Scientia sexualis versus ars erotica Foucault van Guli - PDF document

Scientiasexualisversusarserotica:Foucault,vanGulik,NeedhamLeonAntonioRochaNeedhamResearchInstitute,8SylvesterRoad,CambridgeCB39AF,UnitedKingdomDepartmentofHistoryandPhilosophyofScience,UniversityofCambridge,FreeSchoolLane,CambridgeCB23RH,UnitedKingdomarticleinfoArticlehistory:Received10January2011ScientiasexualisArseroticaMichelFoucault(1926…1984) E-mailaddress:Foucault(1989,p.206) StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirectStudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciencesjournalhomepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/shpsc Thesecondthemeofthispaperistherelationshipbetweenhis-toryofsexualityandEastAsianhistoryofscienceandmedicine,particularlythequestionofcirculation,transmissionandtransfor-mationofknowledgeacrossdifferentcultures.Inthisepisode,involvingFoucaultsdistinction,wehaveanillustrationofhowtheEastfeaturesintheconstructionofthetheoreticalscholar-shipintheWest„anoftenoverlookedconnectionbetweenFrenchtheoryandtheSinologicalenterprise.Moreover,ananalysisoftheglobalnetworksofhistoryofscienceandChinascholarship,are”ectionofthemodesofproductionofpioneeringgenerationsofhistoriansofEastAsianscience,andastudyoftheirinstitutionalaf“liations,methodologicaldivergences,politicalcommitments,philosophicaloutlooks,andtheircommunicationsandinteractionswitheachother,willilluminatewhatweourselvesaretryingtoaccomplishwhenwetalkabouttheEastandtheWest,aboutknowledgeintransitandglobalisingthehistoryofscience.To-wardstheendofthispaper,thequestionofOrientalism,transla-tionandtheprojectofSinographies„associatedwithprominentcomparativeliteraturescholarssuchasEricHayot,HaunSaussyandStevenG.Yao„willbediscussed.2.FoucaultsorthodoxyManyoftheclaimsthatMichelFoucaultmakesinHistoryofSex-ualityVolume1:TheWilltoKnowledgeshouldbeextremelyfamiliartoallhistoriansbynow„infacttheyhavebecomesomethingofanorthodoxyandagooddealofscholarshipinthehistoryofgenderandsexualitybasicallytakesFoucaulttobecorrect,oratleast,Fou-caultwasontosomething.The“rstimportantlessonfromtoryofSexualityVolume1isthatsexhasbeencolonised,exploited,deployedasacodeword,usedasapointofanchorageforawholevarietyofconcerns:disciplining,governingandsurvey-ingapopulation;securingthesovereigntyofaterritory;maintain-ingtheproductivityofthenationthroughtheregulationofreproductionandthebodilyeconomy.AsFoucaultwrites,sexual-ityisusefulforthegreatestinstrumentality:usefulforthegreat-estnumberofmanoeuvresandcapableofservingasapointofsupport,asalinchpin[,literallyahinge]forthemostvariedstrategies.Itisnotasifeverythingisjustanelaboratemet-aphorforsex„thepansexualistposition„butrather,sexappearstobeanelaboratemetaphorforjustabouteverythingelse.FoucaultssecondimportantargumentisthatcontemporarythinkingaboutsexualityhasbeentaintedbywhathelabelstheRepressiveHypothesis,whichlinkstogethertherevelationoftruth,theoverturningofgloballaws,theproclamationofanewdaytocome,andthepromiseofcertainfelicity.TheRepressiveHypothesisistheconvictionthatthehistoryofsexhasbeennoth-ingbutthehistoryofpainstakingrepression,thattheculturesofthepasthaddeniedindividualssexualdesiresandtheirfundamen-talhumannature,andwhatwasthereforeneededtoliberateour-selveswasthefullestaf“rmationofourinnerdrivesandinstincts.Accordingtothisview,weneedtotalkaboutsexopenlyinthepublicandtorejectthesexualmoralityofthepast,becauseitpro-ducednothingbutprudishness,obfuscationanddishonestly.Fou-caultdisputestheideathatsexhasbeensilencedandrepressed,andarguesthatthediscourseofsexhasproliferatedandintensi“edsincetheeighteenthcentury,reachingapeakinthemiddle-tolate-nineteenthcenturywiththeinaugurationofthesciencesofFoucaultfurtherarguesthat,inthesecondhalfofthenine-teenthcentury,sexbecameinstalledasthecoreofourbeing,per-ceivedasakindofnaturalgivenwhichpowertriedtoholdincheckandanobscuredomainwhichknowledgetriedgraduallytouncover.Sexwasimplantedintobodies,slippedinbeneathmodesofconduct,madeintoaprincipleofclassi“cationandintelli-gibility,establishedasaraisondêtreandanaturalorderofdisor-ThentherearethemanyclassicalpassagesfromTheWilltoKnowledge:Foucaultarguesthatthenineteenth-centuryhomosex-ualbecameapersonage,apast,acasehistory,andachildhood,inadditiontobeingatypeoflife,alifeform,amorphology,withanindiscreetanatomyandpossiblyamysteriousphysiology.Nothingthatwentintohistotalcompositionwasunaffectedbyhissexuality.Itwaseverywherepresentinhim[...]Thesodomitehadbeenatem-poraryaberration;thehomosexualwasnowaspecies.Inwhatisaparticularlylyricalpassage,Foucaultputsforwardhisworkinghypothesis:Thesocietythatemergedinthenineteenthcentury„bourgeois,capitalist,orindustrialsociety,callitwhatyouwill„didnotconfrontsexwithafundamentalrefusalofrecognition.Onthecontrary,itputintooperationanentiremachineryforproduc-ingtruediscoursesconcerningit.Notonlydiditspeakofsexandcompeleveryonetodoso;italsosetouttoformulatetheuniformtruthofsex.Asifitsuspectedsexofharbouringafun-damentalsecret.Asifitneededthisproductionoftruth.Asifitwasessentialthatsexbeinscribednotonlyinaneconomyofpleasurebutinanorderedsystemofknowledge.Thussexgrad-uallybecameourobjectofgreatsuspicion;thegeneralanddis-quietingmeaningthatpervadesourconductandourexistence,inspiteofourselves;thepointofweaknesswhereevilportentsreachthroughtous;thefragmentofdarknessthatweeachcarrywithinus:ageneralsigni“cation,auniversalsecret,anomnipresentcause,afearthatneverends...wedemandthatsexspeakthetruthandwedemandthatittellsusourtruth,orrather,thedeeplyburiedtruthofthattruthaboutourselveswhichwethinkwepossessinourimmediateconscious-Fromthisinterplaytherehasevolved,overseveralcen-turies,aknowledgeofthesubject;aknowledgenotsomuchofhisform,butofthatwhichdivideshim,determineshimper-haps,butaboveallcauseshimtobeignorantofhimselfprojectofascienceofthesubjecthasgravitated,inevernar-rowingcircles,aroundthequestionofsex.OneofthemostelegantelaborationsofFoucaultsworkinghypothesiscomesfromArnoldDavidsonsofSexuality:itisnotbecausewebecamepreoccupiedwithourtruesexualitythatascienceofsexualityaroseinthenineteenthcentury;itisrathertheemergenceofascienceofsexualitythatmadeitpossi-ble,eveinevitable,forustobecomepreoccupiedwithourtruesex-uality.Thusourexistencebecamea,saturatedwiththepromisesandthreatsofsexuality.DavidsonsprojectofhistoricalepistemologydevelopsfromFoucault;Davidsontriestoshowhowtheexperienceofsexualityislinkedtotheemergenceofnewstructuresofknowledge,newinstitutions,newstylesofreason-IhavequotedFoucaultatlength,becausethepassagescited