ibe pa El orte: Ethngraphic Encounters with Kaqchikel Maya Transnation - PDF document

Label Me Latina/o Special Issue
Label Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 1 ibe pa El orte: Ethngraphic Encounters with Kaqchikel Maya Transnational Migration from Lake Atitlán, Guatemala to Brooklyn, New YorkBy Tiffany Creegan MilleruringthesummerinGuatemala,frequentlyboardedchickeninPanajacheltotraveltoSololá,transferredminivanthatThefamilyinXeya’decidedtofilmthevideoSundayafternooninJuly2010.ThatdaymarkedthecelebrationFiliberto’sbirthdayparty,manyhissiblingsandtheir familiescametocelebrateandcontributetothevideo.soontheguestsarrived,theexcitementandhighLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 2 mplicationsbeingindigenoustransnationalsubjectbothinXeya’andBrooklyn,NewYork.ransnationalismgenerallydenotestheimplicitblurringbordersresultof globalizationandheightenedtechnologicalconnectivity(AppaduraiFoxenxvii;KearneyOngDuetoculturalexchangesmadepossibleinformationtechnologies,whenpeopleleavetheircountriesorigintorelocatetoanother,eitherpermanentlytemporarily,theyoften maintaincontactwiththeirfamilyandfriendsbackhome.DrawingfromArjunAppadurai’s discussionlocalnarrativesandplotsinrelationtoregional,national,andglobaleventPaulWorleyexplainsthat“[g]ivenlatetwentiethandtwentyfirstcenturytechnology’s abilitytofacilitatethemovementcapital,information,andpeoplearoundtheglobe, immigrationlongerentailscompleteisolationone’shomecommunity,muchlessone’s homecountry”Rather,transnationalmigrantslikeJavierandRicardooccupywhatanthropologistPatriciaFoxenhasdescribed“newkindsocialspace.”Forher,they“livetheirlivesthatis,tendtotheirmaterialneeds,socialcommitments,andloyaltiesinmorethan oneplace,inthewordsmanytransnationalmigrants,conpieotroallá(‘withhereandthere’)”(xvii).Whiletheymayphysicallylocatedinplace,people, culturalinfluences,andotherfactorsdifferentgeographiclocationsinfluencetheirlives.Thatis,transnationalmigrantsareinconstantstateinbetweenness.Foxenelaboratestheculturalimplicationsthisnewspace:“[m]usic,fashion,familydynamics,householdand communityeconomies,andethnic,gender,religious,class,andpoliticalformationsinshort, whatmightlabeledculturesareincreasinglyproducedandconsumedbetween‘here’and ‘there’”(xvii).thecontextruralGuatemala,bothinthesendingcommunitiesandintheUnitedStates,KaqchikelMayalikeJavierandRicardoandtheirfamilyinXeya’renegotiatetheirindigenousidentitiesandculturesthatresulttheblurringbordersimplicitwith transnationalismandglobalization.thecaseFiliberto’sfamily,willseethexchangeculturalandeconomicgoods,suchthefinancialremittancesandthetransnationalvideo,exemplifytheheightenedconnectivitytheglobalrelationshipbetweentwolocalareas:Xeya’andBrooklyn,NewYork.Therelationshipbetweentheglobalandthelocaliskeytounderstandingof globalization.JoséRabasahasexplained,thelocalandtheglobalarenotmutuallyexclusive. Theconceptsarei

ntertwined:“[b]eyondrepresentation,
ntertwined:“[b]eyondrepresentation,thelocalmanifestsitsimpossibilityinits bindtotheglobal.Ultimately,thelocalmustseencatachresisthenationalandtheglobalinalltheircontradictions”NéstorGarcíaCanclinihasalsoemphasizedthisconnection:“[e]nlaglobalizaciónsóloreorganizalolocal,sinolasrelacioneslocallocal”Innovationsintelecommunicationtechnologieshavecausedlocalculturestoincontactwithothersacrosstheglobe(GarcíaCanclinimesonWiththisheightened connectivity,therearemoreopportunitiesculturalexchangeandthe“disseminationsymbolicprocessesthatincreasinglydriveeconomicsandpolitics”(YúdiceGlobalization,then,isrelationalprocessthatinvolvestheincreasedmovement,mobility,people,places, ideas,andthings,eitherphysicallyviacommunicationaltechnologiessuchtheInternetand otherdigitalmedia.ThisinadvertentlyaffectsidentitiesandtheirrepresentationsviaculturalproductslikeFiliberto’sfamily’stransnationalvideo.Transnationalmigrantsandtheirfamilies simultaneouslyhavecontactwithmyriadculturalinfluencesdifferentlocalplaces acrossgeopoliticalborders,allwhichaffecttheiridentitiestovaryingdegrees.Followingthis logic,CristinaSzantonBlanc,LindaBasch,andNinaGlickSchillerhavearguedthattransnationalmigrantsarebetterreferredtoLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 3 “transmigrants”becausetheir“dailylivesdepend onmultipleandconstantnterconnectionsacrossinternationalbordersand[their]publicidentitiesareconfiguredinrelationshiptomorethanstate”thiscontext,familieslikeiliberto’shaveinnovatedtheirindigenoustraditionsandidentitiesindiverseways,negotiating newtransnationalKaqchikelMayasubjectivitiesbothandalláEconomicandCulturalExchangesinRuralGuatemalaDiscussionssurroundingimmigrationintheUnitedStatestendtofocustheeffectsin Norte,largelyignoringtheconsequencessendingcommunities.DuringtimenearLakeAtitlán,wasconstantlyremindedthewidespreadinfluencesimmigrationinthesurroundingruralaldeasphysicalcharacteristicspaleskinandblueeyesmarkedmeforeigner,streetandmarketvendorsoftenaskedwherewasfrom.WhenrespondedthatI wastheUnitedStates,manyeagerlyrepliedthattheyhadfamilymemberthere.Thesevendorsoftenspecifiedthecityregionwherethefamilymemberresided,beforeinquiringhow closegeographicallyhomeinKansaswastotheirfamily.thehand, methodologicallytheseinformalconversationsprovidedmewithtooltoconnectwithmy Kaqchikelinterlocutors.theother,theseexchangeswereveryfrequent,whichspeakstothefactthatmigrationruralGuatemalatotheUnitedStateshasbecomeincreasinglycommon. KaqchikelMayafamilieswhoareuntouchedmigrationtotheUnitedStatesaretheexception, ratherthantherule.LikeFiliberto’sfamilyinXeya’,manyKaqchikelMayahaveleastfamilymemberwhohaslefttotrytheirluckintheNorth.MayamigrationGuatemalatotheUnitedStatesisbecauseMayayearntojoin themodernworld,anthropologistDavidStollacknowledges.Forhim,theMayahavebeen partthemodernworldthelast500yearsPeruvianso

