SOCI 102/122 Diversity of Peoples and Cultures - PowerPoint Presentation

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SOCI 102/122Diversity of Peoples and Cultures

Session 6 –DISTRIBUTION AND EXCHANGE: THE MARKET PRINCIPLE AND RECIPROCITY

Lecturer: Dr.

Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo

, UG

Contact Information: ddzorgbo@ug.edu.gh

Session Overview

IntroductionThis session deals with how different societies deal with the distribution and exchange of goods and services. In modern societies, goods and services are distributed through the price mechanism and the search of profit and minimization of cost/prices of goods guide both producers and consumers. In this case, both producers and consumers are said to be rational decision makers. However, in some other societies, exchange is not dictated by the search for profit, but rather other social values, through the principle of reciprocity and there exist different types of reciprocity in human societies. Although we make such as sharp distinction between these two, in reality both market principle and reciprocity are found in varying degrees in many modern societies. ObjectivesAt the end of the session, the student will be able to:explain what is meant by distribution and exchangeexplain what is meant market principles determining exchange and distributionexplain the principle of reciprocityidentify the various types of reciprocity 

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Session Outline

The key topics to be covered in this session are as follows:Topic One: Distribution and ExchangeTopic Two: Market Principles and RedistributionTopic Three: Principles and Types of Reciprocity 

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Reading List

Assimeng, M. (1999), Social Structure of Ghana, Tema, Ghana Publishing Corporation.  Kottak, C. P. (2004), Cultural Anthropology, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation.  Kottak, C. P. (2004), Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Boston, McGraw Hill Corporation.Nolan, P. & G. Lenski, (2004 or any of the newer editions), Human Societies: An introduction to macrosociology, Boulder Paradigm Publishers. Nukunya, G. K. (2006), Tradition and change in Ghana: An introduction to sociology, Accra, Ghana University Press. Sanderson, S. K. & A. S. Alderson (2005 or its newer editions), World societies: the evolution of human life, Boston, Pearson Education Inc.

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Topic one: Distribution and Exchange

Every human society engages in production, distribution (exchange) and consumption of goods and services and some human behaviours and social organizations are attached to all these activities.One may ask what motivates people in different cultures to produce, distribute (or exchange) and consumeAnswering these questions leads us to the issue of motivation that lies behind all these activities

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Topic One:Distribution and Exchange (cont’d)

In the developed, modern or industrial world, people produce, exchange and consume goods and services on the principle of scarcity of resources in relation to human wants and needsBecause human wants and needs are limitless and the resources for satisfying them are limited, humans have to economizeIn economizing, every individual (be it in production, distribution and consumption) is thought of as calculative and rational and will like to maximize profit as much as possibleSo in the developed world, the market operates to bring together producers and consumers who interact to determine pricesThe price that is arrived at for a particular product or service is judged as the one that satisfies all participants in the marketThe price is determined by how much of the product is supplied and how much of it is demanded: hence the law of demand and supply operating in the market. Therefore, the market decides price and the allocation of resources in society

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Topic TwoMarket Principles and Re-distribution

So in the developed mostly capitalist societies, the operation of the market decides how the means of production: land, labour, financial capital, natural resources, technology are acquired for production.The buyer and seller are motivated to make profit or the get much value or money’s worth.However not all societies place priority on making profits when the exchange and consume products, services.So we have market principle operating more in the developed world and principles of reciprocity operating more in the less developed world.However, by today’s standard most societies operate to varying degree all the above distributive mechanism

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Topic Three:Principles and Types of Reciprocity

In the less developed societies, a lot of exchanges do take place through the reciprocity People cherish other values than profit, so profit will not always be the determining factor of exchangePeople reciprocate and exchange products among equals who are related mostly by kinship, marriage, adoption or close personal relationships. They value these social goods, social relationship and friendliness than pure profit so the market does not always operatePrinciples of reciprocity operates more among foragers, cultivators and pastoralistThree types of reciprocity are found depending on (i) how closely related the parties are to each other in the exchange and (ii) How quickly and unselfishly gifts/goods are reciprocated.The three types are (i) generalized reciprocity, (ii) balanced reciprocity and (iii) negative reciprocity

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Topic Three:Principles and Types of Reciprocity (cont’d)

The three types of reciprocity found in non-industrialized societies are: Generalized reciprocity: this happens when someone gives another persons something but does not expect any concrete and immediate return as parents give things to their children. Children are only to show respect, love, honour, loyalty, etc.(ii) Balanced reciprocity: this happens when people are more distantly related than members of the same household, family. Here because of distance, the giver expects something in return although immediately. However if the gift is not reciprocated in the future the relationship would be strained(iii) Negative reciprocity: This happens with strangers and people who are distant. Because the parties may not see each other again, they want something in return for what they are giving out. Exchanging with outsiders is full of ambiguities, suspicions and mistrust. The more the social distance between the parties are the more parties want something in resturn.

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Topic ThreePrinciples and Types of Reciprocity (cont’d)

In modern societies, because many people are strangers there is the market so that all parties get something quickly in return for whatever they are exchanging. Generalized reciprocity and balanced reciprocity are based on trust and intense social ties, whereas negative reciprocity exist because of less trust and weak social ties hence every party endeavours to get something in return in the exchange. This situation often times leads parties to engage in cagey and deceitful businesses with others.However, it must be noted that all these exchange mechanisms are found in varying degrees in all societies.

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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Topic ThreePrinciples and Types of Reciprocity (cont’d)

Read on the following redistributive practices:Potlatching among the people of North Pacific Coast of North AmericaThe Kula RingUse your sociological imaginations and provide examples of re-distributive practices in your society, Ghana, Nigeria, etc.

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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CONCLUSION

In this sessions, we have discussed the following:The different modes of distribution and exchangeThe issue of scarcity of resources in relation to wants and needs and why humans are thought of as rational. The operation of the market for the maximization of profitsPrinciples and types of reciprocity and set examples

Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG

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