SEMANTICS Word meanings and concepts - PowerPoint Presentation

1. SEMANTICSWord meanings and conceptsBy:Dania Abbas M.Ali

2. conceptsThey are organized bundles of stored knowledgerepresenting an articulation of events, entities, situations, and so on in our experience.It is only because we can put elements of experience into categories, that we can recognize them as having happened before, and we can remember our previous reactions to their occurrence.

3. Word-concept mappingConcepts are linked together in a complex multi-dimensional network.These links correspond to concepts of a moreschematic kind than the concepts which they serve to connect, which are typically richer and more complex.

4. Word-concept mappingEach full lexical item directly activates a concept and indirectly activates linked conceptsaccording to the strength of the link.There is no direct link between the word horse and the concept ANIMAL: the word horse has a directlink only with the concept HORSE

5. The mapping between words and conceptsOne-to-one: in this arrangement, a word gives access to a single concept syzygy syzygy

6. The mapping between words and conceptsone-to-many: : financial institution bank margin of river

7. The mapping between words and conceptsmany-to-one die kick the bucket DIE pass away

8. The mapping between words and conceptsMany to many: it is a combination of the previous two types. Word- specific properties: words or expressions that are not identical in meaning but since they all map the same concept, means that the difference between them must be a property of the words themselves not of the concept.

9. The modulateThe meaning of a word consists of word-specific properties plus the properties of the associated concept.we can distinguish words like die, horse, andcry, which activate their associated concepts (DIE, HORSE, and CRY) in a neutral way, from those like kick the bucket, pass away, nag, steed and blubber.

10. Conceptual structureThe expressive possibilities of languageare infinite.Since the brain is a finite physical object, it cannot store an infinite number of linguistic forms mapped on to an infinite number of concepts. Three independent levels of structure :Phonological, syntactic, and conceptual.

11. The expressive constraintConceptual structure could in principle be richer than expressible linguistic meanings, but it cannot be less rich.Jackendoff calls this the expressive constraint.(He also has a grammatical constraint, which amounts to a bias in favour of conceptual structures that can be put into transparent correspondence with surface syntactic structures and against 'deep structures' of a radically differentform to the corresponding surface forms.)

12. The expressive constraintthere is only one level; that is to say, syntactic structures map directly on to conceptual structures.The basis for this view is that there is no work for a distinct semantic level to do: everything needed to motivate grammatical structure is present in conceptual structure.

13. The nature of concepts1. they classify experience.2. give access to knowledge concerning entities which fall into them.The classical approachdefines a category in terms of a set of necessary and sufficient criteria. (x is a category of GIRL)X is humanX is femaleX is young

14. The nature of conceptsIf any of these criteria are not satisfied, then X is not a girl (i.e. the criteria are individually necessary); if all the criteria are satisfied, then X is a girl (i.e. the criteriaare jointly sufficient).

15. Some problems of the classical approachLack of plausible analysesThere are many everyday words whose meaningscannot be captured by means of a set of necessary and sufficient features.(game)1. involves winning and losing: there are many games which do not involve winning and losing: party games or children's games.2. involves more than one person.3. has arbitrary rules.4.done purely for enjoyment.

16. Fuzzy statementA fuzzy statement is a statement which is true to some extent and that extent can often be represented by a scaled value.The boundaries of natural categories are fuzzy and contextually flexible.

17. Internal structure of categoriesthe classical conception of categories goes, everything that satisfies the criteria has the same status, that is to say, something is either in the category, or not in it, and that is all there is to say about the matter.some members are felt to be 'better' examples of the category than others. For instance, an apple is a better example of a fruit than is a date, or an olive.

18. The standard prototype approachThe natural conceptual categories are structured around the 'best' examples, or prototypes of the categories, and that other items are assimilated to a category according to whether they sufficiently resemble the prototype or not..

19. GOE and family resemblanceSubjects are asked to give a numerical value to their estimate of how good an example something is of a given category.1: very good example2: good example3: fairly good example4: moderately good example5: fairly poor example6: bad example7: very bad example/not an example at all

20. GOE and family resemblancePOTATO, CARROT ITURNIP, CABBAGE 2CELERY, BEETROOT 3AUBERGINE, COURGETTE 4PARSLEY, BASIL 5RHUBARB 6LEMON 7

21. Prototype effectsthere is abundant evidence that prototypicality, aspects of correlates strongly with important cognitive behavior. The principal prototype effects are as follows:Order of mentionWhen subjects are asked to list the members of a category, and especially if they are put under time pressure, the order of listing correlates with GOEratings, with the prototypical member showing a strong tendency to appear early in the list.