ciologistAníbalQuijanoexplains theconce
ciologistAníbalQuijanoexplains theconceptmodernityinrelationtocoloniality.Quijanoarguesthatfollowingthearrivalof theSpanishtotheAmericas,newspace/timewasconstitutedmateriallyandsubjectively”wasthefirstexamplesbroadscaleglobalizationmarkedtheexchangeof goodsandideascontinenttoanother,milestonethatopenedthecapitalistworldmarket.thetwentyfirstcentury,intheGuatemalanHighlandsitisverycommontoseeMayawomenthemarketwhodressintraditionalclothing,alsokeepcelltuckedin theirhuipilForcenturies,Mayahaveparticipatedinthemodernworld,albeitindifferentways giventhetechnologicaladvancesavailablethetime.DavidStollexplainsthatmanyGuatemalanMayatototheUnitedStatesbecausetheywantjobsandeconomicopportunities.explainsthatMaya“wishtoenjoythemodern worldlikethereadersthisbookTheyhavebeenwatchingtelevision,theyhavebeen visitedhumanrightsteams,andtheyhaveconcludedthattheonlyplacetheyearndecentlivingistheUnitedStates”otherwords,whereasMayaoncefledGuatemalato escapetheviolencethecivilwar(AriasLouckyandMoorsmanyGuatemalanMayaintheUnitedStatestodayarechasingthe“AmericanDream.”Theyhavearrivedwiththehopesthatthroughhardworktheywillachieveeconomicsuccessandprosperity.Thefirstwaveof Mayamigrantfamiliesinthe1980sfeaturedpoliticalrefugeeswhereasfollowingthecivilwar thereweremainlysinglemigrantshopingtogetaheadinNorte.Whiletherearepronounced differencesbetweenthesetrends,PatrickHiller,Linstroth,andPalomaAyalaVelacautionthat“makingclearcutdistinctionbetweenthesemigrationwaveswouldmisleading sinceeconomicmigrationisstronglyconnectedtheaftermaththeLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 4 protractedcivilwar”(n. pag.).AlthoughthePeaceAccordsmarkedtheofficialendthewar,thisperiodof conflicthasleftthisCentralAmericancountrywithlegacytraumaticpersonalmemoriesof theviolenceanddeeplyentrenchedsocialinequalities.Thissituationthepasthas contributedtotheextremepovertytoday(FlynnwhichiskeyreasonwhymanyMayatototheUnitedStates.thesendingcommunitiesinruralGuatemala,thesemigratory trendshaveresultedinwidespreadculturalandeconomiceffects.Forexample,remittancesaredrivingfactormanytransnationalsubjectswho relocatetotheUnitedStatesGuatemalaandotherpartsLatinAmerica,PatriciaFoxen hasobserved:ThroughoutGuatemala,dollarremittanceshavebecomemajorsourcenationalrevenueoverthepasttwodecades,havingsurpassedtourismandcominginsecondonly toGuatemala’smainexport,coffee.HouseandLovellstate,“[T]heGuatemalan economywholeisincreasinglysubsidizedforeignremittances,”whichareestimatedtototalUS$500millionperyear(HouseandLovellJonasis impossibletocalculateexactfiguresremittancesreceivedruraltownssuchas Xinxuc,however.MostK’iche’ssenddollarmoneyordersthroughcourier companieswithconocidoswhoreturnhomeAlthoughFoxen’sresearchaddressesK’iche’migrationXinxuc,thiscommunityissimilar toXeya’(andotherKaqchikelcommunitiesintheGuatemalanHighlandsandaroundLa

keAtitlán)inthatbotharelocatedinpredomi
keAtitlán)inthatbotharelocatedinpredominantlyruralareas.Xeya’,likeXinxuc,haslimitedaccesstocouriersystemslikeWesternUniontodelivertheNewYork.Thetown withsuchservicesclosesttoXeya’isSololá.Althoughdidlearnifthefamilyin Xeya’acquiredremittances,theyinformedmethattheyoftenreceivemailandotherpackages fromtheUnitedStatesinnearbySololá.MovementpeoplebetweenXeya’andtheUnitedStatesisgenerallyunidirectionaltothedifficultcircumstancesalongthesetransnationalroutes.Therefore,itisuncommonto receivetheremittancesfromreliableconocidoFiliberto’sfamilyexplainedthatpeopleeya’oftentotoNortetogether,followingsimilarpaththroughMexicoandintotheUnitedStatesbecausethereistrustamongthecommunitymemberstotakecareanother. ThejourneytotheUnitedStatesishighlyuncertain,andoftenmigrantsarecaughtanddeported, sotheymustmakeseveralattemptsbeforesuccessfullyarrivingintheUnitedStates(Foxen99). Foxendescribesthehumanrightsviolationsandphysicallytreacherousconditionsthatmakethejourneyperilous:NumeroushumanrightsviolationsMexicanImmigrationandJudicialPoliceofficials (illegaldetentions,physicalandsexualabuse,bribes,androbbery)havebeen documented;illiterateK’iche’swithSpanishlanguageskillsareparticularly susceptibletomistreatmentfromofficialsandgangsthugswhopreythem.Thetrip acrosstheborderbetweenMexicoandtheUnitedStatesisphysicallyexhaustingand oftendangerous:Mojados(wetbacks),pollos(chickens),aredependentsometimes unscrupulouscoyotes(smugglers)whoareknowntodemandsexualfavorswomen orstealtheirclientsandabandontheircharges..… BecausetheUnitedStates dramaticallytighteneditsborderpatrolsinthe1990s,coyoteshavesearchednew(and moredangerous)routesandhavehikedcrossborderfaressubstantially.SensationalreportsLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 5 bordercrossersdyingdehydrationinthedesert,drowninginrivers,and foundasphyxiatedinthebackstruckshaveconsistentlybeenreportedinthenewsbothsidestheborder[inMexicoandUnitedStates].ThereishistorycorruptionamongcoyotescommunitymembersinXeya’haveelaboratedintricateroutestotheUnitedStates.Theygenerallytrustonlycertaincoyoteswho haveproventhemselvestrustworthytoothermigrantswhohavesuccessfullymadeitfromXeya’totheUnitedStateswithoutincident.thiscontext,Foxenreasonsthatbordercrossingbecome“anincreasinglywellorganized,sophisticated,andlucrativelocalendeavor”in which“[l]ocalcoyoteses (bothLadinoandK’iche’)theregionn… havelearnedvarious routes,methods,material,andothernecessitiesbordercrossing”Giventhplethoraof obstaclesthatmigrantsfacethroughoutthejourney,thefamilyinXeya’explainedthatitis extremelyrareconocidospeopletheyknew,toreturnshortvisits.Generallyspeaking, ifsomeonereturnstheUnitedStates,theypermanentrelocationinvoluntarily duetodeportation.Therefore,Filiberto’sfamilydoesnotrelyconocidosreturningwiththeremittancestheirfamilymembers.Instead,theyrelyexclu

