptsfromtheexpandingalternativeidentityoptionsavailabletothem,areatleastequally importantforexplainingmovementparticipationandgroupbelongingasarethestructuralfactors. Althoughtheappealstotheatheistpublic,andthespecicstrategiesofrecruitmentusedto bringinnewmembersareclearlyrelevant,thesedonotbythemselvesexplainthebasicsocial psychologicalprocessesorreasonsfortheemergenceofandindividualparticipationinan atheistcommunity.Developmentofthiscommunityhaslesstodowithpeoplebeingconvinced byorganizersthattheyshouldjointheghtforreasonthanwiththeprocessesinvolvedin individualsvalueorientations,self-concepts,motivations,andneedforgroupsolidarityand meaning.Here,thespoiledidentitythesisandtheidentityvericationargumentprovideuseful insights(seeSnowandMcAdam2000).Thespoiledidentitythesisholdsthatpersonalidentities thatcorrespondtostigmatizedcategoriesencouragepeopletoseekoutandparticipateinsocial groupsthatchallengethemainstreamsnegativeviewofthegroup.Anintegralpartofthisprocess iswhatthevericationthesisunderscores:thatthesesocialgroupsinturnbecomeanimportant sourceofidentityvalidation;asupportivestructureandidentityresourcefromwhichindividuals canreworktheirstigmatizedpersonalidentities(or potentially stigmatizedforthosewhoarenot 5 InthesamewaythatcivilrightsactivistsdrewonpreexistingchurchnetworksandspecicChristiantheologies. ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 87 out)intosomethingthatbecomesmorestable,concrete,andimprovestheself-conceptthrough thelegitimizingforcesofgroupparticipation. Sean,amaninhis60s,intalkingaboutthenegativeviewstowardunbelievers,discussedin aninterviewwhyhejoinedagroupseveralyearsago.Hiscommentsillustratetheimportanceof belonging:[Ineeded]agroupthatsupportedrationalthought.Itsasocialoutlet,achurchfor peoplewhodontgotochurch[laughs].IwantedtobewiththosewhothinkthewayIdo.Its morecomfortable...itskindoflikeasupportgroup.Similarly,Tim,amaninhisearly20s whohadmovedtoaveryconservativetowninColoradoafterservinginthemilitaryremarked: Beforethegroup,Iwasprettylonelyouthere.Ineededafreethinkingcommunity....Imoved hereandrealizedthatIneededsomesupportandsomenewfriends.Iwasfeelinguncomfortable inthisverytheistcommunity.Manyechoedtheideathattheyreceivedencouragementandfelt morecomfortablewiththeiratheismafterjoiningagroup. Sometimes,joiningagroupinvolvesamoredramaticexperience.Darren,amaninhis50s, andaformerCatholicwhoexperiencedabusebyhisreligiousleaders,sharedhisexperience withme:oneday,Icameacrossacopyof FreethoughtToday .IthadanarticleaboutBlack CollarCrimeandittalkedabouttheabuseofchildrenintheCatholicChurch.Anditwasthe rsttime...thatIdeverheardhonestdiscussionabouttheproblem.Afterthisexperience,he immediatelysoughtoutatheistandseculargroups.Severalothersdiscussedhowtheysoughtout groups,inpart,asameansofescapingthereligiousorganizationstheygrewupwith.Inthislight, thenotionofanatheistgroupasasupportgroupforex-believersorasaplacewhere,asone atheistremarked,onecouldrecoverfromreligionseemstocarrysomeweight.Manymeetings involvepeoplesharingtheirstoriesofhowtheycametoidentifyasanatheist.Groupmembers drawintellectualandemotionalsupportfromoneanother,validateeachothersnonbelief,and encourageoneanothertobemoreassertiveabouttheirviews. DeÞningÒWeÓandSharedExpressiveAtheism Muchliketheself-describedheathensSnook(2008)studiedinherexaminationoftheidentity workandcommunitydynamicsofneopaganism,atheistsputsignicantworkintodiscussing, dening,andnegotiatingjustwhatitmeanstobeanatheist.Infact,Idiscoveredasubstantial amountoftimebothinonlineconversations,andgroupgatherings,isconsumedbya(sometimes contentious)back-and-forthonthemeaningofatheismitself.Considerthefollowingfromonline exchangesbetweenmembersofseveraldifferentgroups,Ithinkmostpeoplethinkatheismisthe beliefthatthereisnogod.Thatisincorrect.Atheismissimplythelackofbeliefingod(s).Atheism isnotabelief.Atheismisnotareligionoraphilosophy.Itsjusttheabsenceofabeliefintheism. Contrastwiththis:Peoplethinkthatatheismisalackofbelief.Theyarewrong.Atheismisa belief.Itisbeliefinphilosophyandscienceasopposedtoreligion....Itseekstodeneright fromwrongthroughphilosophy(ethics)ratherthanvaguenotionsandunfoundedrules.Having siftedthroughextensivecorrespondence,Ifoundthesecommentsrepresentreasonablywellan importantidentityconversationthatistakingplaceintheatheistcommunity. Thus,evenatheiststhemselvesdonotuniformlyagreeonthemeaningofatheism.The collectiveworkof deÞning atheismconstitutesanimportantpartoftheactiveandongoing negotiationofnotjustthemeaningoftheword,butalsothemeaningofwhatandwhoatheists are collectively.Thisraisesthequestionofhowcollectiveidentitybecomespossiblewithout consensusevenonthemeaningofatheismitself.Ironically,theunderscoringofdifferencecan resultinthissenseofwe.AsHunsbergerandAltemeyer(2006)found,atheiststendtoplace highvalueonautonomouscriticalthought.Butthisisnotjustanabstractvalueformanyatheists; itisaproductofbiography,narrative,andinteraction.AsSmith(2011)found,atheiststendto perceivetheiratheismastheresultofcriticalassessmentandindependenceofthought.This isespeciallythecaseforatheistswhohaveundergoneadeconversionprocessandwhohadto strugglewiththeirownreligionsoforiginandformerfaiths.Indeed,asthePewForumsrecent U.S.ReligiousKnowledgeSurvey(2010 ) shows,atheistsrankedhighestintermsofgeneral 88 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION knowledgeofreligionsuggestingthatthosewhocometoidentifyasatheistshavespentmore timethanothersinlearningaboutreligionandanalyzingitsclaims.Thisindividualpenchantfor thenarrativeofcriticalfreethoughtbecomesavaluedcollectiveend.Oneparticipantsumsupthe viewsofmany,Imamemberofmanyatheistorganizations.Ithasbeenincreasinglyobvious thatatheistsarenotoflikeminds.Suretheymayfeelthattheywanttobearoundpeoplewho donthaveabeliefinagod,butthatissuchasmallpartofwhatmakesarelationship....Atheists comefromallwalksoflife.Theseatheistsconsiderthemselvesautonomous,freethinking,and independent-minded.Butscholarshaverecentlyexaminedthevalues,beliefs,attitudes,andsocial characteristicsofatheistsandothersecularistsandweknowfromsuchresearchthatatheistsin theUnitedStates do sharemanysociodemographicandideologicalcharacteristics(seePasquale 