22. Prototype effectsOverall frequencyThe overall frequency of mention in such lists also correlates with GOE score.Order of acquisitionPrototypical members of categories tend to be acquired first, and order of acquisition correlates with GOE rating.Vocabulary learningChildren at later stages of language acquisition, when vocabulary enlargement can be greatly

23. Prototype effectsinfluenced by explicit teaching, learn new words more readily if they are provided with definitions that focus on prototypical instantiations than if they are given an abstract definition that more accurately reflects the total range of the word's meaning.Speed of verificationIn psycholinguistic experiments in which subjects are required to respond as quickly as they can toa categorization task, subjects produce faster responses if the tasks involve a prototypical member..

24. Prototype effectsPriming It is a well-established experimental fact that if a word is preceded by a semantically related word, response to it will be speeded up,for instance, a Yes response to DOCTOR will be faster if NURSE has been just previously presented.

25. Intuitive unity, definitional polyvalenceA purely linguistic characterization of categories with a prototypic organization is that they show intuitive unity, but are definitionally polyvalent.For instance, the semantic field covered by the term game can be quite well described by means of arestricted set of definitions, but no satisfactory unitary definition exists ..

26. Fuzzy boundariesOnly the prototype has 100 per cent membershipof a category, the degree of membership of other items being dependent on their degree of resemblance to the prototype.There is no fixed limit on how far something can depart from the prototype and stillbe assimilated to the class, if the categorizer is perceptive or clever enough to findsome point of resemblance to typical instances.There is no fixed limit on how far something can depart from the prototype and still be assimilated to the class, if the categorizer is perceptive or clever enough to findsome point of resemblance to typical instances.

27. The mental representation of categoriesthere was some sort of portrait of the prototypical member, against which the similarity of other items could be computed and their statusin the category determined.Many prototype theorists speak only of 'prototype effects', and remain uncommitted on the subject of the form of mental representations.categories with a prototype structure are represented by a set of features..

28. The mental representation of categoriesthese do not constitute a set of necessary and sufficient criteria, except perhaps for the prototype itself.Some features will have a greater effect on determining centrality in the categorythan others.The general idea can be illustrated using the category VEHICLE.

29. Basic-level categories(a) vehicle—car—hatchback.(b) fruit—apple—Granny Smith.(c) living thing—creature—animal—cat—Manx cat.(d) object—implement—cutlery—spoon—teaspoon.basic or generic level of specificity(i) The most inclusive level at which there are characteristic patterns of behavioural interaction: imagine being asked to mime how one wouldbehave with an animal. This is rather difficult without knowing whether the animal in question is a crocodile or a hamster.

30. Basic-level categories(ii) clear visual image can be formed:try to visualize an item of cutlery or a vehicle,a fork or a lorry, however, are easy to visualize.(iii) Used for neutral, everyday reference, suppose A and B are sitting at home; Ahears a noise outside and says What's that? B looks out of the window and sees an alsatian in the garden. normally (b) will be chosen:(a) It's an animal.(b) It's a dog.(c) It's an alsatian.

31. Basic-level categories(iv) The basic level is the level at which the best categories can be created.(a) distinctness from neighbouring categories;(b) internal homogeneity;(c) differential informativenesscategories which are more inclusive than the basic level have less internal homogeneity, while narrower categories show less distinctness from neighbouring categories

32. Basic-level categories(v) Names of basic level categories tend to be morphologically simple, take the case of spoon, which is a basic-level term; all the more specific categories have more complex names: teaspoon, tablespoon, soup spoon, coffee spoon, etc.

33. Problematic aspects of prototype modelCategory boundaries and boundary effectsthe 'standard' prototype view is that no category boundary is recognized.A category without a boundary is virtuallyuseless: a primary function of a category is to discriminate between thingswhich are in it and things which are not in it. The classical view of categories,with necessary and sufficient features, set a boundary but allowed no internal structure.

34. Problematic aspects of prototype modelDegrees of membershiponly the prototype of a category has 100 per cent membership of the category, other items having adegree of membership dependent on their resemblance to the prototype.Once boundaries are assigned, then an item must be a full member of the category, not a member atall, or a borderline example.Even a non-central member of a category is a full member.

35. Problematic aspects of prototype modeldegree of membership applies only to borderlinecases.BICYCLE and SKATEBOARD to be borderline instances of the category VEHICLE.I myself, for instance, would judge BICYCLE to have a higher degree of membership than SKATEBOARD

36. Problematic aspects of prototype modelCompound categoriesThe categories which result from the combination of two (or more) basic categories are often regarded as presenting particular problems for prototype theory.It might be reasonably demanded of a prototypeapproach that the prototype of a compound category should be predictable from the representations of the component categories.