sivelythelimitedcourier systemsandothers
sivelythelimitedcourier systemsandotherservicesavailableinnearbySololá.parttheirremittances,Filiberto’ssonsinNewYorkhadpurchasedelectricalappliancesincludingoventhekitchen.Frominteractionswiththefamily,itwas uncleariftheyhadboughtit,ifJavierandRicardohaddecidedtopurchaseitforthemgift withouttheirknowledge.TherewaselectricityinthefamilyhomeinXeya’,theovenwas neverpluggedin.Whenarrivedtotheparty,Filiberto’swife,Margarita,instructedmeto placethecakesthathadbroughtintheoven.Ratherthanusethedeviceitsintended function,thefamilyrepurposedittostorepreparedelsewhere,protectingitfromfliesor otherbugs.Thefamilycontinuedtopreparetheirovertraditionalopenfire.Justpriorto thefilmingthetransnationalvideo,workedwithotherwomeninthefamilyoveropenfiretopreparethedoughthetamalesbeforewrappingtheminleavesthemilpaAlthoughan ovenisluxuriousappliance,withoutelectricityitdidnotchangethefamilyapproached theirdomestictasksinthekitchen.Electricappliancesareoftensimplysymbolicpurchasesof statussymbols,yetheretheovenalsohadpracticaluse.theremittancesthatJavierandRicardosent,thefamilyalsoprioritizedallocating moniestosupportthechildren’seducation,perhapsgivenitsimplicationtheirfuture.UnequalracerelationshaveplaguedGuatemalaarguablysincethearrivaltheSpanish;throughoutGuatemalanhistory,sociologistandpoliticalscientistMartaElenaCasaúsArzú explains,racismhasbeenintegraltothedominantdiscoursesandideologytheState(90). AnthropologistCharlesHalehasusedtheexpression“racialhierarchy”todescribeGuatemalansociety,notingthatitfeatures“sharpdifferentiationamongdistinctstrataalongthelinespowerandprivilege,withladinosgenerallyoccupyinghigherstratumandIndianslowerone”goodeducationwouldprovidethechildrenwithsocialcapitaltoperhaps betterthemselvesintheirnativeGuatemala,despitetheracialtensionsthatposechallengesthemKaqchikelMaya.Onememberthefamily,example,hadjustrecentlyfinishedherstudiestobecomeschoolteacherinnearbySololá,whereshewasengagedbilingualeducationalinitiativesthathaveresultedPanMayaactivism.Thefamilyusedtheremittancestoopenlongtermfinancialopportunitiesthechildren.SinceJavierand RicardoeventuallyplannedreturningtoXeya’,thiswasperhapsstrategicmoveto potentiallyavoidsituationrequiringpermanentdependenceremittancestheirearnings intheUnitedStates.Label Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 6 Themovementmoniesandculturalproductsisunidirectional;thereisexchangebetweentheUnitedStatesandsendingcommunitieslikeXeya’.RemittancesexemplifythemovementfinancialcapitalfromtheUnitedStatestosendingcommunities.However,somepeoplewhohaveremainedinsendingcommunitieslikethefamilyinXeya’havealsosentculturalandsymbolicitemstotheirfamilymembersworkinginNorte,thistransnationalvideoevidences.AfterreturnedtotheUnitedStates,longersurroundedthemilpaintheGuatemalanHighlandsbutthecornfieldstheMidwest,madecopiesthevideoandthephotographs.thenpreparedtwopackag

es,whichmailedtoNewYork,andtheothertocol
es,whichmailedtoNewYork,andtheothertocolleagueintheUnitedStateswhowouldreturningtoXeya’inthenearfuture.Although thesesymbolicitemswereoriginallycreatedinGuatemala,perhapsironicallytheyfirstwentto theUnitedStatesbeforereturningtoXeya’.WhilewastransnationalmigrantintheUnitedStates,wassendingremittance,myselfworkingthroughsimilarmeansto deliverthepackagetothefamilyinXeya’workingwithtrustedconocidowhowouldgiveittothemme.additiontoFiliberto’sfamily,otherMayawhohaveremainedintheirLatinAmerican countriesoriginhavealsoworkedwithforeignersoftenacademicstocreaterecordingsto sendtotheirlovedonesintheUnitedStates.Forexample,anthropologistChristineEber documentsandtranscribescassettetapethat“Antonia,”TzotzilwomanfromChiapas,sentto hersonworkinginAlabamainhermessageinTzotzilMayawhichEbertranslatesto SpanishandEnglish,themotherwisheshersonhappinessinhiswork,urgeshimtosavemoney, thanksGodhissafearrival,andasksGodtokeephimhealthyWhileAntonia’sand Filiberto’sfamiliesworkthroughdifferentmedia,bothsendpersonal,heartfeltmessagestotheir familymembersworkinginNorte.NegotiatingCulturalandEconomicPowerDifferentialsinXeya’experiencescreatingthistransnationalvideoworkingwiththefamilyinXeya’mademeacutelyawarethepowerdifferentialsbetweenthefamilyandme.Therewerepronounced economicdisparitiesbetweenlifeinXeya’andtheUnitedStates.Moreover,researchertheUnitedStates,hadmuchmoreaccesstomoneyandotherresourcesthanthefamilyineya’.Thefactthatownedvideocamera,microphone,andtripodcreatethevideoisexampletheseeconomicdiscrepancies.ForsomeoneinruralGuatemalalikeFiliberto workinginthemilpaapproximately40QUS)day,itwouldtakemonthstoearn enoughmoneytopurchasetheseitems.Thevideoequipmentwasvisualremindermy privilege.Aparteconomicissues,therewerealsoculturaldifferencesbetweenus,specifically intermsvisualmarkersphysicalappearanceandtraditionalclothing.Guatemalansociety, asinotherindigenousregionsinLatinAmerica,traditionalclothingismarkerethnicdifference,visuallyseparatingMayaLadinosMarciaStephensonaffirmsinher studytraditionalclothinginAndeanBolivia,“fromcolonialtimestothepresent,theracialized continuumbetween‘visibility’and‘invisibility’hasendowedclothing,hairstyle,andlanguagewithcrucialsymbolicresonance”Stephensonunderscorestheabilityclothingtomake“different”identityvisible,recognizingthattherearevaryingdegreesthisvisibility.KaqchikelscholarIrmaOtzoyexpressessimilaridea,arguingthatinitiativestoconserveMayatextilesallow“Mayatodressinkindclothingthatsatisfiestheirartistic,moral,andspiritualfeelings,andalsodistinguishesthemculturally”Label Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 7 Wearingtraditionalclothingisvisualcuethatsignals“Mayaness.”Forthisreason,anthropologistDianeNelsondescribesMayaclothing assightspecific,“apparentlymakingidentitycompletelyavailabletothegaze:seeingtraj