2012foraninformativeaccountofthesociodemographicsimilarities,aswellasthediversity foundwithinsecularandatheistgroups).Forinstance,BakerandSmith(2009)showthatatheists aremorelikelytobeyoung,educated,single,andpoliticallyliberal.Variablessuchaslivingina cityversusruralareascanbeimportantpredictorsaswell(Hunter2010).Buttheseatheiststended tooverlooksuchsocialpatternsandinsteadfocusedondifference.Itisinpartthissharedfocus ondifferenceitselfthatsomewhatcounterintuitivelyactsasameansofunitingandorganizing atheists.Thecommonnarrativeofindividualismanddifferencelendsitselftoasharedsenseof experienceandidentity. Itisnotonlytheperceptionofuniquenessandindividualdifferenceconsistentwithwhat socialpsychologistsrefertoas personalidentity thatatheistshaveincommon.Inadditionto thecollectivenarrativeofdifference,broadconsensusexistsamongtheseatheistsregardingtheir overallnaturalisticworldview.Whenaskedbyanationalseculargroupwhatfundamentals atheistsshare,oneatheistresponded,IddenitelysaythatthephraseLoveofLifeisa standardthingamongatheists,whichisironicallycontrarytowhatmanybelieversthinkabout us.Also,[wehave]knowledge,understandingandastrongsenseofinnateethics.Though otheranswerstothisquestionweremoreorlesselaborate,eachtendedtocoalescearoundthis basicidea;thatatheistsarelife-afrming,informedcitizens,withastrongsenseofmorality.But ifthisquotationseemsmoresentimentthanstatementofveriedfact(aswecannomoresaywith certaintythatthesequalitiesareastandardthingamongtheists),thisisnotcoincidental.The necessityofsharedpositiveaffectforthecollectiveidentityconstructionofanysocialgrouphas beenobserved.AsPollettaandJasper(2001)argues,collectiveidentityisnotonlyanindividuals cognitiveconnectionandsharedsenseofidentitywithagrouporcommunity;itinvolvesboth moralandemotionalconnectionsaswell.Infact,asSnow(2001)states,onlywhenasocialgroup isactivatedorinfusedwithasharedsenseofaffectivityandmoralitycanitproperlybetermed acollectiveidentity. Theeverydayinteractionsandcommunicationsofatheistswithoneotherrevealtheirdevel- opmentofaffectivebonds.Facilitatedespeciallybysocialmediaandnetworking,moreatheists aregettingtogetherintheircommunities.Nolongerisitthecaseasitwasjustundertwodecades agothatsmallgroupsmetwitheachotheronceamonthinapubliclibraryorotherrentedspace. Today,theatheistcommunitylandscapeofactivityincludesbothformalandinformalweekly socials,atheistcampingexcursions,godlessdrinkingatlocalbars,sciencemuseumeldtrips, atheistparentingworkshops,debates,wintersolsticeparties,kidsskepticretreats,atheistcon- certevents,atheistblooddrives,bookclubs,scienceeducationevents,yingspaghettimonster socials,andevenatheistskydiving.Suchactivitiesofcoursegowellbeyondthetopicof atheism.Thesegatheringsaremoreaboutcreatingcommunityandenjoyingsolidaritythrough socialactivity.Atheistsareincreasinglyconstructingtheaffectivebondssocentraltocollective identitiesandformingtheemotionalcommunities(Hetherington1998)thatfostersolidarity andfacilitatecollectiveaction.Thisisrevealedinthesomewhatjocundpracticeofsharingpithy quotesonlinewithoneanotherthatpokefunatreligionorinsomewayimplythevirtuesof atheism:Giveamanash,andyoullfeedhimforaday;givehimareligion,andhellstarveto deathwhileprayingforash!Or,GoodluckandGodLess!Thisrelativelylow-costformof ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 89 emotiveexpressionhastheimmediatemicrovalidationeffectoftighteningthesocialandaffec- tivebondsbetweenatheistsandencouragingfurtheronandofineinteraction,aswellastheless immediatelyapparentresultoffacilitatingatheistsolidarityatthecommunityandorganizational levelovertime. Theaffectivebondsforgedbyatheistscomeaboutnotjustthroughtheexchangeofquips. Noraretheyeffectivewithoutabroadersocialcontextandatheistexperiencefromwhich todrawupon.AsMelucci(1995)hasstressed,affectivetiesandcollectiveemotiveforcesare onlypossibleinthecontextofabroaderinterpretiveeldofsocialmeaning,andthesymbolic, cultural/materialresourcesthatareforgedoutofinteractionitself.Theseresourcesthen,in areexivemanner,becomeavailabletotheirparticipantstodrawfromastheycontinueto collectivelyconstructthemselvesandnegotiatecommunity.Thecontentofanatheistcollective identityisthusrevealedbytheemploymentoftheseresources.Pollettaputsitplainly:collective identitiesareexpressedincultural[andsymbolic]materialsnames,narratives,symbols,verbal styles,rituals,clothingandsoon.(2001:285). Collectiveatheistidentityisexpressedthroughavarietyofthesecultural/symbolicmaterials. Notsurprisingly,atheistwritings,symbols,clothing,andothermaterialshavegrowninnumber andpopularitycommensuratewiththegrowingcommunityitself.OnRichardDawkinsswebsite alone,onecanpurchasealmostanyoftheitemstypicallyofferedtoconsumersbyorganizations andtheirbrandsfromatheistt-shirts,tojewelry,tocoffeemugsandkeychains.These materialsaremorethanjustthingspurchasedforpersonalenjoyment;theybecomeidentity markers,orbadgesthatannounceapersonallyvaluedattribute,andmakesometimesbold statementstoothersaboutwhoapersonis(Gardner1995:3).Thepopularscarletletter:Afor instance,printedonallkindsofproducts,isoneofthemorerecognizableatheistsymbols(the resultofatheistsacrossthenationsubmittingideasforaninternationalatheistsymbol).Although consistentwiththeconcernsofindividualismdiscussedearlier,theseatheistcultural/symbolic materialsarenotonlyexpressionsofpersonalidentities,oridiosyncraticpenchants.Theyare ofcollectiveconcernandexpresscollectiveidentityinthat,inadditiontoshowingsolidarity asamemberofabroaderatheistcommunity(orseekingcontroversywiththoseoutsidethe community),theycanbeusedwiththeintentionofaccomplishingstrategicandcollectivegoals. John,alocalorganizerwhowasproducinghisownatheistmerchandise,remarked:Thegoal withmyshirtand[atheist]designwerenottoscreamatheismorbashreligion,butinsteadto serveasacuriousstimulusthatcouldhelpstartasimpledialoguewithsomeoneopentoit.The shirtscouldalsohelpincreaseoutreachtootherclosetatheistswhodontknowaboutourgroup. AndmemberStephanieagreesthatthesesymbolicidentitymarkerscanbeusefultoolsforthe atheistcommunityinobtainingspeciedobjectives:Wehavetobeconspicuousinpublicin anonconfrontationalway.Thismeanstoroamaroundinpublicactinglikeeveryoneelse,but wearingsomethingthatidentiesyouasanatheist.Theproblemisthatmostbelieversdont knowanyatheistsinpublicsotheydonthaveanywayofrealizingthatwearentanydifferent fromthem. Ofcourse,noteveryatheistwouldagreetoroamarounddonningovertatheistsigniers orevenagreeinprincipletotheideaofdistinguishingthemselvesinanywaywithatheist symbols.However,asmemberswouldliketoseeatheismbecomemoresociallyacceptable,and demonstratetothepublicthatthereisindeedacommunityofatheistsinthiscountry,andthatthis communityisnotathreattoAmericanlife,thisisgenerallyviewedasagoalworthcollectively pursuingbyavarietyofmeans. Anotherimportantaspectofcollectiveidentityproductionincludeswrittenmaterialsthat expressandadvocateanatheistperspective.Inadditiontolocalefforts,therehavebeenrecent foraysintoformaltransnationaldeclarationsmeanttorepresententirenonbelievingsegmentsof democraticnations.Forexample,the2010WorldAtheistConferenceinCopenhagensponsored bytheAtheistAllianceInternationalwhoserecentmergerwithAmericanAtheistswaspurposed inordertostrengthenboththeUnitedStatesandinternationalatheistcommunityproducedthe 90 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION CopenhagenDeclarationonReligioninPublicLife,whichoutlinedaboutadozensociopolitical propositionsthatrevealanunderlyingconcernwithwhatitmeanstobeanonbelieverand/or partoftheatheistcommunity.Inadditiontoafrmingstatementsaboutdemocracyandequality, thedocumentisexplicitlyinclusiveofnonbelieversinallareasofpubliclifeandtheirright toequalityoftreatmentinit.Speciccriticismsofreligionareoffered,andthevaluesof nonbelieversasserted:Werejectanyspecialconsiderationforreligioninpoliticsandpubliclife, andopposecharitable,tax-freestatus...forthepromotionofanyreligionasinimicaltothe interestsofnon-believers....Werejectallblasphemylawsandrestrictionsontherighttocriticize religion....Wesupporttherighttoseculareducation,andasserttheneedforeducationincritical thinkingandthedistinctionbetweenfaithandreasonasaguidetoknowledge(Copenhagen Declaration2010). Butofcialdeclarationsdonotsimplyreecttheviewsofanalreadycollectivelydened will.Rather,itisconstitutiveofgroupconsciousnessitself.AsTaylorandWhittier(1992) discuss,groupconsciousnessisakeyingredienttotherelationshipbetweencollectiveidentity andcollectiveaction.Thisisbecause consciousness ofmembershipinacollectivityitselfimparts alargersocialsignicancetothatcollectivity;andoneprimarywayinwhichconsciousnessis constructedandimpartedisthroughthedevelopmentofaformalbodyofwritings,speeches, anddocuments(TaylorandWhittier1992:114).Oneshouldexpectthatasatheistscontinueto organize,theformalbodyofwritings,speeches,anddocumentswilllikewisegrow. SeekingChange:AtheistActivismandIdentityPolitics Establishingtheelementsofcommunitythatgiverisetoasenseofcollectiveidentity crystallizesmorecompletelywithpurposefulsociopoliticalactivitiesdesignedtopromotesome collectiveend.Groupsupportandinternalvalidationforonesidentityis,byitself,notsufcient formany.Seekingtochangethesocialmeaningandstatusofatheismandadvocatingspecic sociopoliticalideasbecomesharedgoalsthatorientandshapethecollectiveandorganizational actionsofatheists. ChallengingTheismandCompetingwithReligion Anidentitypoliticsrequiressometypeofperceivedoppressivestructurethatbecomesthe objectofresistanceandthetargetforwhichchangeissought.Formanysocialgroupsengaged inactivism,theircollectiveactionsaresquaredagainstconcreteadministrative,bureaucratic, economic,orotherstructuralforcesthatapplyinequitabletreatmentthusprovidingcause forgrievance.Organizedatheismresistsnotonlyalong-standingandhighlyvaluedhuman institutionorganizedreligionbutalsochallengestheculturallyentrenchedbeliefintheun- derlyingandlegitimizingforceofthisinstitutionbeliefinthesupernatural.Rejectingthiscan presentrealproblemsforatheists,explaininginpartthesometimesextremedistrustandpreju- diceleveledatthem(seeZuckerman2012foradetailedanalysisoftheformsandprocessesof rejectingreligionandtheisticbelief).Thus,constructingboundarieswithrelationtoreligionand theismareacentralaspectofthecollectiveidentityworkofatheists. Social,moral,andsymbolicboundariesareapparentinthecommunicationsandactivities ofatheists.Boundariesarecentraltocollectiveidentitybecausetheypromoteaheightened awarenessofagroupscommonalitiesandframeinteractionbetweenmembersofthein-groupand out-group(TaylorandWhittier1992:110).Themajorsubstantivesourceofcreatingboundaries foratheistsisnotsurprisinglyreligionandtheism.Often,thismeansatheistsdiscussingtheir differencesfromtheists.AsBrad,alocalorganizerremarks: Howareourlivesdifferentfromthatofbelievers?Areatheistshappierthanbelievers?...Itstandstoreason thatatheists,whobelievewehavebutasinglelifetolivewouldhavestrongideasonhowtolivethatlife.This touchesonthosefundamentalquestionsthatmostatheistsareaskedbybelieversregardingmorality,ethics... ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 91 [and]happiness.Ibelievethissortofexercise[addressingthesequestionswithotheratheists]isoneofmany necessarycomponentsofbuildingasolidsecularcommunity(somethingreligionshaveconsistentlybeatenus at...andwith). Theseexerciseshavetheeffectofclarifyingandstrengtheningcollectiveidentity.Of course,notalldiscussionsarequitesoabstractorneutralsounding.Morecombativestatements alsofrequentdiscussions.Inpartofalongcorrespondencewithfellowatheistsinresponseto controversialpubliccommentsmadebyaChristianaboutthenecessityofreligionforAmericans, Jasonhadthistosay: Weneedtogetournosesoutofthatvial[ sic ]book(thebible)andputtheminsteadintoascienticjournal.... Weneedtospendlesstimeprayingandmoretimeputtingourhandstowork....Putyourhandstogetherfor freedombydoingsomeworktoearnit.Thisisbattle.Itisserious....Ourveryfreedomisatstake.Wearenow ontheslipperyslope back tohorriblyandviolentoppression.Godistheonlyonewhocanputusthere.Reason istheonlyonewhocankeepusout! Butagain,atheistsdifferonhowbesttointeractandreacttotheistchallengesfromwithout. Argumentsconcerninglawsuitsadvancedbyaprominentatheistdemonstratethis.Manywere onboard,happytosignpetitionsconcerningavarietyoflegalissuessuchasprayerinschools, Godonourcurrency,andahostofotherissues.Onerespondent,whofavoredatheistsasa grouplitigating,stated: Thepropagandaputforthbythereligiousrightandtheirpolitical...maneuversisgearedtoisolatereality fromtheirocksothattheycangetenoughSupremeCourtJusticesonthebenchtoabolishanyAmendment thatprotectsnonreligiouspeople....Wedoneedtolitigatebecausemuchofthepublicdoesntunderstandthe realityofhistory.ManyareconvincedthatInGodWeTrusthasalwaysbeenonourcurrency....Wearebeing attacked.Wehavenochoicebuttoghtbacktokeepourconstitutionintact. Whereasothersexpressedessentiallytheoppositeview: Thisisridiculous;whenwillatheistsrealizethatthewaytoconvertpeopleisnotthroughnit-pickybehavioror sophomoriclawsuits?Whatwedontneedispeopleghtingundergodinthepledge,oringodwetruston money....Wealsodontneedmilitancyisntthisthemodeweareghting?Wewillneverwinbysinkingto theirlevel. Thisback-and-forth,however,ultimatelydoesnotundermineunityandasharedsense ofidentityandpurpose.Thereasonforthisistwofold.First,thenarrativeofindependent- mindednessthatatheistsvaluendsexpressioninexchangesofthiskind.Second,andmore importantinthiscase,isthesharedsenseofacommonthreat.Bothstatementssuggestthat atheistsareultimatelyghtingagainstignorance,unreason,andtheundesirableelementsof religion.Thisitselfprovidesenoughcollectivepurposetooverridedisagreementaboutwhat approachatheistsshouldtakeinaccomplishingtheirgoals.Organizedatheistsappearunitedon thekeyprinciplesoftheseparationofchurchandstate,asecularvaluesystem,andthepromotion ofscienceandevidence-basedreasoning.ThisisconsistentwithSnowsobservationthat:The sharedperceptionsandfeelingsofacommoncause,threat,orfatethatconstitutetheshared senseofwemotivatepeopletoacttogetherinthenameof,orforthesakeof,theinterestofthe collectivity(2001:4). Theboundariesatheistsconstructbetweenthemselvesandnonatheistothersareimportant fortheconsciousnessofthein-group,butalsomightproduceunintendedeffects.AsTaylorand Whittier(1992)observe,itisusuallythedominantgroup(inthiscasethetheistmajority)that erectsthemostsalientboundariesbetweenitselfandtheminoritygroupitrefersto.However, paradoxically,for[minority]groupsorganizingtopursuecollectiveends,theprocessofasserting whoweareofteninvolvesakindofreverseafrmationofthecharacteristicsattributedtoit 92 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION bythelargersociety(TaylorandWhittier1992:118).Thiscanbethecasewithatheists,as oftentheirminorityviewsareseenasvalidatingforinstancethestereotypeoftheangry atheist. Anotherimplicationofcreatingboundariesappearsinthenotionthattheatheistgroupoffers asocialoutletforparticipants.Combinedwiththeactivitiesthatorganizedatheistsparticipate in,thegroupmaybeviewedononelevelasanalternativefor,orinsomewaycompetingwith,the mostsalientsocialdimensions/benetsthatorganizedreligionoffers.Idonotclaimthatorganized atheismisthefunctionalequivalentoforganizedreligionforreasonsthatcannotbeelaborated here.However,atthelevelofgroupvalidation,andthefulllmentofparticularsocialneeds, theatheistgroupappearstofacilitatethemeetingofthese.Recentdevelopmentsareillustrative. Forinstance,insteadofBiblecamporotherreligiouslythemedsummerretreatsforchildren,kids canattendSkeptiCamp,orCampQuest,orparentscanparticipateinParentingBeyondBelief workshopswheretheycanlearnaboutraisingethicalcaringkidswithoutreligionaswellas handlingfamilypressuretoparticipateinreligiousactivities,easingfearsaboutdeathwithoutan afterlife,and[teaching]childrenaboutreligionwithoutindoctrinatingthem.Likewise,several atheistgroupspromotedtherecognitionandcelebrationofsecularholidaysforinstance,H.Res. 81inthe112thCongress(2011),whichsoughttoestablishFebruary12asDarwinDay.Inaddition, thecelebrationofwintersolsticeinsteadofthereligious-themedcelebrationsduringtheholiday seasonhasbecomemoreofafocus.OnegroupinColoradoevenpublishedanddisseminatedan atheistholidaycalendar,whichfeaturesrelevantseculareventsandcommemoratessignicant atheistsinhistory. Inadditiontosecularholidaysandthevenerationofatheistleaders,therehavebeenefforts todeveloppracticesaroundbasiclifetransitions(thatareusuallysuffusedwithanddominated byreligiouspractice)suchasbirth,marriage,andfuneralsthatareexplicitlyatheistandthat highlightanonreligiouscharacter.Forexample,onegrouporganizedameetingtodiscussdeath andfuneralsforatheists.Thebulletinread: Itseemsthatwhensomeonedies,everyonewhogathersatamemorialserviceeitherrecitesprayers,playsreligious music,invokesgod,andthelike.Iwanttohaveadiscussionabouthowtocreateanon-religiousdeathservice, andwhatkindofthingsshouldgointoawillorotherlegaldocumenttocarryoutthewishesofthepersonwho doesntwantothersreligiousbeliefsintroducedintoafuneral. Suchdiscussionsdemonstratetheimportanceofsymbolicboundariesforatheists.Andas Smith(2011)observes,partofconstructinganatheistidentityinvolvesarticulatingwhatitisone does not believe.Giventheinextricablelinkbetweenourpersonalandsocialidentitiesthose thingsthatmakeusuniqueandthosethingsthatgiveusasenseofsamenessIwouldsuggest furtherthatthisnot-selfisalsoaformativeprocessofcollectiveidentity. KeyIssuesforActivists Constructingboundariesandunderscoringdifferenceisnotonlyaccomplishedthrough rhetoricanddiscourse,itisalsoapartofthesocialandpoliticalactionsoforganizedatheists. AsHetherington(1998)observes,theidentitypoliticsoftodayatplaywithinmanysocial groupsareasoftenaboutthepoliticsofdifferenceandtheexpandingalternativeidentity choices availabletopeople,thantheyareaboutexperiencingmoreobviousoppressionduetomarginal statuses.Putdifferently,theconditionsofthecontemporarysocial/politicallandscapearesuch thatgroupsmightengageinidentitypoliticsasawayofchoosingtobemarginal(Hetherington 1998:27).Butwhywouldone choose astigmatizedsocialstatus?Becausechoosingamarginalized identitywhichoftenbringswithitoppositionandsubsequentopportunityforresistancecan itselfbeanimportantsourceofmeaningfulactivity.Adoptingthelabelatheist,andafliating withanatheistorganization,isanimportantidentitychoiceevenifonedoesnotproperlychoose theiratheism. ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 93 Astheliteraturesonprotestandsocialmovementsshow,thesourcesofactivismarecomplex andvaried.Here,Ifocusmorenarrowlyonspecicconnectionsbetweenactivismandcollective identity.Atheistactivismisameansofconstructingbothpersonalandsharedmeaning.As Pollettastates:Activismformanypeopleisawaytoconstructadesirableself(2001:290).It involvesworktowardsomegoal,theeffortofwhichisnotmerelywhatmustbeenduredinorder toachievethegoal;theworkitselfbecomesthesourceofmeaningandidentity.Whenpeople collectivelypursuedesiredgoals(andselves)theprocessbecomesmoredynamic.Organized activismdevelopsfromasharedsenseofgrievancewithsomeaspectofthebroadersociety.There existsasharedfeltneedtorespondto,andsometimesprotestagainst,whatisseenasunjustor untrue.Toproperlyspeakofatheistactivismthen,onemustidentifythesetofgrievancesmost commontogroupsofatheistactors.Thesecanbedistilledintotwobasiccategories:(1)thosethat dealwiththeissueofseparationofchurchandstateandtheperceivedubiquityandencroachment ofreligion/theism,and(2)thosethatdealwiththemarginalstatusofatheismitself. Onerecentexampleoftherstkindinvolvedthecoordinatedeffortofseveralgroupsin protestingthepresenceofanativityscenedisplayedbyalocalsheriffonpublicpropertyin aColoradocityin2008.Thelightingofthescenewastobeaccompaniedbyapublicprayer meeting,andthelocalsheriffwassellingsweatshirtsthatread:Haveapoliticallyincorrect holiday,justsayMerryChristmas!Afterphonecallsandmeetingswiththesheriff,thegroups wereultimatelyunsuccessfulatgettingthedisplayremoved.Thesheriffreportedlyremarked thathewoulddisplaythereligioussceneeveryyearaslongashewassheriff.Buttheatheist groupspersisted,bringinginanattorneyandseekinghelpfromnationalsecularorganizations. Aftercontinuednegotiationstheywereallowedtocreateandplacetheirownatheistplaque alongwiththerestoftheChristmasdisplay,whichread:DuringthisWinterSolsticeseason, illuminateyourmindwithreason,letfriendsandfamilywarmyourheart,andcelebratethatwe alltakepart.TheatheistsinattendanceatthelightingworenametagsthatreadPromoting theSeparationofChurchandState.Oneoftheleadersthatcoordinatedtheeffortdescribedits outcomethisway,thisprojectwasathree-pointeldgoalsuccess,butnotasix-pointtouchdown success.Atouchdownsuccesswouldhavebeenremovalofthemangerscene.[But]oureld goalatheistdisplayisasuccessthatsayswenonbelieverswillnotacceptviolationsofchurch andstatelyingdown. Thiseldgoalsuccessseemedtoprovidesomeimpetusforfurtheractivism.Avariety ofotherchurch/stateseparationissuesensuedoverthenextfewyearsthatgroupsbecamein- volvedin.Inadditiontothebillboardcampaigns,theseincludedprotestingtheWestboroBaptist ChurchsantihomosexualpicketinginColorado,signinglocalpetitionsforthelingoflawsuits challengingtheintrusionofmonotheismintotheinaugurationofU.S.Presidents,petition- ingaschooldistrictsadoptionofanofcialdocumenttitledFortyDevelopmentalAssents, whichincludestheneedforareligiouscommunityforallchildren,challengingHobbyLobbys ChristianNationadvertisements,andprotestingfaith-basedinitiativesandthetax-exemptstatus ofchurches. Increasingnumbersofatheistsbecameinvolvedintheseactivities,inpartpersuadedby theimpassionedappealsmadefromorganizers;asoneannouncedinamasse-mail:[Weare] membersofadisenfranchisedminority...weneedeachandeveryoneofyourightnow! Theimplicationthattheselocaleffortsareultimatelyaboutachievingnationalsignicance andculturalchangewasalwayspresent.AtalargestateconventioninColorado,forinstance, whereatheistswereprotestingafaith-basedinitiativeembracedbythelocalgovernment,many expressedtheirfeelingsabouttheiractivismalongtheselines:Thisprotestistonotethenearly 15%ofAmericanswhoclaimnoreligion...this[statepoliticalconvention]isachanceto speaktothe[national]issueofseparationofchurchandstateinfrontofthewholecountry. Localeffortsacrossthecountryhelpedtosettheconditionsforactivitiesofbroadernational signicance.Forinstance,in2010groupscelebratedtheSecularCoalitionofAmericasofcial policybriengwithpresidentialadministrationattheWhiteHousethersttimeinhistorya 94 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION explicitlynontheistorganizationhadmetwithofcialstofocusonissuesimportanttothem.A representativeoftheSCAcommented: The[SCA]ispoisedtomakehistorywithanofcialmeetingwithWhiteHouseofcials.[Weare]encouraging non-theiststotakeapollindicatingwhatissuesareofgreatestimportancetoyou.TheSCAexiststoensurethat [atheistsandsecularists]haveavoiceinWashington;toopposeinjusticesresultingfromtheocraticencroachments ongovernment[andto]towinAmericasrespectandrecognitionbettingourcommunity. OthernationalorganizationssuchastheAmericanHumanistAssociationseemedtoincrease theireffortsaswell,asevidencedbytheirrecentnationalmultimediaadvertisingcampaign,which theyclaimedwasthelargest,mostextensiveeverbyagodlessorganization.Duringthisperiod localgroupsbecameincreasinglyinterconnectedandcoordinated,givingthecommunitymore inuenceonpublicdiscourse.Fromanewsocialmovementsperspective,itisnotsurprising thatatheistshavedevelopedatoneconsistentwiththelanguageofcivilrightsandminority discourse.Onelocalorganizersumsuptheperspectiveofmanyactivists:Manyofusthinkof secularism[andatheism]asbeingonthecuspofawavetoprotectseparationofchurchand state....Wethinkofourselvesasaboutthefourthorfthwaveofcivilrightsmovements,after peopleofcolor,women,thehomosexual/transgenderedcommunityandpeoplewithdisabilities. Withmanyinvokingthephrasenewatheistmovementandremarkinghowtheycouldeven becomeapoliticalforceitisclearthat,whetherthesestatementsareempiricallyaccurateornot, theatheistcommunityhasgainedasenseofunitythatperceivesitselfwithinacontemporary sociopoliticalcontextasacoordinatedcollectivitywithclearvalues,goals,andadesirefora greatersenseofsocialandpoliticallegitimacy. Framingatheismasacivilrightsissueisnotaccidental.Iforganizedatheistsaretoimplement theculturalshiftstheydesireandpersuadethepublictobemoreacceptingofthem,theymust appealtotheculturallyvaluedandembeddeddiscourseoffreedomofexpression,andchoice ofworldview.Pluralismandreligiousfreedomissomethingtowhichatheistscanappealwhen engagingthepublic.Thus,combinedwiththeuseofmediaandoutreach,atheistsonabasic leveluseexistinginstitutionalmeansofpursuingchange:engaginginpublicdiscourseand identitypolitics.Importantfortheseatheists,however,isthequestionof how tobestpursue thisengagement.Asoneorganizerremarked,weneedtobuildarealcommunitywithout beingcombative;weneedtopersuade[people]ataninstitutionalleveltoachieveacultural