37. Problematic aspects of prototype modelContext sensitivityTypically, GOE ratings are assigned to putative members of named categories out of context. But it is intuitively obvious that judgements of the 'best‘ examples of, say, the category [CAR] are going to depend on whether one has in mind a racing context, a context of town use, or long-distance travel

38. Types of conceptual categoryNATURAL CONCEPTUAL CATEGORYFirst, it seems clear that a good category will distinguish clearly between things that are in it andthings that are not in it; in other words, it will have a relatively well-defined boundary.Second, bearing in mind that a major function of conceptual categories is to provide headings under which information/knowledge can be economicallystored, it is reasonable to expect a good category to be richly informative, in the sense that knowing that some entity belongs to a particular category

39. Types of conceptual categorygives access to a substantial body of knowledge about the entity.categories are not built to the same pattern.variation in the relative importance of theinternal structure and the boundary. An extreme case would be a category with boundaries but no internal structure at all. This would be the case for acategory defined purely by means of a list of membersThe balance of salience between boundary and internal structurecan vary. For instance, GAME has very fuzzy boundaries, but a rich internal structure, whereas ODD NUMBERhas clear boundaries, but a relativelyweak internal structure

40. John saeedConcepts

41. conceptsThe meaning of, say a noun, is a combinationof its denotation and a conceptual element, two basic questions about the conceptual element are:1 What form can we assign to concepts?2 How do children acquire them, along with their linguistic labels?Lexicalized concepts are the ones that correspond to single word.

42. conceptsSome concepts are described by phrases:On the shopping channel, I saw a tool for compacting dead leaves into garden statuaryUnity describing something that for a while was given the two-word label microwaveoven, but is now usually called just a microwave.Ex: We’re designing a device for cooking food by microwaves.

43. conceptsNew concepts are invented and new words or new senses of old words given to them.Children acquiring concepts we have to recognize that their concepts may differ from the concepts of adults.Children may operate with concepts that are quite different, underextending concepts when for a child dog can only be used for their pet, not the one next door;

44. conceptsoverextending concepts, where a child uses daddy for every male adult, or cat for cats, rabbits and other pets.

45. Necessary and sufficient conditionsIf we have a concept like woman, it must contain the information necessary to decide when something in the world is a woman or not.If something must have them to be a woman, then they can be called necessary conditions. In addition, if we can find the right set enough to define a woman, then they can be called sufficient conditions, we have identified the right amount of information for the concept.

46. Necessary and sufficient conditionsIgnorance: when speakers often use words to refer knowing very little, and sometimes nothing, about the identifying characteristics of the referent.Definition : that a word is referring to a concept composed of a set of necessary and sufficient conditions, or what amounts to the same thing.

47. prototypesA model of concepts which views them as structured so that there are central or typical members of a category, such as bird or furniture, but then a shading off into less typical or peripheral members. So chair is a more central member of the category furniture than lamp, for example.

48. prototypesSpeakers tend to agree more readily on typicalmembers than on less typical members; they come to mind more quickly.borderline uncertainty: an item in the worldmight bear some resemblance to two different prototypes.We don’t know whether a whale is a mammal or fish.whales resembl eprototypical fish in some characteristic features: they live underwater in theoceans, have fins, etc.

49. prototypessome researchers have argued that the central prototype is an abstraction. This abstraction might be a set of characteristic features,to which we compare real items for discussion.Other researchers have proposed that we organizeour categories by exemplars, memories of actual sparrows, pigeons and hawks, and we compute the likelihood of something we meet being a bird on the basis of comparison with these memories ofreal birds

50. Relations between concepts

51. Relations between conceptsHow much knowledge a speaker has to have in order to use a word?Such relations between concepts have been used to motivate models of conceptual hierarchies in thecognitive psychology literature.concepts are represented by nodes in a network, to which attributes can be attached and between which there are links. One such link is inclusion so that a subordinate node inherits attributes from a superordinate node.

52. Relations between conceptsCanary inherits the attributes of bird and animal and thus inherits the attributes breathes, eats, has skin, has wings, can fly, has feathers.model has the ability to block inheritance, so that for example ostrich does not inherit can fly from bird.Conceptual hierarchies contain three levels of generality:1. superordinate level2.basic level3. subordinate level

53. Relations between conceptsThe levels differ in their balance between informativeness and usefulness.The superordinate level is furniture, which has relatively few characteristic features; the basiclevel would include concepts like chair, which has more features, and the subordinate level would include concepts like armchair, dining chair, etc., which have still more features and are thus more specific again.

54. The basic levelThe basic level: is the level that is most used in everyday life; it is acquired first by children; in experiments it is the level at which adultsspontaneously name objects; such objects are recognized more quickly in tests, and so on.

55. The basic levelRelationship between the basic level and the intermediate term might vary somewhat from domain to domain: man-made categorieslike furniture differ somewhat from natural kind terms, and the relationship may vary depending on the person’s experience of the categories .

56. referencesCrure, A.(2000).Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics& pragmatics. Oxford University Press.Saeed,J.(2009). Semantics. London: Penguin.http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/Sample_Chapter/0631192964/Allan.pdfhttps://www.quora.com/What-is-the-definition-of-Semantic-concept

57. Thank you