Bhawani Mishra Kamol Ngamsomsuke Thomas G Johnson 2 National level Regional level Community level Market level Individual level Household level Source FAO Food security studies can be done at the different ID: 328177
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Slide1
Issues of Household Food Security in a Developing Country
Bhawani Mishra
Kamol
Ngamsomsuke
Thomas G.
JohnsonSlide2
2
National level
Regional level
Community level
Market level
Individual level
Household level
Source: FAO
Food security studies can be done at the different
levels
Food security studySlide3
3
Food Security at the Household
L
evel
As we move to the lower hierarchal levels, food security becomes more complex. (National level ---to---- Individual Level)
Food security at the household level is
an outcome of many
factors – social, economical, environmental,
political, institutional etc…
Food security issues
presented here are based on a case study
done in Nepal.Slide4
4
Out of 44 Village Development Committees (VDCs
)
Figure: Map of Nepal Showing
Kailali
District .Figure: Selected VDCs in Kailali
District.Kailali
is one of the food sufficient districts in Nepal. Study AreaSlide5
5
Data Collection
Household Interviews , Group Discussions (primary data source)
Publications from Government Offices- (Secondary data source
).
Analyses done based on caste/ethnic groups.
T
he
household level is
appropriate
for studying the factors affecting food security (Gittelsohn,
Mookherji, and Pelto 1998)
Reasons of studying food security at the household level
Little previous work
done to operationalize the concept at the household level in Nepal
(
Gittelsohn
et al., 1998).
Food production and consumption decisions are actually made at the household level. Slide6
6
Household
Expenditure
(Food, non food)
Social
variables
(Caste,
education
)
Income
(Farm, non farm)
Resource
endowment
(capital goods)
Polic
ies
,
community resources, institutional supports, market
s
Questionnaire
s
Group
discussions
Secondary
data
Tertiary factors
In
terlinkages
Problem
s
F
ood security at the household level
Research MethodsSlide7
7
Majority of the households are in subsistence farming.
Food security at the household level largely
depends
on agriculture performance.Landholding size is a very important constraint to productivity.
Landholdings are generally small .Landholding distribution skewed in favor of certain types of households.
Characteristics of Households
Major Issues of Food SecuritySlide8
8
Landholdings (National level)
Size
of holdings
%
of total Holdings Area (000 ha.)
% of Holdings<1.0 ha.(2.47
Acre)69.4791.9
30.51.0 – 5.0 ha.
29.11470.6
55.65.0 – 10
ha.1.2
209.3
8.1
>10
0.3
151.3
5.8
Total
100
2,597.4
100
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2002
Major Issues of Food SecuritySlide9
9
Landholding size in study area
30
kattha
=1 hectare= 2.47 Acre
Major Issues of Food SecuritySlide10
Caste/ethnic
group
Landholding
category (
Kattha
)
Total
< 30
30-60 61-90
91-120
> 120
Brahmin
9 (47.4)
5 (26.3)
4 (21.1)
1 (5.2)
-
19 (100)
Chhetri
11 (68.8)
4 (25.0)
-
-
1 (6.2)
16 (100)
Sudra
27 (100.0)
-
-
-
-
27 (100)
Tharu
23 (85.2)
1 (3.7)
2 (7.4)
-
1 (3.7)
27 (100)
Total
70 (78.7)
10 (11.2)6 (6.7)
1 (1.2)2 (2.2)89 (100)30 Kattha= 1 ha.= 2.47 Acre
Distribution of landholdings among different castesMajor Issues of Food SecuritySlide11
Distribution of Animal equivalent unit
Caste/ethnic group
Animal
Equivalent
unit
Brahmin
Mean
4.9
S.D.
3.2
Chhetri
Mean
3.7
S.D.
2.3
Sudra
Mean
1.4
S.D.
1.3
Tharu
Mean
4.8
S.D.
3.8
Source: Survey
Major Issues of Food SecuritySlide12
Average family size by caste/ethnic group
Source: Survey, 2004
Major Issues of Food SecuritySlide13
Average capital value per household
Source: Survey, 2004
Note: 1 US$=70.89 Nepalese Rupees (NRs.)