shift.Discussionaboutwhetheratheistsarebetteroffaggressivelypursuingthisculturalshift, orwhethertheyshouldtakeamoreaccommodatingapproachinaccomplishingtheirgoals frequentedconversations.Gatheringsthatcenteredonthisquestionhadawayofenergizing membersandtriggeringwhatSnowandMcAdamrefertoas identityampliÞcation ,orthe embellishmentandstrengtheningofanexistingidentitythatiscongruentwithamovements collectiveidentity(2000:49).Thoughidentityamplicationdoesnotguaranteeactivismonthe partofmembers,itisneverthelessanimportantcomponenttowardthatend. GoodWorksWithoutGod Thesecondcategoryofcollectivegrievanceinvolvesthemarginalstatusofatheism.Chal- lengingand/orcompetingwithreligion,andpoliticalatheistactivism,eitherdirectlyorindirectly connectwiththecollectivedesiretodestigmatizeatheism.Thismotivatesworktowardmaking atheismsociallyacceptable.Demonstratingthroughcollectiveactionsthattheyaregoodwithout godisacentralconcernoforganizedatheism.Asenseofgrouplegitimacywouldnotbepossible absenttheviewthatatheismcanbecomeanacceptedsocialposition.Therefore,agreatdealof atheistactivismisactuallyaboutpubliclydemonstratingtheconsistencyofatheistsmoralsand valueswiththatofthemainstream.Therearemanyexamplesinrecentyearsofthisworktoward destigmatization.Forinstance,onegroupcreatedwhatitcalleditsAskanAtheistproject. ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 95 Members,oneweekendafternooneachmonth,wouldsetupboothsinpublicparkstoattract attentionandstartconversationswithpassersby.Thestatedintentionontheannouncementread [wewant]toshowbelieversthataspeoplewehavemoreincommonthannot,andtoshowthem weare,infact,goodpeople.Theyevenmovedthistoaperhapsmoreobviousvenue,withAsk anAtheistatChurchwhereagroupconvenedatalocalBaptistChurch(withpermission)to showbelieverstheyaregood,normalpeople. Amoreorganizationallyambitiousprojectinvolvedtherecentdevelopmentofanintergroup collaborativecharitableorganizationcalledAtheistsforHumanity(2011)launchedinDenver in2011.Thewebsiteshomepage(whichstates:Doinggoodforgoodnesssake)allowspeo- pletodonatetoanyof23well-knowncharitiesinthenameofatheism.Theefforttochange publicopinionofatheistsismadeexplicitbytheorganization:Ourgoalsaresimple:raise moneyandawarenessforworthycharitiesandactivelyworktodestigmatizeatheistsandathe- ism.Thecreatorofthenonprotspokeenthusiasticallyinanonlineannouncementaboutthe project: Eachtimewesendmoney,food,orclothingtoacharity,wellincludealetterstatingthedonationscamefrom AtheistsforHumanity.OncewegetalittlemomentumwellstartsendingoutPressReleasestolocalpapersand magazines....Wecandogoodforthoseinneedwhilealsopolishingtheperceptionofatheismandatheists.If youreanatheistandaretiredofthenegativestigmathatcomeswithit,comehelpusdosomethingaboutit! Likewise,thegrowingnumberofvolunteeractivitiesatheistgroupsareengaging,suchas streetcleanups,fooddrives,andbenetevents,areinstancesnotonlyofthestatedgoalofeffecting positivechangeinthebroadercommunity,buteffectingchangeinthewaypeopleviewatheists andtheirorganizations.Thegoalofdestigmatizationisalsoapparentintheatheistactivism.As oneparticipantremarked,inhisproposingtootheratheiststhattheycounterprotesttheWBCs antigaydemonstrations,Iwouldliketoseeagroupstanduptothesepeoplewhynotus? Eventhereligioustendtoshyawayfromthisradicalgroup.Ifatheistsstandup,perhapssociety willthinktwiceaboutwhattheybelievewestandfor.Thisslightlyulteriormotiveshowshow importantdestigmatizationisforcontemporaryatheists. TheGoodwithoutGodandNationalSecularServiceDaycampaignsillustrateata broaderlevelthecurrentimpulseofthesecular/atheistcommunitytobecomemoreaccepted. AsaleaderofNSSDstatedinacorrespondencewithmanylocalgroups:Ourmission[isto] uniteseculargroupsacrossthecountryintheinterestofpublicservice,andtodemonstrateour commitmenttoleadingfullandethicallives...toraisethevisibilityandsenseofunityamong localgroupsinthecommunityofreason,tocreateanationaldialogueontheroleofnontheistsin AmericanSociety.Suggestingcompetitionwiththerolethatreligiousorganizationsoftenplay, thecreationofNSSD,endorsedbymanylocalatheistgroupsstatesfurtherthat:Wewantour nonreligiouscommunitytobeabletoofferthesamefantasticserviceopportunitiesthatchurches andreligiousgroupsareknownfor...wewanttoshowthenationthatwetooarecommittedto charitableandethicalliveswithorwithoutreligion.Participantswereencouragedtosubmitto theprojectorganizersspecicexamplesaboutyourgod-freeinvolvementinservicetocountry orcommunity.Themoralunderpinningsinthesecommentssuggestthatimbuingatheismwith positivemoralmeaningsisimportantnotjustforthepersonalmoralidentitiesofatheists,but forthedevelopmentofacollectiveatheistidentity.Asonememberexpressed:Whatweneed todoisworktogether,andshowpeoplethatatheismdoesntmeanthedeathofmorality;it actuallymeansastrongermorality.Theemphasisonwetogetherchallengingtheprevailing ideasaboutreligionandmorality,andasagroupshowingpeoplethatatheismiscompatiblewith morality,isdemonstrativeofcollectivestigmamanagement(Martin2000).Theorganizational identitiesthatdeneatheistgroupsparalleltheactivistorganizationalframeworkthatMartin wroteaboutinhisanalysisofdifferentialorganizationalapproachestomanagingsocialstigma. Atheistscollectivelyaim,throughtheirorganizationalframeworks,toeducatethepublicabout 96 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION whotheyarethroughvariousformsofself-advocacyandsocial/politicalactivisminanattemptto acquiregreatercontroloverthesocialmeaningofatheismtherebycreatinggreaterconsistency betweentheiridentityandthepublicsperceptionofthem. C ONCLUSION ThisstudyexaminedthecollectiveidentityworkofcontemporaryatheistsintheUnited States.Littlesociologicalscholarshiphasinvestigatedthewaysinwhichatheistscollectively negotiatetheiridentitiesinthecontextofatheistorganizations,andwiththenonatheistpublic. ConsistentwithCiminoandSmiths(2007)observationsabouttheminoritydiscourseoforga- nizedatheists,thecurrentstudyndsthatatheistsindeedareengagedinidentitypolitics,and availtherhetoricofmarginalizationbyframingatheismasapoliticalissue.CiminoandSmith (2007)gofurther,however,arguingthatatheistsarerespondingtothefailureofsecularism byadoptingthestrategiesofevangelicals.Thereissomeevidencetosupportthis.Forinstance, therhetoricofthedangersoftheismandactivitiessuchasAskanAtheistatChurchcan