Foucault(1978,p.103)Foucault(1978,p.7)Foucault(1978,p.105)Foucault(1978,p.44)Foucault(1978,p.43)Foucault(1978,pp.69…70).Ellipsesinoriginal.Davidson(2001a,p.37).Italicsinoriginal.Davidson(2001a,p.xiii)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 herearetheonesmostfrequentlyfoundincurrentscholarship.Itdoesappearthattheseenigmatic,beautifully-writtenpassagesoftenfunctionasaproxy,asubstitutionforcarefulargumentation(andthisauthorisnolessguiltyofthis!);thequotationsstandtherelikeanintimidatingscarecrowintheacademicbattle“eld,shooing,frighteningawaytheyoung”edglings.Anindentedparagraph„theintrusionoftheMastersVoice.Butitisalsosimultaneouslyastrangekindofeuthanasia.Oncecertainkeyparagraphs,orevensectionsofanentirebook,areelevatedtoacertainauthoritativestatus„andbecomeastand-infortheentiretext„theybecometrumpcards,mobilisedbyusforpersuasion,butintheprocesstheybecomefossilised,preserved,perhapsevenstale,dead,sus-pended.Foucaultswordsarefascinatingtoread,yettheyarealsosomehowboring,becausewealreadyknow,orthinkwealreadyknow,whatFoucaulthassaid;thecaseisclosed.Thisistheparadox-icallogicofcitationandreiteration:citationisnotnecessarilyjustaninadditionalto,butsimultaneouslyaninsteadof„adisplace-ment.Onespellsthedeathofanargumentoratext„ormakesitundead„byironicallydisplayingitspassagesinplainsight;onetalksaboutFoucaultpreciselytoavoidtalkingabouthim,whenthatactoftalking,thatcitation,becomesritualised,aperfunctorynod,atipofthehat.WeallowFoucaulttobecomeindented,ortocontinuetoliveinfootnotesorendnotes,toensuresomehowthathedoesnotaffectorinfectthemaintext.HistoryofSexualityVolume1hasanoddundead,suspendedstatus.Itisacanonical,paramountUr-textandaobligatorypointofpassageinGenderStudies,HistoryofSex-ualityandQueerTheory.Thebookappearsincountlessreadinglistsandsyllabusesinhumanitiescoursesatalllevelsatuniversitiessometimesitisasteriskedorevendouble-asteriskedinthemargintosignalitsformidability.Butitisatonceover-readandunread,rev-eredandignored,atoncethevoiceofthemasterandthewhisperofthespectre.Thisiswhatpromptedmycloserre-readingofwhatFoucaulthaswritten,andforme,oneofthemostproblematicsec-tionsinHistoryandSexualityVolume1isconcernedwiththedistinc-tionbetweenscientiasexualisarserotica3.Mysti“edirritationAccordingtoFoucault,theentiremachineryforproducingtruediscoursesconcerningsexthatexistsinourcivilisationistiasexualis.Heclaims,inanotherlongandenigmaticpassage,thathistoricallytherehavebeentwogreatproceduresforproducingthetruthofsex:Ontheonehand,thesocieties„andtheyarenumerous:China,Japan,India,Rome,theArabo-Moslem[]societies„whichendowedthemselveswithanarserotica.Intheeroticart,truthisdrawnfrompleasureitself,understoodasapracticeandaccu-mulatedasexperience,pleasureisnotconsideredinrelationtoanabsolutelawofthepermittedandtheforbidden,norbyref-erencetoacriterionofutility,but“rstandforemostinrelationtoitself;itisexperiencedaspleasure,evaluatedintermsofitsintensity,itsspeci“cquality,itsduration,itsreverberationsinthebodyandthesoul.Moreover,thisknowledgemustbede”ectedbackintosexualpracticeitself,inordertoshapeitasthoughfromwithinandamplifyitseffectsTheeffectsofthismasterfulart,whichareconsiderablymoregenerousthanthesparsenessofitsprescriptionswouldleadonetoimagine,aresaidtotrans“guretheonefortunateenoughtoreceiveitsprivileges:anabsolutemasteryofthebody,asingularbliss,obliviousnesstotimeandlimits,theelixiroflife,theexileofdeathanditsthreats[]ourcivilisationpossessesnoarserot-.Inreturn,itisundoubtedlytheonlycivilisationtopractiseascientiasexualis;orrather,theonlycivilisationtohavedevel-opedoverthecenturiesproceduresfortellingthetruthofsexwhicharegearedtoaformofknowledge-powerstrictlyopposedtotheartofinitiationsandthemasterfulsecret:Ihaveinmindtheconfession.TheyintheEasthaveanarserotica;WeintheChristianWesthaveascientiasexualisthatapparentlyemergedinthenineteenthcenturykeptasitsnucleusthesingularritualofoblig-atoryandexhaustiveconfession.Andsexuality,ourmodernsub-jectivity,oursexualself,aretheproductsofthis.Sexwasde“nedbybeingbynature:adomainsusceptibletopathologicalprocesses,andhenceonecallingfortherapeuticornormalisinginterventions;a“eldofmeaningtodecipher;thesiteofprocessesconcealedbyspeci“cmechanisms;afocusofinde“nitecausalrelations;andanobscurespeechthathadtobeferretedoutandlistenedto.Incon-tradistinction,arseroticadoesnotaimtoinciteotherstospeakabouttheirsexualbehaviour.Arseroticadoesnotclassifyorname,doesnotforbidorpermit,doesnotmedicaliseorpathologise,doesnotbiolog-iseornaturalise,doesnotdiscipline,interrogate,decipher,surveyoradministerbodies.Arseroticaattemptstoenhancepleasureandintensity,thedurationandqualityofexperience;itistransmittedsecretly,esoterically,fromanadepttoadisciple.TheexperienceofreadingMichelFoucaulthasbeenbeautifullydescribedbyJohnForrester.Forrestertellsusthathewasnotal-waysagratefuladmirerofMichelFoucault.Whenhe“rstreadMadnessandCivilisation,Forrestersreactionwasoneofmysti“edirritation;hesetthebookaside,impatient,confused,yetcouldnotforgetsomeofthepoignantimagesoritsmostbrilliantpas-sagesliketheShipofFoolsorPinelstrikingthechainsoftheinsane.Forrestercontinues:Thoseimages„theydoremainwithyou,howeverdisdainfulanddismissiveonesoverallattitudetoFoucault[...]Imagesthatarenotsomuchunforgettableasriveting„theydrawthesensibilitytighttothemandwillnotletgo[]Oncereadandunderstood,theimagesreturnalmostinvoluntarily,asiftheyrepresentedacoded,shorthandversionofwhatonehaslearned,animagethatsumsuptheargumentthewayamath-ematicalequationisthoughttosumup,orre-presentanargument[]Eventheempiricisthistoriansdiscomfortisoften,likemyowninitialreaction,aratherirritatedanddismis-siveone,colouredandcomplicatedbythedif“cultyofweighingthesigni“canceofthoseimages,behindwhichismaskedaden-sityofargumentthathistoriansarenotusedtoconfronting.FoucaultspronouncementsonscientiasexualisarseroticaduceasimilarkindofdiscomfortthatForresterdescribes.Fou-caultsdeliberateuseofLatinterminology,forinstance„whydidhenotsaysexualscienceanderoticart?Isarseroticaarefer-encetoOvidsArsAmatoria„humorousandsubversivepoetrythatteachesustobecomere“nedlovers?Scientiasexualisarserot-givetheimpressionthattherearetwomightyopposites,twoimpersonalforces,twomythicalbeasts(completewiththeirLin-naeanclassi“cation!)inhabitingoppositecornersoftheworld,rul-ingoverthecarnaldesiresofthemortals.ThescientiasexualistheChristianWestinvokesimagesoftotalinstitutions„hospi-tals,asylums,prisons,laboratories.Itremindsusofthesexual Foucault(1978,pp.57…58)Foucault(1978,p.68)Foucault(1978,p.68)Forasimilarcharacterisationofscientiasexualisarserotica,seeFoucault(2001e)Forrester(1991,p.286)Forrester(1991,pp.286…287)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 