Cognitive Psychology Asst - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

Cognitive Psychology

Asst

. Prof. Dr. Orkun Aydın

Head

of

Department

Program

Coordinator

Office: B.F.2.23

Office

phone

: 305 (

Internal

)

E-mail:

oaydin@ius.edu.ba

Instagram

:

orkunaydinmd

Slide2

Understands

conversation

V

isualizes book

on desk

Thinks “Be on time for appointment.”

Thinks about car problem

Perceives campus scenes

Remembers

Susan

’

s book

Slide3

Daily routine

Tom

is

walking

across campus, talking

to Susan on his cell phone about meeting at the student

union later this afternoon, he remembers that he left the book

she had lent him at home:T: I can’t believe it, I can see it

sitting there on my desk, where I left it. I should have

put it in

my

backpack

last

night

when

I

was

thinking

about

it.

Slide4

As he finishes his call with Susan and

makes

a

mental note to be on time for their appointment

, He suddenly remembers his car is scheduled to go into the service. He thinks

other options:1)Renting a car offers the most mobility, but is expensive. 2)Bumming rides

from his roommate is cheap, but limiting. 3)Learning the bus schedules from student union he decides.

Slide5

Entering his cognitive psychology

class

, he

remembers that an exam is coming up

soon. Unfortunately, he still has a lot of reading

to do, so he decides that he won’t be able to take Susan to the movies

tonight, as they had planned, because he needs time to study. As the

lecture begins, Tom is feeling anxiety, fear while thinking

about

his

meeting

with

Susan.

Slide6

This is one of

the

example

of someone’s daily routine…

So what did Raphael do during this short

span of time?

Slide7

• Perception

Perceives

his

environment

—seeing people on campus and hearing

Susan talking on the phone • Attention Pays attention to

one thing after another—the person approaching on his left, what Susan is saying, how much time he has

to get to his class • MemoryRemembers something from the past—that he had told

Susan he was going to return her book today • KnowledgeDistinguishes

items

in a

category

,

when

he

thinks

about

different

possible

forms

of

transportation

—

rental

car,

roommate’s

car,

bus

Slide8

• Visual Imagery

Visualizes

the

book on his desk the night before

•Language Understands and produces language as he talks to Susan

• Problem solvingWorks to solve a problem, as he thinks about how to get places while his car is in

the service• Reasoning and Decision MakingMakes a decision

, when he decides to postpone going to the movies with Susan so

he can

study

Slide9

Who is responsible for

this

?

All of the

Raphael’s actions belong to his MIND!!Cognitive psychology

is the branch of psychology concerned in the scientific study of the mind.

Slide10

We will learn

:

What

the mind is,

How it has been studied,What researchers have discovered about mind working

Slide11

What is the mind

?

The

mind creates and

controls mental functions such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language,

deciding, thinking, and reasoning.This reflects the mind’s central role in determining

our various mental abilities, which we will learn this semester.

Slide12

The mind is a system

that

creates

representations of the world

so that we can act within it to achieve our goals.

This definition reflects the mind’s importance for functioning and survival.

Slide13

AssociationThe

first

definition

indicates different types of cognition—the

mental processes such as perception, attention, memory, and so on, that are

what the mind does. The second definition indicates something about how the

mind operates (it creates representations) and its function (it enables us to act and to

achieve goals).

Slide14

It is no coincidence

that

all

of the cognitions in the first

definition play important roles in acting to achieve goals.

Slide15

The “beauty” of the mind is not

used

for

only “extraordinary” thingsEven

the most “routine” things: recognizing a person, having a conversation, or

deciding what courses to take next semesterBut it becomes amazing when

we consider the properties of the mind that enable us to achieve these familiar activities.

Slide16

So….

the

mind

creates cognition and it is important

for functioning and survival The cognitive psychology

is about answering this question: Determining the properties

and identifying the underlying mechanisms of the mind.

Slide17

The first experiment

in

Cognitive

PsychologyFranciscus

Donders (physiologist)-1868How long does it take to make a DECISION

?

Slide18

What is the experiment

?

He

searched

the answer by

measuring reaction time, how long it takes to respond to presentation of a stimulus

. In the first part of his experiment, he asked his participants to press a button upon

presentation of a light.This is called a simple reaction time task.