emeansisseeingIndian”AlthoughMayadi
emeansisseeingIndian”AlthoughMayadistinguishtownthedistinctdesignitstrajetotheviewerwhomayfamiliarwiththesedifferences(includinglimitedtoLadinosandforeigners),theclothingtranslates“Maya”regardlessits municipalaffiliation.thecontextglobalizationandculturalexchange,ithasbecomeincreasinglycommon toseeMayatouristswearingtraditionalMayaclothing,whileinmanycasestheMayathemselveshavehadtoabandonthetraditionalpracticeweavingandwearingtrajeGiven globaleconomicforcesandincreasedpovertyinruralGuatemala,manyMayawearshirtsbecausetheyaremuchcheaper.Manywomenshirtswhiletheyareworkingandsavetheirhuipiles(iftheyownany)specialoccasions.Duringmyvisitswiththefamily,was presentworkinthemilpaandFiliberto’sbirthdaycelebration.Regardlesstheoccasion,thesamewomenworeshirtswhereasothersalwaysworehuipilesWhenworeMayatrajemany ofthewomentoldme,“Jeb’ëlatzyaq”(Yourclothesarebeautiful),andaskedwherehad boughtthem.photographs,completelydressedintrajeposingwithmanyKaqchikelMayawomenwhowearcorteandshirt.Basedclothingalone,whoisMayainthesephotographsisimmediatelyapparent.InsteadtheMayawearingtraditionalclothingand theforeignerdonningWesternclothing,therewasinversionintermsphysicalappearance.Mayaclothiistraditionthathascomeindirectconflictwithdistinctformsof globalization,andsuch,hasbecomestatussymbolinmanyindigenouscommunities.As MayareligiousstudiesscholarJeanMoleskyPoznotes,consequencetheGuatemalancivilwar“wasthatwidowswhohadtoassumetheplantingandharvestingresponsibilitiesas wellcaringtheirchildrenandhouseholdlongerhadtimetoweave”result, manyyoungwomenbeganwearingWesternstyleclothing.Stephensonhasindicated,when indigenouspeopleinLatinAmericaoptWesternstyleclothingopposedtotraditionalclothing,theboundariesareblurredbetweentheethnicizedOtherandtherestsociety(157). ThewomeninthefamilyinXeya’didweave,theyoftensoldthehuipilesprofitinthemarketinSololá,insteadwearingcorteandshirt.Consequently,severalthefamilyembersusedthemoneyremittancestotraditionalclothingthewomen.thisway,thefamilyusedthetransnationalcapitaltheremittancestoreinforcevisualmarkersof indigeneitythroughtraditionaldresshome.sum,therewerenumerousdifferencesbetweenthefamilyinXeya’andwhich manifestedthemselvestovaryingdegrees.witnessedthepovertyanddisenfranchisementin Xeya’thathadprovokedJavierandRicardotomigratetotheUnitedStatesinthefirstplace. Throughvisitswiththefamilyseveralyearsafterthebrothers’departure,observedtheeconomicandculturaleffectstheirabsenceandremittancestheUnitedStates.was constantlyremindedmyprivilegeUnitedStatescitizen,reflectedthefactthatthesebrothershadpaidverydearlyandriskedmuchtoliveandworkincountry.AlienationinNewYorkandQuestionsLatinidadAftermailingthefamily’svideoandphotographstoJavierandRicardo,followedwiththemtoensurethatthepackagehadarrivedandtoconfirmthattherewereanytechnologicalissuesinplayingthevideo.FrominitialconversationswithJavier,

Label Me Latina/o Special Issue
Label Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 8 immediatelybecameawaretheisolationthatthebrothersfaceddailybasisinNewYork. JavierandRicardolivedinsmall,clandestinedwellingbehindtheragewheretheyworked. Toavoidanypotentialrisksdeportation,theyrarelyifeverleftthisbuilding.Moreover,their lacklegaldocumentationcreatednumerousobstacles.ChristineEberalsonotestheimportancephotobasedherexperienceswithAntonia’sson:neverrealizedhow importantisintheUnitedStatesuntiltriedtogethimlibrarycard,cellphone,andreturnvisittotheclinic,wheretheyagreedtoseehimoncewithoutphotoafterthat”LikeAntonia’sson,JavierandRicardohadverylittleaccesstopublicservices,healthcare,consistentcellphonecommunication(ratherthanpaytheminuteoption). Transnationalmigrantswithoutlegaldocumentationoftenevenseektheseoptions simplyfeardeportation.ManytheservicesandresourcesthattakegrantedUnitedStatescitizenweresimplyunavailabletotransnationalsubjectslikethebrothersXeya’.additiontotheirphysicalisolationinthebuildingwheretheyworkedandlived,Javier andRicardowerealsoinfrastructurallydisenfranchisedinUnitedStatessociety.addition,JavierandRicardowerelinguisticallyalienatedbecausetheirnativelanguagewasKaqchikelMaya.TheyhadlearnedSpanishsecondlanguageinGuatemalaandhad limitedproficiencyinEnglishtheirtimeintheUnitedStates.muchmoreproficientin SpanishthaninKaqchikelMaya,JavierinsistedthattalkthetelephoneinKaqchikel. AsKaqchikelMayalanguagestudenttakingclassestoimproveproficiencyinthis indigenouslanguage,wasmorethaneagertoreciprocate.Overthenextseveralweeks,Javier calledmypersonalcellwhenwasworkinglongshiftsthegaragejusttochataboutthedayinhisnativeKaqchikel.Thisprovidedhimwithopportunitytohavecontactwithsomeonewithwhomdidlivework,andcouldspeakinthelanguagehis choosing.transnationalsubjectLatinAmericaintheUnitedStates,situationmarked bysharedexperiencesmarginalizationwithothersmigrantsthisregion(MujinoviLuisxiv;CamineroSantangelohavingtheseoptionsgrantedJaviersomedegreeagencytocombathisalienation.Althoughdidexplicitlyverbalizemuch,seemedthatJavieryearnedtospeakinhislanguage.WashisdesiretospeakwithinKaqchikeltohis knowledgethatwaslearningthelanguage?CouldithavebeenbecauseJavierhadelsein BrooklynasideRicardowithwhomtoconverseinKaqchikel?ThisraisesissueswhetherthebrotherswerepartlargertransnationalKaqchikelcommunityinNewYork.ManyMayahavebecomeparttransnationalcommunitiesintheUnitedStateswhichvaluetheirindigenousheritageandMayalanguages.PaulWorleynotesthatintheshortstory,“Táanxalkaajile’chíimpoltajmaayakaaj,ma’je’extulu’umile’,”by YukatekMayaauthorFelipeJesúsCastilloTzec,theprotagonistChuchuPanchomigratesto transnationalYukatekMayacommunityinOregon.Here,Worleyexplainsthat“Chuchofinds Mayanesstomarkprestige”and“[h]espeaksMayainpublicandtellsMayastories tohiscoworkersattherestaurant”Similarly,ArturoAriasdescribesK’anjobalMayalanguageus