Major Issues of Food SecuritySlide14
Average Investment on
agriculture
Note: 1 US$=70.89 Nepalese Rupees (NRs.)
Major Issues of Food SecuritySlide15
Household head’s years of education
Number
of
years’ education
Caste/ ethnic group
Total
Brahmin
Chhetri
Sudra
Tharu
Illiterate
-
4 (
25.0%)
10 (
37.0%)
4 (
14.8%)
18 (
20.2%)
1-5
10 (
52.6%)
7 (
43.8%)
17 (
63.0%)
21 (
77.8%)
55 (
61.8%)
6-9
2 (
10.5%)
1 (
6.2%)
-
1 (
3.7%)
4 (
4.5%)>=107 (36.8%)4 (25.0%)-1 (3.7%)12 (13.5%)
Total19 (100.0%)16 (100.0%)27 (100.0%)
27 (100.0%)89 (100.0%)Mean value of calorie per adult equivalent of 10 or less than 10 years’ of education is significant different with more than 10 years of education (α=0.05 )
Source: SurveyMajor Issues of Food SecuritySlide16
t
total
production of
jth
food commodity for
i
th
household
j
is the extraction rate of edible part of the
j
th
food item
j
is the waste rate of food in storage and handling of
j
th
commodity
j
is the rate of other losses than storage and food item
j
th
item
j
th
commodity
t-1
ij
stock from previous years of ith household and jth commodity j is the calories values of the food item jthAlso include food bought and received
Calorie per adult equivalent per day = total calories of ith household in year / total adult equivalent * 365 Calorie per adult per day= f(land, caste, labor, livestock, expenditure on agri, land parcel)Factor affecting of food securitySlide17
Outcome of Household characteristics
caste/ ethnic group
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
Brahmin
2626.6
19
1848.1
1211
6925
Chhetri
2251.4
16
653.6
1446
3923
Sudra
1537.2
27
466.7
1086
2479
Tharu
2204.3
27
1234.0
1052
6333
Total
2100.5
89
1204.3
1052
6925
Note: The national
average
kcal
per adult equivalent threshold
level is 2250.Slide18
18
Factor affecting of
food
security
Variables
Expected sign
ResultSignificant Cultivated land per capita
++*Ratio female economically active adult to total economically active
+-*Adult equivalent
++***
land parcel-
+NS
Ratio of irrigated land to the total cultivated land
+
+
NS
Livestock equivalent unit
+
+
*
Expenditure on agriculture
+
+
**
Dummy of
Sudra
-
-
**
Dummy of
Tharu
-
-
NSSlide19
Caste/ethnic group
Number of food secure HHs*
Percentage (%)
to total HHs under each caste/ethnic group
Brahmin
7
36.8
Chhetri
7
43.8
Sudra
4
14.8
Tharu
9
33.3
Total
27
30.3
F
ood
secure households under each caste/ethnic group
Source: SurveySlide20
Seasonality of food
security
Source: Group discussion
Food security
trendSlide21
21
Additional issues related to food security
Wide spread poverty among the certain group of people.
Increased “Feminization of agriculture” due to
conflict.
Inadequate institutional support to boost agriculture (such as improved agricultural technologies) .Higher morbidity during rainy season (including livestock).
Inadequate access to agriculture markets (both input and output markets)Natural resources such as forest, nature water bodies are important source food (especially for Sudra and Tharu group).
Land tenure Institution weak or absent (*).Slide22
22
Rich picture of food security issues
Source: Group discussion
Summary of food security issuesSlide23
23Slide24
24
Government Agri. Policy
Trade
Production
Regional food supply
Community
food
supply
Household
Cultural
factors
Rule for the selection,
inter-household
sharing, intra-household allocation
Climate change
Household food security
Intra-household food allocation
Individual dietary intake
Morbidity
Individual
nutritional status
Figure: Conceptual
framework for examining household food security,
Gittelsohn
et al.