Slide19

Second part

In the second part of the experiment, he made the task

more difficult

by presenting two lights: one on the left and one on the right.

The participants’ task in this part of the experiment was to push one button when the light on the left was illuminated and another button when the light on the right was illuminated. This is called a

choice reaction time task.

Slide20

Modern version of reaction time

task

(a) P

r

ess

J when light

goes on. (b) Pr

ess J for left light, K for right

The purpose

of

Donder

s

’

experiment

was

t

o

de

t

ermine

the

time

it

t

ook

t

o

decide which

key

t

o

p

r

ess

f

or

the

choi

c

e

r

ea

c

tion

time

tas

k

.

Slide21

Light flashes Left light flashes Stimulus

“Perceive the light” “Perceive left light”

Mental response

“Decide which button to push”

Press key Press J key Behavioral response*Donders measured reaction time, the time between presentation of the light and the participant’s response.

REACTION TIME

Slide22

The diagram for the choice reaction time task shows that the mental response includes not only perceiving the light but also deciding which button to push

.

Donders

reasoned that choice reaction time

would be longer than simple reaction.So the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions

would indicate how long it took to make the decision.

Slide23

Why it is important?

It took

one-tenth of a second

to decide which button to push

The first cognitive psychology experiment

however no one knows what is the term (it was not coined-invented until 1967)In the 1800s, ideas about the mind were dominated by the belief that it is not possible to study the mind so this scientist opposed and came across this wisdom.

Slide24

This experiment found

that

:

He was measuring the relationship between the presentation of the stimulus and the participant’s response

(the reaction time). He did not measure the mental response directly, but inferred how long it took from the reaction times. For all research in cognitive psychology mental responses (perceiving the light and deciding which button to push, in this example) cannot be measured directly,

but must be inferred from behavior.

Slide25

Ebbinghaus’s Memory Experiment

Ebbinghaus

was interested in determining the

nature of memory

and forgetting—specifically, how information that is learned is lost over time.He presented nonsense syllables such as DAX, QEH, LUH, and ZIF to himself one at a time, using a device called a

memory drum (modern cognitive psychologists would use a computer). He used nonsense syllables so that his memory would not be influenced by the meaning of a particular word.

Slide26

Ebbinghau

s

’

s

memor

y drum proc

edure for

measuring memory

and

f

o

r

gettin

g

.

(a)

I

nitial viewing

going

th

r

ough

the

list

of nonsense

syllables

f

or

the

first

tim

e

.

(b)

L

earning

the

lis

t

going

through the list a number of times until each syllable can be correctly predicted from the one before. The number of repetitions necessary to learn the list is noted. (c) After a delay, the list is relearned. The number of repetitions needed to relearn the list is noted.

(a) View series of nonsense syllables.

(b) Repeat. Predict what next syllables in list will be, until remember all items correctly.

LUH

LUH

(c)

After

dela

y

,

r

epeat

step

b.

Slide27

He repeated the procedure, going through the list and trying to remember each syllable in turn, until he was able to go through the list without making any errors. He noted the number of trials

it took him to do this.

After learning a list,

Ebbinghaus

waited, for delays ranging from almost immediately after learning the list to 31 days.

Slide28

The memory loss curve

Ebbinghaus’s

savings (or

forgetting) curve. Taking the percent savings as a measure of the amount remembered,

Ebbinghaus

plotted this against the time interval between initial learning and testing.

Slide29

Ebbinghaus found that

:

The memory drops rapidly for

the first 2 days

after the initial learning and then levels off. This curve was important because it demonstrated that memory could be

quantified. Notice that although Ebbinghaus’s method was very different from Donders’ reaction time method, both measured behavior to determine a property of the mind.

Slide30

Slide31

Little Albert Experiment (1920)Albert, a 9-month-old-boy, subjected to a loud noise every time a rat (which Albert had originally liked before) came close to the child.

After a few pairings of the noise with the rat, Albert reacted to the rat by crawling away as rapidly as possible.

Slide32

Classical Conditioning (1890-1927)

I

n

P

a

vlov’s

famous experiment,

he pair

e

d

rin

g

in

g

a

bell wit

h

p

r

esentatio

n

o

f

f

oo

d

.

I

nitiall

y

,

onl

y

p

r

esentatio

n

o

f

th

e

f

oo

d

caused th

e dog to salivate, but after a number of pairings of bell (the initially neutral stimulus) and food, the bell alone caused salivation.

Slide33

SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING(1938)Behavior is strengthened by the presentation of

positive

reinforcers

, such as food or social approval or withdrawal of negative reinforcers

, such as a shock or social rejection.

Slide34

Slide35

Psychologists applied the techniques of classical and operant conditioning to things like classroom teaching,

treating psychological disorders,

and testing the effects of drugs on animals.

Slide36

Tolman’s Rat Maze

Experiment

(b) Turn right for food

(a) Explo

r

e maze

(c) Turn

left for food (a) Rat initially explores the maze; (b) the rat learns to turn right to obtain food at B when it starts at A (c) when placed at C the rat turns left to reach the food at B. In this experiment, precautions are taken to prevent the rat from knowing where the food is based on cues such as smell.

A A A

B

B

B

C

C

C

D

D

D

Slide37

What is interesting about

that

?

Tolman’s explanation of this result was that when the rat initially experienced the maze it was developing a

cognitive map, a conception of the maze’s layout (Tolman, 1948). Thus, even though the rat had previously learned to turn right, when the rat was placed at C, it used its map to turn left at the intersection to reach the food at B. Tolman’s use of the word cognitive, and the idea that something other than stimulus-response

connections might be occurring in the rat’s mind.

Slide38

TimelineOther researchers were aware of Tolman’s

work, but for most American psychologists in the 1940s, the use of the term

cognitive

was difficult to accept because it violated the behaviorists’ idea that internal processes, such as thinking or maps in the head, were not acceptable topics to study.

Slide39

The Rebirth of The

Study

of

The Mind

The decade of the 1950s is generally recognized as the beginning of the cognitive revolution.a shift in psychology from the behaviorist’s stimulus-response relationships to an approach whose main thrust was to understand the operation of the mind.

Slide40

These events provided a new way to study the mind, called the information-processing approach…

One of the events that inspired psychologists to think of the mind in terms of

information processing

was a newly introduced device called the

digital computer.

Slide41

First computer

The first digital computers, developed in the late 1940s, were huge machines that took up entire buildings, but in 1954 IBM introduced a computer that was available to the general public.

They found their way into university research laboratories, where they were used both to analyze data and, most important for our purposes,

to suggest a new way of thinking about the mind.

Slide42

Slide43

Computer from 1985-IBM

Slide44

Flow diagram of a basic

computer

Input

Input p

r

ocessorMemor

y unit Arithmeticunit

Output Figure shows the layout of a computer in which

informatio

n

i

s

receive

d

b

y

a

n

“inpu

t

processor

”

an

d

is the

n

store

d

i

n

a

“memor

y

unit

”

befor

e

i

t

i

s

processed by an “arithmetic unit,” which then creates the computer’s output.  

Slide45

The first study

under

this approach

One of the first experiments influenced by this new way of thinking about the mind involved studying how well people are able to pay attention to only some information when a lot of information is being presented at the same time.

Slide46

How well the mind can deal with incoming information?

When a number of auditory messages are presented at once (as might occur at a noisy party, for example), can a person focus

on just one of these messages (as when you are having a conversation with one of the people at the party)?

Slide47

The

yellow dog

chased...

The

meaning of

life is...The yellow dog

chased...

T

his

person

in

C

olin

Cher

r

y

’

s

(1953)sele

c

ti

v

e

at

t

ention

experiment

is

lis

t

ening

t

o

the message

being

p

r

esen

t

ed

t

o

his left ear (the attended message) and not to the message presented to his right ear (the unattended message). He repeats the attended message out loud to indicate that he is paying attention to it. The results of experiments such as this were used by B

roadbent to create his

filter model of attention.Cherry’s Attention Experiment

Slide48

The importance of the

experiment

…

.is that people could focus their attention on the message presented to one ear, and when they did,

they were aware of little of the message being presented to the other,unattended ear. This result led another British psychologist, Donald Broadbent (1958), to propose the first flow diagram of the mind.This diagram represented what happens in a person’s mind as he or she directs attention to one stimulus in the environment.