eintheannouncementsthecelebrationFeriaSa
eintheannouncementsthecelebrationFeriaSanMiguelinLos AngelesintheshortstoryFelipeJesúsCastilloTzecandintheFeriaSan Miguel,MayainbothtransnationalcommunitiesvaluetheirrespectiveMayalanguagesandusetheminpublic.ThebrothersXeya’,however,rarelylefttheconfinesthebuildingwheretheyworkedandlivedgiventheirextreme(perhapswarranted)feardeportation,haveseen.EveniftherewaslargerKaqchikelspeakingcommunitynearby,theymayLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 9 havebeen awareit.such,theymayhaveknownopportunitiestospeakintheirindigenous languageswithotherKaqchikelMayatransnationalsubjectsinthearea.conversationswithJavierandthefamilyinXeya’alsoreaffirmedthatthegeneralusetheethniclabel“Latino”isfundamentallyproblematictodescribeLatinAmericanindigenous personswhohavetakenresidenceintheUnitedStates.Theterm“Latino”hasbeenthesubjectmuchintellectualinquiryinrecentdecades,andmanyscholarshavequestionedits utility.SuzanneObolerhasexplainedthatthecategory“Latino”hasbeenappliedfromtheoutside,“imposedAmericans”which“obscuresratherthanclarifies”theseissuesof identityMorebroadly,thetitlethisjournal,LabelLatina/ospeakstothishenomenon.Whileusingthecommandformtheverb“label”readinrather ambivalentways,possibleinterpretationistosignalthatotheragentshaveascribedthistermtoLatinAmericansresidingintheUnitedStates.Theumbrellaterm“Latino”hasgeneralizing effect,failingtorecognizethenuanceddifferencespeoplewhocomefromvariousgeographicregions,socioeconomicbackgrounds,andculturalmilieuLatinAmerica.DebraCastillo hasnoted,althoughquestionswhoisLatina/ohavebeenaddressedwith“identitarian claims(10manyscholarshaverefutedthecategoryaltogether.EarlShorrishasclaimed that“thereareLatinos,onlydiversepeoplesstrugglingtoremainwhotheyare”Consequently,MartaCamineroSantangeloexplains,“[m]ostsavvycommentatorsnow disavow(atleastexplicitly)thenotionessentialLatinoidentity”ForthebrothersXeya’,theirindigenousbackground,KaqchikelMayalanguageuse,andGuatemalannationality (withitslegacyracismtheviolenceagainsttheMayaduringthecivilwar)haveallshapedtheirexperiencesintheUnitedStates,complicatingtheirpotentialidentificationwiththeessentialconstruct“Latino.”Duetosocioeconomicandracialdifferences,theusetheterm“Latino”isparticularly complicatedwhenreferringtoMayaruralGuatemalalikeJavierandRicardo.TheyareinherentlydistinctpeopleintheUnitedStatesCuba,PuertoRico,Mexico,other partsCentralandSouthAmerica.MarceloSuárezOrozcoandMarielaPáezhaveaddressedthesediscrepanciesbasednationalityandethnicity:“thetiredandfacile“Latinosarebigfamily’glossesoverthecontradictions,tensions,andfissuresaroundclass,race,and colorthatoftenseparatethem..… Bluntly,whatdoesEnglishspeakingthirdgenerationupperstatuswhiteCubanAmericaninFloridahaveincommonwithMayaspeakingrecentimmigrantGuatemala?”