reasonablybeconstruedasexamplesofthedefensivecompetitionandmimicryofevan- gelicalismthatCiminoandSmith(2007)discuss.However,incontrast,thepresentstudynds that,farfromadoptinganinuredpostureregardingthesupposedfailureofsecularism,ortak- ingrefugeinasubculturalniche,infact,manyorganizedatheistsareactuallyclosertoseeing themselvesaspartofthesecularvanguard,somethingCiminoandSmith(2007)suggestthey havehadtoabandon.Organizedatheistsperceiveboththepossibility,andnecessity,ofnotjust defending theirviews,butgrowing,increasingtheirinuence,andbecominganacceptedpartof themainstream.ThecommentsofthepresidentofAmericanAtheistsatthe2012ReasonRally makethisclear,Americaisnotfarbehind[secularisminWesternEurope].Ibelieveintwo decadeswewillbeinapositionwheresecularismisthenorm(NationalPublicRadio2012). Irrespectiveofthehistorical/empiricalaccuracyofthisclaim,thepointisthatorganizedatheists perceive theprogressionofsecularisminAmerica.Scholarsshouldthereforeresistacceptingthe premisethatatheistsnolongeroperateunderthisassumptionuntilfurtherresearchcanbearthis out. Ihavearguedtheinterplaybetweenatheistsseekingbothadenedcommunityandamean- ingfulchangeinhowthepublicviewsthatcommunityisatthecoreoftheircollectiveidentity. Fromseekingtobringothersoutofthecloset,toemployingtherhetoricofanidentitypolitics, toengaginginsocial/politicalactivism,contemporaryatheistsareconstructingasharedsenseof identityandcommunity.Ratherthaninternaldifferencesunderminingcollectiveidentity,anarra- tiveofdifference,combinedwithanacknowledgmentofsharedvalues,servestostrengthengroup boundariesandself-understanding.Theactivityofatheists,whichinvolvesthe(re)negotiationof themeaningofatheismvis- ` a-vistheAmericanpublic,isanorganizingprincipleofcollective identityconstruction. Socialmediaandnetworkinghasplayedanimportantroleinthedevelopmentoftheatheist community(SmithandCimino2012).Thereisnocentralizedleadershipinthiscommunity,so atheistshavereliedonlateral,cooperative,localactivities.Participantsmaycomefromavariety ofbackgrounds,andhavedifferingviewsonspecicissues,butcooperativeactionispossible toasignicantdegreebecauseofthecollectivenarrativesatheistsemployonline.AsWuthnow (2011)reiterates,talkisanessentialelementinboththeproductionandanalysisofsociallife. Thoughhewasreferencingreligiousdiscourse,talkisnolesscriticalin irreligious discourse. Foratheistsconstructcollectiveidentity,inpart,bythetalktheyengageinwithoneanotherand withthepublic. Goal-orientedsocialactionrequiresthealigningofpersonalandcollectiveidentity.From thisview,whenatheistsengageinactivismitisbecausetheirsharedsenseofwehasanimated ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 97 andmobilizedthemcognitively,morally,andemotionallyforacommoncause,andagainsta commonthreat(Snow2001:4).ThenormativestatusoftheisminUnitedStates,andthepublic andpoliticalnatureofreligiouslifeprovideplentyofopportunityandjusticationforatheists toorganize.Thenotionofcollectiveidentityactsasaconceptualbridgebetweenindividual motivations/dispositionsandcollectiveaction.AsFriedmanandMcAdamwrite:Oneofthe mostpowerfulmotivatorsofindividualactionisthedesiretoconrm,through[collective] behavior,acherishedidentity(1992:166). Organizedatheismoccupiesaninterestingspacewhenviewedinthelightofsocialmove- menttheory.AsPollettaandJasper(2001)discuss,mobilizationonthepartofthecivilrights movementwasbasedonseekingfullinclusionasequalcitizens.Thisisincontrasttopostciti- zenshipmovements,whicharepeopledbythosewhoalreadyenjoymostorallofthenormal rightsofcitizens,includingtheabilitytomobilizelegallyandtoputpressureonpoliticalde- cisionmakers(PollettaandJasper2001:287).Giventheirsociodemographicandeducational characteristics(seeCragun,Hammer,andSmith2012;Pasquale2012),atheistsasagroupt intothislattercategory.Yet,atheistsperceivebothstigmaandmarginalization.Thispercep- tionisnotunfounded,asresearchdocuments(Cragun,Hammer,andSmith2012).Indeed, muchoftheAmericanpublicdoesnotincludeatheistsasfullcitizensbecausetheyarebe- lievedtohaverejectedthemoralfoundationsofAmericanlife(Edgell,Gerteis,andHartmann 2006).Thishelpstoexplaintheminoritydiscourseandtherhetoricofcivilrightsthatorganiz- ingatheistshaveincreasinglycometoadopt.Relatedtothisismysuggestionthatorganized atheismcanbeviewedasanexampleofthenot-selfatthecollectivelevel.Andalthough thereiscurrentlymuchmoreevidenceofnot-uslanguageanddiscoursebeingemployed byatheists,ifthecontemporarypatternsofatheistcommunityandsolidaritydescribedearlier continue,itseemsreasonabletoexpectthesediscursivenarrativepracticeswillbegintomore frequentlytranslateintoactualexplicitcollectiveatheist behavioral practices(suchasatheist funerals). Bainbridgesuggeststhatatheismresultsfromweaksocialobligations;applyingthecom- pensatormodel,heclaimsthatatheistslackintimate,personalobligationsofthekindthat mightbenetfromsecondarycompensation(2005:5).Compensatortheoryarguesthatinthe absenceofdesiredsupernaturalrewards(e.g.,promiseofanafterlife)compensatorsactintheir steadasakindoftemporaryplace-holderforthepromiseoftherewardinthefuture.Social relationships,andtheirattendantobligations,arethemselvescompensators(secondarybecause theyaresocial,whereasprimarycompensatorsarepersonalandpsychological).Thus,someone wholacksstrongsocialbondsofakindtoincur[social]obligationsismorefreetoespouse atheism(Bainbridge2005:7). Thecurrentstudyrevealspotentialproblemswiththisreasoning.Mostbasically,Bainbridge tendstoviewatheistsasisolatedindividuals.Buttherangeofsocialrelationshipsandactivities describedearlier,inwhichatheistsincreasinglyengage,seemstocontradictthepremiseofthe loneatheistwithfewsocialconnectionsorobligations.However,iffutureresearchconrms thatatheistsdoinfacttendtohavefewersocialobligationsthanthereligious,perhapsthisis because,awareoftheirdeviantstatus,theyarelesslikelytopursuerelationshipswiththosewho maynotacceptthem.Thisisparticularlythecaseinthecontextoffamilyrelationships(whichare animportantpartofwhatBainbridgereferstoinspeakingaboutsocialobligations).AsFitzgerald (2003)shows,manyatheistsuseavoidancetechniques(especiallywithreligiousfamilymembers) toreducestressorconictinrelationships.Inthiscase,lackofobligationswouldnotbethe source ofatheism;itwouldbeitsoutcome.Ididnotassessthecausesofatheisminthisstudy,butmy generalndingsaremoreconsistentwithHunters(2010)argumentthatgreaterconsiderationof social,demographic,andsocialpsychologicalfactors,suchasexposuretoanatheistviewpoint, genderandrace,andwhetherornotoneislikelytondsocialsupportforatheismisrequiredfor amorecompletesociologicalpictureofcontemporaryatheists. 