Slide49

Broadbent’s Flow Diagram

Input

Input

Input

Input

Filter

Detector

To

memory

T

his

dia

g

ram

sh

ow

s

that

ma

n

y

messages

en

t

er

a

“

fi

l

t

e

r

” that

sele

c

ts

the

message

t

o

which

the

person

is attending for further processing by a detector and then storage in memory. It was the first to depict the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages.

Slide50

Example from daily

routine

Applied to your experience when talking to a friend at a noisy party, the filter lets in your friend’s conversation and

filters out all of the other conversations and noise.

Thus, although you might be aware that there are other people talking, you would not be aware of detailed information, such as what the other people were talking about.

Slide51

Why do the

phone

numbers

consist of 7or 9 digits

generally?

Slide52

George Miller, a Harvard psychologist, present a version of his paper “The Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus 2”. In that paper, Miller presented the idea that there are limits to the human’s ability to process information—

that the information processing of the human mind is limited to about 7 items (for example, the length of a telephone number).

Miller’s basic principle that there are limits to the amount of information we can take in and remember.

Slide53

Researching the Mind

To illustrate how cognitive psychologists have used both

behavioral

and

physiological approaches to studying the operation of the mind, we will now describe a few experiments designed to study a phenomenon called

memory consolidation.

Slide54

MEMORY CONSOLIDATION FROM A BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE

A football player is running downfield, the ball is in front of his feet. Suddenly, his run is unexpectedly cut short by a vicious tackle.

His head hits the ground, and he lays still for a few moments before slowly getting up and making his way back to the bench.

Later, sitting on the bench, he can’t remember getting hit, or even the beginning of his play after taking ball from his friend.

Slide55

The football player’s lack of memory for the events that occurred just before he got hit, illustrate that our memory for recent events is fragile

.

Normally, he would have had no trouble remembering the pass and run, but the hit he took wiped out his memory for these events.

More accurately, the hit prevented the information about the pass and run from undergoing a process called

memory consolidation.

Slide56

Memory consolidation provides

Memories become strengthened and transformed into a strong memory that is more resistant to interference by events such as trauma which was in a fragile state.

Slide57

Memory consolidation experiment

George Muller and

Alfons

Pilzecker (1900) had two groups of participants each learn two lists of nonsense syllables.The “immediate” group learned one list and were then asked to immediately learn a second list.

The “delay” group learned the first list and then waited for 6 minutes before learning the second list.

Slide58

Muller&Pilzecker Experiment

No delay

T

est

for list 1

 T

est for list 1 

6 minutes(a) Immediate

g

r

oup

(b) Delay g

r

oup

Recall of first list

28%

48%

Numbers

on the

right indica

t

e

the

pe

r

c

entage

of i

t

ems

f

r

om the

first

list

r

ecalled

when

memo

r

y

f

or that

list

was tested later.

Slide59

Apparently, immediately presenting the second list to the immediate

group interrupted the forming of a stable memory for the first list—

the process that came to be called

consolidation

(HEAD HIT EFFECT)

Slide60

How does going to sleep right after learning affect consolidation?

Steffan

Gais

and coworkers (2006) had high school students learn a list of 24 pairs of English-German vocabulary words. The “sleep group” studied the words and then went to sleep within 3 hours.

The “awake group” studied the words and remained awake for 10 hours before getting a night’s sleep. Both groups were tested within 24 to 36 hours after studying the vocabulary lists

Slide61

10

20

0.5

16

Both

g

roups

did get

t

o

sleep be

f

o

r

e

t

estin

g

,

so

they

w

e

r

e equally

r

es

t

ed

be

f

o

r

e

being

t

es

t

e

d

,

but

the

pe

r

f

orman

ce of the sleep group was better.Awake group Sleep group

Slide62

Questions are arising

..

What is it about going to sleep right away that improves memory?

Is sleeping just a way to avoid being exposed to interfering stimuli,

or is something special happening during the sleep process that helps strengthen memory?

Slide63

The results of memory

consolidation

experiment

Sleep g

roup Awake g

roup -0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

A

c

tivi

t

y

in

the

hippocampus (

a structure deep in the brain that is known to be involved in the storage of new memories)

inc

r

eased

f

or

pa

r

ticipants

in

the

sleep

g

r

ou

p

,

but

dec

r

eased

f

or

pa

r

ticipants in the awake group. Also, in data not shown here, the overall level of activity in the hippocampus was greater during testing in the sleep group.