;Generationaldifferencesaside,white,uppe
;Generationaldifferencesaside,white,upperclassCubancitizenshavelittle(tonothing)incommonwiththebrownfaced,oftenpovertystrickenMayaGuatemalalikeJavierandRicardo.Consequently,experiencesCubancitizensand MayaGuatemalaintheUnitedStatesaremarkedlydifferent.Thereareracialandsocioeconomicdiscrepancies,despitewhatJoséMartíwouldhavebelievetheendthenineteenthcenturywhenboldlydiscountedracialdifferenceinLatinAmericainhisessay “NuestraAmérica.”Moregenerally,inGuatemalaandotherLatinAmericancountrieswithpronounced indigenouspopulation,theusethelabel“Latino”intheUnitedStatestorefertotransnationalsubjectslikethebrothersXeya’negatestheirindigenousheritage.SilvioTorresSaillantalsoaddressesindigenousandotherpeoplecolorareunrepresentedtheLatinomold, arguingthat[t]heclaimthatLatinosconstitutebighappyfamilyconcealsthetensions,inequities, andinjusticesinmidst,contributingtoconceptualambiencethatlegitimizestheabsenceblackandIndianfacesandvoicesLatinofora.Label Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 10 Theoperatinglogicseems tothat,becauseeveryoneinpolychromaticcommunityisreallytheame, everyoneisinherentlyrepresenteded… (53) &#x/MCI; 1 ;&#x/MCI; 1 ;Theterm“Latino”denotestheHispanic,Spanishheritage,whileglossingovererasing completelythehistorydominationandoppressionindigenouspeoplethroughoutLatin America.LabelingMayaGuatemalalikeJavierandRicardo“Latinos”intheUnitedStates compoundstheirmarginalization.constructsartificialhorizontalequalityamongthepeoplethisCentralAmericancountry,failingtorecognizethedeephistoryracismand discriminationagainstindigenousGuatemalans.rturoAriasnotes,largepercentageGuatemalanmigrants“areindigenousdescent,areleastmixedraceLadinos.Thesearethetypespopulationsthatweresuppressedeliminatedthroughgenocidalpoliciesinmany otherLatinAmericancountriesandwerekilledplacedreservationsintheUnitedStates. ‘Indians’havetraditionallybeeninvisibilizedintheAmericas”EvenwhenMayalikeJavierandRicardoarelongerwithinthegeopoliticalconfinesGuatemala,theyareunabletoescapelinguisticandsymbolicoppressionbasedtheirindigenousethnicityas transnationalsubjectsintheUnitedStates.provideconcreteexample,Spanishlanguageuseisproblematiccharacteristicto determinewhoisLatina/o.cholarshaveoftenreferredtothisRomancelanguagethemother tongue”whenusingittoconnectLatinos.Forexample,JohnGarcíaproclaimsthat“[s]peakingSpanishisstillfairlyuniversalexperiencemostLatinos”butlater recognizesthatallLatinosspeakSpanish.Forhim,similartofamily,thereare“variationsincharacter,lifestyle,personality,andThemetaphorimpliesthatwhileLatinosarefamily,allthemarethesame.PerhapsthisdisclaimerwasGarcía’srecognitiontheslipperynaturehisclaimthatSpanishlanguageuseis“universal”amongLatinos.Other scholars,likeOboler,haveoutwardlyrejectedtheusecommonlanguagewaytoconnectLatinos,citingthatgrowingnumbersLatino

slongerspeakSpanish(xvi).Furthermore,giv
slongerspeakSpanish(xvi).Furthermore,giventhevastnessthecontinentwhereSpanishisspoken,therearenumerousregionalspecificities,whichfurtherdivideLatinos.BothGarcíaandObolerrefertoincreasingEnglishlanguageuseamongLatinosinconjunctionwithvaryingdegreesSpanish.Thelackof scholarlyattentiontooriginaryindigenouslanguageuseunderscoresindigenousmigrants aremultiplyinvisibilizedintheseacademicconversations.FormanyindigenouspeopleLatinAmerica,Spanishistheir“mothertongue.”RatheritisthelanguagethatSpaniardsimposedtheirancestorswaytofacilitatetheir dominationandcontrolovernewlyconqueredterritories.SpecificallyJavierandRicardo, their“mothertongue”isKaqchikelMaya,andtheylearnedSpanishbecausethatwasthelanguagepowerinGuatemalansociety.MostofficialdiscoursestheStatelegal,juridical, medical,business,etc.areinSpanish.FormanyGuatemalanMaya,Spanishmaysourcenationalprideheritage,ratherremindercenturiessubjugation.is perhapsthisreasonthatitwasimportantJaviertocommunicatewithmeinKaqchikelduringconversations,eventhoughitwasinefficient,laboriousprocessgivenmy proficiencyinthelanguagethetime.Asidelinguistic,racial,andsocioeconomicissues,anotherkeydifferenceamong LatinosistheirlengthresidencyintheUnitedStates.Someareimmigrantswhohavetakenup permanentresidenceintheUnitedStates,whereasothersaremigrantswhohaveonlyrelocated tothecountrytemporarily.Forexample,themajoritytheupperclass,thirdgenerationCubans previouslymentionedhavepermanentlyrelocatedtotheUnitedStatestogetLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 11 awayFidelCastroandhissocialistpolicies.However,manyrecentmigrantsplantoworkfiniteperiod oftimebeforereturningtotheirhomesandfamilies.this,thedreamreturnremainsvividon eithersidetheborder.ForJavier,Ricardo,andtheirfamily,itwasalwaysunderstoodthatthey wouldworkintheUnitedStatesuntiltheyearnedenoughmoney,whichpointtheywould returntoXeya’.theumbrellaterm“Latino”generallyreferstosomeoneLatinAmericalivingintheUnitedStates,reconcilethedifferencesbetweentemporaryand permanentresidency,regardlesslegalstatus?BecausemigrantslikeJavierandRicardointendtostaypermanently,theyftenhavemultiplegenerationstheirfamilylivingintheUnitedStates.Withoutsuchgenerationaldistinctions,temporarymigrantsandtheir familiesaresusceptibletolanguagelossandothereffectsacculturation.Many indigenousmigrantslikeJavierandRicardostronglymaintaintheirautochthonouscultures despitemigration,haveseenwiththeirlanguageuseandallocationremittancesto purchasetraditionalclothing.Giventhisdistinction,then,doesthetemporarystatusmigrants precludethemtheLatinorubric?goalhereistoprovidedefinitiveanswer,to callattentiontotheneedmorenuancedapproachestothedrivingfactorsandgoalsLatin AmericansresidingintheUnitedStates.WemustpushtheoreticallimitstofleshtheterritorializationLatina/oidentitiesratherthansimplisticallylumpthemtogether.Conclusionshaveseen,inthiscasestudythefamilyXeya’,financialc