1998Slide25
25
Income from different sources
Caste/ethnic group
Income from agricultural sector (%)
Non-farm income (%)
Crop *(%)
Livestock*(%)
Total (%)
Brahmin
21.5
(66.6)
10.5
(
33.4)
31.5
(100.0)
68.5
Chhetri
18.0
(61.5)
11.3
(38.5)
29.3
(100.0)
70.7
Sudra
4.4
(56.8)
3.4
(43.2)
7.8
(100.0)
92.2
Tharu
17.8
(81.1)
4.2
(18.9)
22.0
(100)78.0*Figure in the parenthesis indicates the percentage within AgricultureSlide26
26
Education VS Calories Per Adult Equivalent
Mean value of calorie per adult equivalent of 10 or less than 10 years’ of education is significant different with more than 10 years of education (
α
=0.05 ) Slide27
27
Food secure households and their land ownership
(
*
)
Calorie range
Caste/ethnic
Types of land ownership
Don’t do agricultureTotal
Full
land ownership
Mixed landOwnership*
2250 - <2500
Brahmin
1
1
Chhetri
1
1
Sudra
3
1
4
Tharu
1
1
Sub total
5
1
1
7
2500-3000
Brahmin
1
1
2
Chhetri
1
3
4
Tharu
2
2
Sub total
2
6
8
>3000
Brahmin3
14Chhetri2
2
Tharu
2
4
6
Sub total
7
5
12
Total
14
12
1
27Slide28
28
Activities
Apr/May
May/Jun
Jun/July
July/Aug
Aug/Sep
Sept/Oct
Oct/Nov
Nov/Dec
Dec/Jan
Jan/Feb
Feb/Mar
Mar/Apr
Events
School admission of children, Cucurbits planting (early)
Diseases (human) Paddy nursery, Maize planting (upland) Cucurbits
Paddy planting, Maize planting (upland)
Cucurbits,Calving
animal
Diseases Diarrhea in children, Paddy Planting, Calving animal
Paddy weeding, Nursery of winter vegetable
Dashain
celebra-tion
, Winter
Vegeta-bles
’ nursery and transplantation
Tihar
celebra-tion
, winter vegetable harvesting (early), planting of winter crops
Paddy harvesting, wheat and planting, Vegeta- bles, Potato
Wheat planting Vegetables
Off-seasons (cucurbits) nursery
Off-seasons (cucurbits), Beans, Maghi celebration (Tharu)
Okra, French bean, Asparagus bean, Potato harvesting
Harvesting of off season vegetables,
Wheat harvesting
Expendi-tures
HighMediumHighHighMediumHighHighHigh
MediumHigh (Tharu), mediumMediumMediumIncomeHighMedium
LowLowLowMediumMedium
HighHighHighMediumMediumLabor shortage
MediumMediumHighHighMediumNo
HighHigh
Medium
HighNoMediumDiseases (human)
MediumLowHighHighHigh
LowLowLowMediumHigh
NoNo
Food shortage
NoMedium
High
High
High
MediumMedium
No
No
NoNo/Low
No/ low
/ diseases
No/lowNo/lowFMD livestockFMD livestockInsect in Rice
Insect in Rice
No/low
Late blightPotato& tomato
Late blight
Potato& tomato
No/low
Insect veg.
Wheat Rust
Insect veg.
Fowl diseases
Seasonality
of food
security
Source: Group DiscussionSlide29
29
Factor affecting of
food
security
Calorie per adult per day= f(land, caste, labor, livestock, expenditure on agri., parcel)
Ojha(1999) has already tested these variables and found that log-linear model is appropriate
I used same variables with Sudra and Tharu as dummy Final model Log (Calorie per adult per day )= dependent variables
Cultivated land per capita, Ratio female economically active adult to total economically active, Adult equivalent,land parcel number,
Ratio of irrigated land to the total cultivated land, Livestock equivalent unit, expenditure on agriculture, Slide30
Major problems in agriculture
Problems
Ranking
Conflict / insurgency
First
Inadequate of irrigation facility
Second
Higher input prices
Third
Inadequate knowledge about pest and diseases
Fourth
Lower prices of outputs
Fifth
Inadequate access to improved seeds/breeds
Sixth
Inadequate landholding
Seventh
Source: Group discussion