Dr Howard Chiang Western Medicine and SelfStrengthening Treaty ports eg Shanghai amp Tianjin cultural imperialism Western medicine to E Asia Tokugawa Japan Dutch East India Company ID: 1000112
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1. Medicine in East AsiaHI 176: Lecture 7Dr. Howard Chiang
2. Western Medicine and Self-StrengtheningTreaty ports – e.g., Shanghai & Tianjin‘cultural imperialism’ – Western medicine to E AsiaTokugawa Japan – Dutch East India Company17th & 18th c. China – Jesuit Missionaries- 1693, French Dominique Parennin, Manchu Anatomy19th c. China – Protestant Missionaries- British Benjamin Hobson, Outline of Anatomy and Physiology (1851) – first systematic translation- Tongwen Guan in Beijing – translators’ school- Scottish John Dudgeon, Gray’s Anatomy (1886)- American John Kerr, Refuge for the Insane (1898)
3. Manchu Anatomy (1693)
4. Benjamin Hobson (1851)
5. Kerr Refuge for the Insane
6. History of Modern Chinese Medicine
7. Peking Union Medical College
8. Peking Union Medical College
9. The Spectrum of Medical Practice in the Early 20th CenturyAmerican Rockefeller FoundationMissionary-run hospitals and clinicsMultidenominational ‘union medical colleges’Military hospitals of the Chinese, Japanese, and Russian armiesMedical facilities in the colonial treaty portsChinese Customs Service quarantine stationsPrivate and government hospitalsPharmacies and drugstores – Chinese or Western
10. The Spectrum of Medical Practice in the Early 20th Century“Chinese Medicine”:- scholarly physicians- graduates of the new colleges of Chinese medicine- specialists such as the Bamboo Grove monks- martial artists- acupuncturists- itinerant peddlers of Chinese drugs- medical advisors in temples- dentistsWomen healers:- midwives; specialists in pediatric care; smallpox variolation specialistsVaccination
11. The Spectrum of Medical Practice in the Early 20th CenturyLiterate Medicine – medical lineages- Four Famous Physicians of the Jin and Yuan Dynasties- Warm Diseases (wenbing, 溫病)- Cold Damage- family lineage – e.g., Menghe in Jiangsu (Volker Scheid)Response to epidemics- collective organization of large processions in the streets to expel the ‘demons’ causing the diseaseEventually harmonized into a single medical system in which modern biomedicine became the model
12. History of Modern Chinese Medicine
13. Public Health & the Modern StatePublic health is a function of the modern state- emerged first in Britain – English Utilitarian’s program for greater worker efficiency In China- exam required for Imperial Medical Academy- free distribution of medicine by local magistrates – Angela Leung’s article on organized medicine in Ming-Qing China – increasingly left to the charitable activities of the local elites1902: late Qing’s first municipal health bureau created in Tianjin – ‘protect the lives of the people’Ministry of Civil Affairs – police and public healthManchurian plague (1910-1911)
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16. Manchurian Plague (1910-11)
17. Manchurian Plague (1910-11)
18. 1911: International Plague ConferenceNorth Manchurian Plague Prevention Service – China’s first attempt at a public health service
19. 1911: International Plague ConferenceNorth Manchurian Plague Prevention Service – China’s first attempt at a public health service
20. First Medical Licensing Exam1909 Duanfang (端方):Describe the advantages and disadvantages of Chinese and Western pulse taking.Describe the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western pharmacy.Discuss the use of anesthetic drugs in ancient times.Discuss the properties and uses of X-rays.Discuss Chinese and Western needling techniques.Discuss the cause and treatment of rat-borne plagueRequired candidates to be familiar with both classical medical literature and Western medicine (e.g., X-rays and serum therapy)
21. ScientismScientism – emerged in the May 4th/New CultureNational education system?1913: All China Medical Pharmaceutical AssociationWang Daxie: “I have decided in future to abolish Chinese medicine and also not to use Chinese drugs”Refusal to include Chinese medicine in the national education system did not mean trying to abolish Chinese medicineIn November 1908 – a new Western medicine department, with a Western pharmacy was installed in the Imperial Medical Academy alongside its traditional counterparts
22. Chen Duxiu, ‘Call to Youth’, New Youth (1915):‘Our men of learning do not understand science; thus they make use of yin-yang signs and beliefs in the five elements to confuse the world and delude the people…Our doctors do not understand science; they not only know nothing of human anatomy, but also know nothing of the analysis of medicines; as for bacterial poisoning and infections, they have not even heard of them.’
23. ScientismLeaders of the Chinese medical community responded with attempts to make Chinese medicine appear scientific:- edited new textbooks- reliance on classical medical theory as a liability- medical education – Shanghai Technical College of Chinese Medicine was founded in 1915- 1920s and 1930s: founding of many other new schools of Chinese medicine – curriculum included Western anatomy and physiology (even pathology and bacteriology)
24. Movement to Abolish Chinese Medicine1928: China’s first Ministry of HealthYu Yunxiu (1879-1954) proposed a motion to ‘abolish old-style medicine in order to clear away the obstacles to medicine and public health’First National Public Health Conference approved the motionResponse of the Chinese medical community:- a national conference of Chinese medicine on March 17, 1929, a date later declared the National Medicine Day- National Union of Medical and Pharmaceutical Organizations – 5-member delegation to Nanjing
25. Formation of the Institute of National MedicineChinese medicine allied with the National Studies movement – ‘National Medicine’1931: the Institute of National Medicine – with the aim to ‘scientize’ Chinese medicine (inc. pharmacopea)- Chinese physicians began to marginalize those peers who refrained from engaging with the project of scientizationJapanese influence:- a movement for preserving kanpo (Sino-Japanese medicine) flourished as a way to maintain cultural identity by way of ‘scientizing’ traditional medicine- Chinese doctors borrowed the strategy from their kanpo predecessors in Japan
26. Reinvention of Acupuncture
27. Reinvention of Acupuncture
28. Reinvention of AcupunctureCheng Dan’an (承淡安, 1899-1957) - mapped Western anatomy and physiology onto the meridian tracts of acupuncture (jingluo, 經絡):The pathways of acupuncture points recorded by our forebears are mostly lacking in detail. There is even less recorded about the contents of the acupuncture pathways. This book employs scientific methods to correct this. Each acupoint must be elucidated anatomically….In manipulating acupoints, although our forebears needled into arteries, this was still needling the nerves of that area, and certainly not [primarily] rupturing the artery….However, when they did needle them (arteries) the objective was [to reach] the nerves at that spot.
29. 20th Century TransformationsChinese medicine in the PRC (1949-present):1949-53 – subsumed under biomedicine1954-65 – creation of ‘traditional Chinese medicine’1966-77 – contracted by ideological simplification1976-89 – exploded into myriad options/possibilities1989-present – integration into global health careGlobalization:Actively supported by WHO, promoted by the Chinese state, dispersed by Chinese physicians, studied by conventional and alternative practitioners throughout the world, sought after by international clientele of patients
30. Chinese medicine- cultural imperialism?