apitalfromremittancesBrooklyn,NewYorkhas
apitalfromremittancesBrooklyn,NewYorkhasprovidedthefamilywithnumeroussymbolicgoods, suchtheelectricalappliancesinthekitchen.However,perhapsistoexpected,theabsenceJavierandRicardohasaffectedeachmemberthefamilydifferently.Forexample, thebrothers’childrenhaveaccesstoeducation,yettheyhaveonlyfaintmemoriesthefathers,ifanyall.Althoughtherearesocioeconomicimprovementsthefamily,thepsychologicaleffectsarealsoverypronounced,particularlyJavierandRicardo’sspousesand children.experiencesinXeya’evidencetheconstantmobilityandtransculturalexchangethatgoeshandinhandwithmigration.theUnitedStatestoday,discussionsimmigration generallcalltomindthemillionspeopleLatinAmericawhoresidethisNorth Americancountry,withwithoutdocumentation.However,thisethnographicaccountspeakstomultifacetedeffectsglobalization.Evenwhenresearcherswho,perhapsironically,areoftenfromtheUnitedStatestoremotecommunities,issuesmigrationarealsoprevalent. ManytheseruralareashavebeenunabletoescapethetrendgoingNorte.thetwentyfirstcentury,anthropologistsandethnographersconductfieldworkinisolated communities.The“isolatedvillage”modelislongerviable(ifiteverreallywas)inagewhentransnationalmovementandculturalexchangehavefarreachinginfluence.perhapsin thiscontextthatanthropologistslikeGeorgeMarcushaveadvocatedresearcherstomoveawaysinglesitestomultisitedethnography“toexaminethecirculationculturalmeanings,objects,andidentitiesindiffusetimespace”AlthoughtheexampleJavierandRicardo’sjourneytotheUnitedStatesXeya’is butcasestudy,therearenumerousotherexamples,haveseenwithPatriciaFoxen’s workK’iche’transnationalsubjectsXinxucwhohaverelocatedProvidence,Island.Thesebrothers’storyisanomaly,isolatedcase.Label Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 12 membertheGuatemalaScholarsNetwork,frequentlyreceiveemailsthroughtheorganization’slistserv requestinginterpretingtranslationservicesMayawhointhesecasesspeak Spanishmedical,legal,courtproceedings.ThisrecenttrendindicatesthattherearegrowingnumbersMayaintheUnitedStatesGuatemala,andotherMesoamerican countries.Morebroadly,playwrightVíctorHugoRascónBandatookthephenomenonof indigenousmigrationtothestageinthecontexthisnativeMexico,withhisplaymujercayódelcieloRascónBandadetailedthecultural,linguistic,andphysicalisolationof RitaQuintero,TarahumarawomanfromChihuahua,MexicowhoherselfinstatepsychiatrichospitalinLarned,Kansas.LauraKanostacknowledges,“[w]hethershementallyillallbeforeenteringthehospitalinwhenadvocatesfinally identifiedherlanguageandethnicityandconcludedthatshecouldreleased,yearsof antipsychoticmedicationandculturallinguisticisolationhadtakenseveretollhermindand body”recentlywhenauthoritiesencounteredindigenousmigrantinKansas, theyassumedthatshewasmentallyunstableandhospitalizedher,withoutfurtherexploration intoherculture,language,andethnicbackground.Morethanthirtyyearslater,longer erroneouslyhosp

italizethatwhichunderstand,butthereissti
italizethatwhichunderstand,butthereisstillprogresstomade.IndigenouspeopleresidingintheUnitedStatescontinuetofaceinfrastructuralobstacles. Forexample,CirilaBaltazarCruz,undocumentedOaxacanwomanwhogavebirthtobabygirl,Rubí,inMississippihospitalinwasseparatedherdaughteranddeported becauseshespeaksChatino,limitedSpanish,andEnglish(PadgettandMascareñaspag.). TheDepartmentHumanServices(DHS)ruledthatshewasunfitmotherandtookher infantdaughter,arguingthatherlackEnglishthechildindanger.Thesocialservices translatorjustifiedthisdecisionexplainingthatBaltazarherchildindangerbecauseshedidbringcradle,clothes,formulatothehospitalwithher.However,journalists TimPadgettandDollyMascareñasexplainintheirreportthecase,“indigenousOaxacan motherstraditionallybreastfeedtheirbabiesyearandrarelyusebassinets,carryingtheir infantsinsteadrebozo,typesling”pag.).response,BaltazarfoughtlegalbattletotakeherdaughterbacktoMexicowithher.followreportinJackElliottJr.,explainsthattheOaxacanmother“wasseparatedherdaughteryearbeforeher childwasreturnedtoheraftertheinterventiontheSPLC,nonprofitU.S.civilrightsthatsaid itpressesimmigrantjustice,battleshateandextremismandhelpschildrenatrisk.[Baltazar] CruzandherdaughteravesincereturnedtoMexico”(n.pag.).Thiscasespeakstothedifficultiesmixedstatusfamilies.CirilaBaltazarisundocumented,yetbecauseher daughterwasinMississippi,sheisofficiallyUnitedStatescitizenandisabletofreely return.ManyLatinAmericansresidingintheUnitedStateslikeBaltazargrapplewith complexsituationswhichleadtodeportationtothedifferentlegalstatusestheirfamily members.TheexamplesCirilaBaltazarCruz’slegalfight,RásconBanda’splay,andthecurrentactivistworktheGuatemalaScholarsNetworkspeaktotheincreasingneedtheinstitutionalinfrastructurestheStatetorecognizetheseculturaldifferencesandmakeaccommodationswheneverpossibledisenfranchisedindigenousLatinAmericans.theacademicsense,scholarswhoworkinindigenous,migration,andLatinostudies mustalsoconfronttherealitiesthistransnationalphenomenoninvolvingMayaandother indigenouscommunities.ThewaysinwhichethnicityandracecontributetotransnationalLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 13 experiencesintheUnitedStatesarenuanced.CamineroSantangeloexplains,inLatin America,socialconstructionsraceandethnicityvaryregionally:Forthing,course,theHispanicracemeltingconstruction,initsmostextremeform,ignoresthecontinuingexistenceindigenousAfricandescentpopulationsinLatinAmerica.(Noteveryoneidentifies“mestizo”“mulatto.”)For another,allhistoricalmanifestationssyncretismarethesame;themixtureof peoplesandcultureslooksverydifferentintheCaribbean,wheretheindigenouspeoples weredecimatedandlargenumbersAfricanslavesimportedtosugarplantations,fromitlooksinMexico,Guatemala,Salvador,wheretheinfluencetheindigenous presenceismuchmoreobvious.And,needlesstosay,theindigenouspeoplesindifferentgeographicalspaceswerethemselvesdifferen