98 JOURNALFORTHESCIENTIFICSTUDYOFRELIGION R EFERENCES AmericanReligiousIdenticationSurvey.2009.Availableathttp://commons.trincoll.edu/aris/les/2011/08/ARIS_ Report_2008.pdf,accessedJune2011. AtheistAllianceofAmerica.2011.Availableathttp://www.atheistallianceamerica.org/,accessedJuly2011. AtheistsforHumanity.2011.Availableathttp://www.atheistsforhumanity.org/,accessedJune2011. Bainbridge,WilliamS.2005.Atheism. InterdisciplinaryJournalofResearchonReligion 1(1):124. Baker,JosephO.andBusterSmith.2009.Thenones:Socialcharacteristicsofthereligiouslyunafliated. SocialForces 87(3):125263. Bullivant,StephenandMichaelRuse(eds.).2013. Oxfordhandbookofatheism .NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. Campbell,Colin.1972. Towardasociologyofirreligion .NewYork:HerderandHerder. Charmaz,Kathy.2001.Groundedtheory.In ContemporaryÞeldresearch:Perspectivesandformulations ,editedby RobertM.Emerson,pp.33552.ProspectHeights,IL:Waveland. Cimino,RichardandChristopherSmith.2007.Secularhumanismandatheismbeyondprogressivesecularism. Sociology ofReligion 68(4):40724. CopenhagenDeclarationonReligionandPublicLife.2010.Availableathttp://www.atheist.ie/2010/06/ copenhagen-declaration-on-religion-in-public-life/,accessedJune2011. Cragun,RyanT.,JosephH.Hammer,andJesseM.Smith.Forthcoming.AtheistsinNorthAmerica.In Oxfordhandbook ofatheism ,editedbyStephenBullivantandMichaelRuse.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. Ecklund,ElaineHowardandKristenSchultzLee.2011.Atheistsandagnosticsnegotiatereligionandfamily. Journalfor theScientiÞcStudyofReligion 50(4):72843. Edgell,Penny,JosephGerteis,andDouglasHartmann.2006.Atheistsasother:Moralboundariesandculturalmem- bershipinAmericansociety. AmericanSociologicalReview 71(2):21134. Emerson,RobertM.2001. ContemporaryÞeldresearch:Perspectivesandformulations .LongGrove,IL:Waveland. Fitzgerald,Bridget.2003.AtheistsintheUnitedStates:Theconstructionandnegotiationofanon-normativeidentity. PhDdissertation,StateUniversityofNewYork. Friedman,DebraandDougMcAdam.1992.Collectiveidentityandactivism:Networks,choices,andthelifeofasocial movement.In Frontiersinsocialmovementtheory ,editedbyAldonD.MorrisandCarolMcClurgMueller,pp. 15673.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress. Gardner,CarolBrooks.1995. Passingby:Genderandpublicharassment .Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress. Hetherington,Kevin.1998. Expressionsofidentity:Space,performance,politics .ThousandOaks,CA:Sage. Hunsberger,BruceE.andBobAltemeyer.2006 Atheists:AgroundbreakingstudyofAmericaÕsnonbelievers .Amherst, NY:PrometheusBooks. Hunter,LauraA.2010.Explainingatheism:Testingthesecondarycompensatormodelandproposinganalternative. InterdisciplinaryJournalofResearchonReligion 6(6):137. Martin,David.2000.Organizationalapproachestoshame:Avowal,management,andcontestation. SociologicalQuarterly 41(1):12550. Melucci,Alberto.1995.Theprocessofcollectiveidentity.In Socialmovementsandculture ,editedbyHankJohnston andBertKlandermans,pp.4163.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress. NationalPublicRadio.2012.Interviewarchives.Availableathttp://www.npr.org/,accessedApril2012. Pasquale,FrankL.2012.Aportraitofseculargroupafliates.In Atheismandsecularity ,editedbyPhilZuckerman,pp. 4387.SantaBarbara,CA:Praeger. PewForumonReligionandPublicLife.2010. U.S.religiousknowledgesurvey .Availableathttp://pewresearch. org/pubs/1745/religious-knowledge-in-america-survey-atheists-agnostics-score-highest,accessedDecember2011. Polletta,FrancescaandJamesM.Jasper.2001.Collectiveidentityandsocialmovements. AnnualReviewofSociology 27(1):283305. RichardDawkinsFoundation.2011.Availableathttp://www.richarddawkins.net,accessedJuly2011. Smith,ChristopherandRichardCimino.2012.Atheismsunbound:Theroleofthenewmediaintheformationofa secularistidentity. SecularismandNonreligion 1(1):1731. Smith,JesseM.2011.BecominganatheistinAmerica:Constructingidentityandmeaningfromtherejectionoftheism. SociologyofReligion 72(2):21537. Snook,JenniferS.2008.Onbeingheathen:Negotiatingidentityinanewreligiousmovement.PhDdissertation,University ofColorado. Snow,David.2001.Collectiveidentityandexpressiveforms.Irvine:UniversityofCaliforniaatIrvineCenterforthe StudyofDemocracy.Availableathttp://escholarship.org/uc/item/2zn1t7bj. Snow,DavidandLeonAnderson.1987.Identityworkamongthehomeless:Theverbalconstructionandavowalof personalidentities. AmericanJournalofSociology 92(6):133671. Snow,DavidandDougMcAdam.2000.Identityworkprocessesinthecontextofsocialmovements:Clarifyingthe identity/movementnexus.In Self,identity,andsocialmovements ,editedbySheldonStryker,TimothyJ.Owens, andRobertW.White,pp.4167.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress. ATHEISTCOLLECTIVEIDENTITY 99 Stark,Fortney.2011.ExpressingsupportfordesignationofFebruary12,2011,asDarwinDayandrecognizingthe importanceofscienceinthebettermentofhumanity.H.Res.81,112thCong.,1stSess.,2011.Availableat http://d1f0ywl7f2vxwh.cloudfront.net/bill/12-hr81/text?version = ih&nid = t0:ih:12,accessedJune2012. Taylor,Verta,andNancyWhittier.1992.Collectiveidentityinsocialmovementcommunities:Lesbianfeministmobiliza- tion.In Frontiersinsocialmovementtheory ,editedbyAldonD.MorrisandCarolMcClurgMueller,pp.10429. NewHaven,CT:YalePress. WorldValuesSurvey.2005.Availableathttp://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/. Wuthnow,RobertJ.2011.Takingtalkseriously:Religiousdiscourseassocialpractice. JournalfortheScientiÞcStudy ofReligion 50(1):121. Zuckerman,Phil.2012. Faithnomore:Whypeoplerejectreligion .NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress. S UPPORTING I NFORMATION AdditionalSupportingInformationmaybefoundintheonlineversionofthisarticleatthe publisherswebsite: TableS1 :Demographiccharacteristicsofsample