tpeoples.Therearemarkeddifferencesbetwee
tpeoples.TherearemarkeddifferencesbetweenindigenousandAfricandescentpeoplesandtheircultures intheCaribbean,Mesoamerica,andtheAndeanregion,andthesediscrepanciesinformmigrantexperiencesintheUnitedStatesinuniqueways.Thereisplethorastudiconcerning migrantsintheUnitedStatesMexicoandtheCaribbean(namelyandPuertoRico), yetindigenouspeopleshavebeenthefocusrelativelylittlescholarship.Eventhoughthis specialeditionLabelLatina/oissteptowardremedyingthisgapinscholarship,thereis stillmuchtodone.Wescholarsmustcontinuepushtheboundariesresearchtoengageinlessexclusionarytermsandquestiontheutilityidentitarian,essentialistlabelssuchas “Latino”(andothers)inapproaches.Noteshaveusedpseudonymsthetownandthefamilymemberstoprotecttheiridentities duetothesmallsizethetownandthedelicatenatureresearchundocumentedpersonsin theUnitedStates.Fromethnographicperspective,accordingtoculturalanthropologistsEdwardF. FischerandPeterBenson,“[e]thnographicsensibilitiestendtoprivilegethelocalovertheglobal, oftenassumingbroadbackdropglobalizationeitherhegemonicimpositionintolocalworldglobalizedlocality)localresistanceagainstdistantmarketforceslocalized globality)”ArturoAriasextendsthisobservationtotherestCentralAmerica,claimingthatCentralAmericansoncefledtheisthmustoescapethepoliticalinstabilitytheendthetwentiethcentury:“[t]hehighnumbersCentralAmericansintheUnitedStatesarean inevitableresultthewarsfoughtinthe1980s,whenaboutthreetomillionpeoplefled thenightmareviolenceandmassacretotheapparentsafetytheUnitedStates”Guatemala,theStatetargetedthecountry’sindigenouspopulationsubversivebehavior duringthegenocidalyearcivilwarThemilitaryraped,tortured,and “disappeared”manyMaya,leavingtheiraldeasinashes.TheHistoricalClarification CommissionComisiónparaEsclarecimientoHistóricoinvestigatedthehumanrights violationsJanuaryuntilDecemberwiththesigningthePeaceAccords.AccordingtohistorianVirginiaGarrardBurnett,thetruthcommissionsestimatethatthevictimsduringtheearlywereMayaFormoreinformationMayaaccountstheGuatemalancivilwar,seethefollowingtestimonials:VictorMontejo’sTestimony:Deatha GuatemalanVillageandRigobertaMenchúTum’sllamoRigobertaLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 14 Menchúasínaciólaconciencia(1983),whichshepublishedwithElizabethBurgos.oxenhasfollowedthisresearchwithanthropologistDebraRodman detailingmigrationtheindigenousWesternHighlandsandtheLadinoEasternregionsof Guatemalaintheirauthoredessay,“GuatemalansinNewEngland:TransnationalCommunitiesThroughTimeandSpace.”SimilartotheMayatrajeinsomecasessubsistenceagricultureassociatedwiththemilpaisalsodyingtradition.thecontextNeoliberaleconomicpolicies,manyMayahavetimetotakeworkthespacetocultivatetheirmilpapostwarGuatemala,some Mayahaverecognizedtheeconomicbenefitsgrowingothercashcrops,likebroccoli,in placetheirtraditionalmilpasAnthropologistsEdwardFischerandPeterBensonexplain thatma

nyMayatogrowbroccoliandotherexportcropsb
nyMayatogrowbroccoliandotherexportcropsbecausetheyrealizethatgrowing onlymilpawillaffordthestandardlivingthattheydesiretheirfamiliesReadperformance,themilpalikethetraditionalclothingisoutwardrepresentationMayaess,culturalidentityandevenspiritualtradition,andbothareMayatraditionsthathavecomeinconflictwithdistinctformsglobalization.ThepoemK’iche’womanincludedthisspecialedition,Latina,”is perhapsresponsetosuchpoliticsidentityandconflictsagency.MartaCamineroSantangelo,however,notesthatShorris’s“bookisparadoxically entitledLatinos:BiographythePeoplethis,DebraCastilloaddsissuesreligion,posingthequestion:“[H]owaboutJewArgentina?”RobertoSuroandGabrielEscobarnote,itisappropriatetorememberthat“Hispanicsinsurveysroutinelydescribethemselvesculturallydistinctoneanother”(10). Eventhoughtheymaysharecommonlanguage,theyperceivethemselvestodifferentLatinosotherpartsLatinAmerica.Formoreinformation,seeMelvynPaulLewis’sdoctoraldissertation,SocialChange, IdentityShift,LanguageShiftinK’iche’Guatemalathecontextmedicallexiconandsemanticdomains,seethestudyKaqchikellanguageuseandrevitalization techniquesEmilyTummons,RobertHenderson,andPeterRohloff.Althoughpermanentresidenceismigrants’intentioninitially,thelongermigrants areawaytheircountriesorigin(andtheirrespectivefamilies),themorelikelyitisthattheywillpermanentlysettleinthecountrywheretheywork,establishingnewhouseholdand family.Thispermanentdislocationoftenresultsinreductionintheremittancessent,anditis commonthemtoceasecompletely(DeSipioChimhowu,Piesse,andPinderWorksCitedAppadurai,Arjun.ModernityLarge:CulturalDimensionsGlobalizationMinneapolisLondon:MinnesotaArias,Arturo.TakingTheirWord:LiteraturetheSignsCentralAmericaMinneapolis:U ofMinnesotaBurgos,Elizabeth.llamoRigobertaMenchúasínaciólaconciencia1983.México:SigloVeintiunoEditores,CamineroSantangelo.Latinidad:U.S.LatinoLiteraturetheConstructionEthnicityLabel Me Latina/o Special Issue 2015 15 Gainesville:FloridaasaúsArzú,MartaElena.metamorfosisdelracismoGuatemalaGuatemala:EditorialCholsamaj,Castillo,DebraRedreamingAmerica:TowardBilingualAmericanCultureSUNYSeriesin LatinAmericanandIberianThoughtandCulture.Ithaca:StateNewYorkChimhowu,AdmosO.,JeniferPiesse,andCarolinePinder.“SocioeconomicImpactRemittancesPovertyReduction.”Remittances:DevelopmentImpactFutureProspectsEd.SamuelMunzeleMaimboandDilipRatha.Washington:TheWorldBank, 2005. 83DeSipio,Louis.“SendingMoneyHome…ForNow:RemittancesandImmigrantAdaptationin theUnitedStates.”TomásRiveraPolicyInstitute,UniversitySouthernCalifornia,Los Angeles,andInterAmericanDialogue,Washington,D.C.JanuaryWeb.March. 2015.Eber,Christineand“Antonia.”TheJourneyTzotzilMayaWomanChiapas,MexicoAustin:TexasElliottJr.,Jack.“MexicanImmigrantSuesAfterNewbornSeizedMississippiAgency.”San JoseMercuryNewsMarchWeb.Junehtp://www.mercuryn

ews.com/immigration/ci_25329022/mexicani
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