scienceofHavelockEllis,FreudandKrafft-Ebing;orperhapsAlfredKinseyaskingAmericansabouttheirsexlife,collectingsexualfau-naashedidwithgallwasps;questionnaires,databases,classi“ca-tions,individualsplacedinlife-determiningpigeonholeslikemale/female,heterosexual/homosexual;themedicalisationofthedevi-ant,enforcementofgendernorms,controlofreproduction.ontheotherhandinvokesentirelydifferentscenes:some-thingoutsideofscienceandoutsideoftime,awayfrommodernity,eroticisminanopenandpermissiveworld;KamaSutra,pillowbooksanderoticprintsfromthe”oatingworldsofChinaandJapan,orextendedtreatisesonsexualpositions,onthesacredtransformativepowerofsex,onthepursuitofpure,in-tensepleasure.Ahedonistgarden,adimcandle-litbedchambersaturatedwithintoxicatingfragrances,limbsentwined.TheimagesinFoucaultspassagestemptandseduce,becomelodgedinonesmind,butsomethingisverytroublingwithFoucaultsdaz-zling,gleamingwords.4.FoucaultsscrewdriversScholarshaveemployedFoucaultsdistinctiontodoallsortsoftheoreticalwork.ForRonaldBoer,inhisbookontherelationshipbetweentheBibleandpopularculture,theemergenceofthelit-eralandthedeclineoftheallegoricalreadingof[TheSongofSongscoincideswiththeslowtransitionfromarserotica,ofwhichtheisoneoftheearliestdocuments,toscientiasexualis,withtheriseofmodernityperse.Meanwhile,PeterCryleattemptstomapthedichotomyonthenarrationofsexineighteenth-centurylibertine“ctioninFrance,andGeraldDohertyarguesthatD.H.WomeninLovereinscribesthetwogreatFoucauldeanproceduresforelicitingthetruthaboutsex,opposingasexologicaltheoryofdesire,basedonaninsatiablehungerandstriving,toanarseroticatheoryofpleasure,basedontranscendentattainment.VittorioLingiarditellsusthatthehistoryofsame-sexdesireisthehistoryofthedisplacementofarserotica(representedbyGanymede)scientiasexualis(BatmanandRobin),whilstJabirPuarusesFoucaultsdistinctiontoanalysethecharactersMr.GarrisonandMr.SlavefromSouthParkandfromthereinformsusthesexualityofterrorism.DeniseRomansuggeststhatpostcommunistqueerexperienceinRomaniaisanintermediatebetweenWesternscientiasexualisandEasternarserotica,whilstMaxineSheets-JohnstoneillustratesthedifferencebetweenFoucaultsandSartrestheorisationsofde-siresusingthedistinction.LindaWilliamsarguesthatcinematicpornographyemergesoutofscientiasexualisandnotearlierrepre-sentationsoftheerotic,andsociologistAnthonyPrycecuriouslytellsusthatthoseengagedinonlinesexualactivitiesisconcernedwitharseroticaerotica...]conversely,theapparatusoftheonlineNetaddic-tion.comculturerepresentsthedeploymentoftechnologiesandgovernmentalityofscientiasexualisFinally,psychotherapistStu-artSovatskytellsusthattheseveral-thousand-year-oldEasternso-maticspiritualityofkundaliniyogaisthearseroticaspiritualityandphilosophicalpursuit„alongwiththebodysvastcapacitiestomoveandfeel„coheretogetherasaunitarywhole,andthepracticeoftantriccelibacyandspiritualintimacyisaformofresistanceagainstanoppressiveWesternscientiasexualisFoucaultsdichotomyhasbeenusedtocovereverythingfromdiscussionsonerotica,theology,GreekandRomanbodilyprac-tices,literatureinearlymodernEngland,ornineteenthcenturyGermany,Americanmodernistpoetry,“lmandphotography,Isla-micculture,Gothicwriting,masculinityinart,genderinAustralia,Canada,Israel,Italy,TurkeyWecouldputthesereferencestoFoucaultinthreecategories.The“rstisthemostdangerous:uncriticaladoption.TheauthoressentiallystatesthataparticularphenomenonorhistoricalepisodecoincideswithwhatFoucaultscientiasexualisarserotica,withoutworkingthroughtheconceptstoseeifitactuallyholdswaterorrequiresmodi“ca-tion.Inpart,Foucaulthimselfthis.Herepeatedlypre-sentshistextsasready-made,pre-fabricated,off-the-shelftoolstobepickedupbyothersfortheirownpurposes:Tousmeslivressontdepetitesbôitesàoutils.Silesgensveu-lentbienlesouvrir,seserverdetellephrase,telleidée,telleanalysecommeduntournevisoudundesserre-boulonpourcourt-circuiter,disquali“er,casserlessystemsdepouvoir,ycompriséventuellementceux-làmemesdontmeslivressontehbiencesttantmieux!Jécrisdeschosesquisemblentutilisables.Ensomme,descho-sesutilisablesdansunsensdifférent,pardesgensdifférent,dansdespaysdifférentsdanscertainscas.Jevoudraisquemeslivressoientunesortedelequellesautrespuissantallerfouillerpourytrouverunoutilaveclequelilspourraitfairecequebonleursemble,dansleur...Jenécrispaspourunpublic,jécrispourlesutilis-ateurs,nonpaspourleslecteursJesuisattachéàcelivre[referringtoDisciplineandPunish],biensûr,parcequejelaiécrit,maisaussiparcequejelaiécrit,maisaussiparcequilaservideàdespersonnesdifférenteslesunesauxautres,commelespsychiatresdelantipsychiatriebritannique,commeSzaszauxÉtats-Unis,commelessociologiesdeFrance.Cestça,unethéorie,cestexactementcommeuneboîteàout-Ilfautqueçaserve,ilfautqueçafonctionne.Theproblemwiththisperceptionoftheoryisimmediatelyapparently:thesetoolswereconstructedatacertainmoment,underacertainpoliticalbackdrop,andcamewiththeideologicalbiasesoftheconstructor.Thismeansthattheprojectofthehisto-ricisationofthesetheories„theinvestigationofthethesescrewdriversandspanners„isvaluabletousinthatwecandetecttheshortcomingsofthetoolsavailableinthescholarsworkshop.Moreimportantly,weknowhowwecanmodifythesetoolsandcreateourownvariations,insteadofseeingFoucaultsideasasaneatsetoftoolswhichwecanfreelysummonwheneverwehaveabunchofhistoricalepisodesandobservationsthatweneedtochipandsandintoacoherentnarrative. IborrowAlanSheridansdescriptionofFoucaultsstyle;Sheridan(1980,p.1)Boer(1999,p.56)Cryle(1994,p.7,2001,pp.12…14)andDoherty(2006,p.139)Lingiardi(2002,pp.1…21)andPuar(2007,pp.74…75)Roman(2007,pp.127…157)andSheets-Johnstone(1994,pp.21…31)Williams(1999,pp.43…46)andPryce(2007,p.123)Sovatsky(1998,p.158)Foucault(2001a,p.1588)Foucault(2001b,p.1488)Foucault(2001c,pp.1391…1392)Foucault(2001d,p.1177)FormoreonthequestionofFoucaultstoolboxes,seeOFarrell(2005,pp.50…60)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 Thesecondtypeofreferencetoscientiasexualisarseroticaistheperfunctoryfootnoteandtheobligatory,perhapsgrudging,acknowledgement.CitingFoucaultsdistinction„orcitinganythe-orist„maybeonewayto”auntonescapital,displayingonesfamiliaritywithprivileged,canonicaltexts,argumentsandcon-cepts.Moreoftenitisapre-emptivestrike,defendingoneselfagainstchargesofignoranceoromission„butthisisdonewithoutseriousengagement:forthescientiasexualisarseroticatinction,seeFoucault(1978),pagenumbers.Itisaperfunctorynod,payinglipservice.Wewillnodoubtbene“tfromaself-re”exive,sociologicalanalysisofourhabitsofreferencetoshedlightonthepastandpresentofthedisciplinarymatriceswhichweinhabit„theunspokenruleswehave,our“guresofauthorityandkeytexts,thetrumpcardquotationsandconceptsroutinelymobilisedforpersuasion,thetoolsinourtheoreticalarsenal.Thethirdand“nalspeciesistheangrysideswipe,aglancingpunch„stoppingshortofasystematic,full-frontalcritiqueofFou-cault.MarkJohnson,forinstance,statesthatthedistinctiontooeasilyfallsintoakindofessentialistandessentialisingOccidental-ist/Orientalist,East/Westdivide,whichisnotonlypoliticallysuspectbutalsoempiricallydubiousandtheoreticallyunproductive.JamesGranthamTurnerclaimsthatthelibertinewritingfromsixteenthtoseventeenthcenturyEuropeisadizzyingsynthesisofsexandknowledge,desireandconnoisseurship,thatunderminesFoucaultsdistinction.DinaAl-Kassim,ValerieTraubandotherscomplainthatFoucaultsaxiomaticdivisionofEastandWestinhisdescriptionofthearseroticaandthescientiasexualishistoricallyaccurate,withoutdescribinghow.WendyDonigerandSudhirKakar,intheIntroductiontotheirtranslationofthe,alsochargeFoucaultwithcharacteristicEurocentrism,whilstBenGrantequatesthedistinctiontoanintellectualnaïvetéorevenfailure.CharlesStonesummarilydismissesFoucaultsstereotypicalcomparisonsofEastandWest,whichtellsusverylittleworthknowingabouteither,andthatFoucaultspostulationofthedichotomymeantthatheevidentlyneverheardofDaoistphysiologyalchemy(Foucault„thepostulationwasaproductofanencounter,notofignorance).Oneofthebestexamplesofthisangerandfrustrationcanbefoundinadeeplyadmirablework,GregoryP”ugfeldersstudyonJapanesehomosexuality,phiesofDesireNolessimposingascholarthanFoucaultwascontentto[thedistinctionbetweenscientiasexualisarserot-].Foucaultssimpledichotomydichotomy...]isclearlyinadequatetodescribethedifferencesthatexistamongstandwithinsexualknowledgeandsystemsinthesediversesocieties,and,intypi-callyEurocentricfashion,makeslittleallowanceforhistoricalchangeoutsideoftheWestOnlyinrecentyearshasthetalisingvisionofFoucaultgivenwaytomorenuancedWestern-languageaccountsofthehistoricalconstructionofsexualityinJapan[]Theorientalisttemptationofnarratingthedevelop-ment[ofthemedicalandscienti“cmodelofsexualitythattookrootinJapanafterthenineteenthcentury]intermsofEastandWest„aromanticnarrativeinwhichthenaïvecharmoftheformerinevitablysuccumbstothevirilestrengthofthelat-ter„mustberesisted,however,becausesuchgeographicalmarkersdonotdojusticetotheglobaldimensionsandlocalcomplexitiesoftheknowledgesysteminquestion.TheproblemisthatP”ugfelderscriticismsofFoucaultaretoobrief,andcomeacrossassideswipesasopposedtosustainedargument.P”ugfelderismakingaverysophisticatedpointontheglobalnetworkofsexualknowledge,andthetranslation,trans-mission,circulationandappropriationofscienti“candmedicalknowledgewhichFoucaultcompletelyoverlooks.Indeed,P”ugfel-dersbookistestamenttothewaythatEastAsianhistorycanfun-damentallyrecon“gureourhistoriographicalperspectivesonempire,colonialismandglobalisationofscience.OnewishesP”ugfelderwilltalkaboutFoucaultingreaterdetail;Foucaultneverappearsagainafterthesementionsintheearlypartsofhis5.Foucaultshalf-heartedretractionsFoucaulthimselfhasbackpedalledfromhisdistinction.Asamatteroffact,“fteenpagesafterhe“rststatedthescientiasexual-arseroticadichotomyinHistoryofSexualityVolume1,Foucaultcharacteristicallydeconstructsthecategoriesheputforward.Inyetanotherdense,enigmaticandbewilderingpassage,heclaims:claims:A]rseroticadidnotdisappearaltogetherfromWesterncivilisa-tion;norhasitalwaysbeenabsentfromthemovementbywhichonesoughttoproduceascienceofsexuality.IntheChris-tianconfession[]therewasawholeseriesofmethodsthathadmuchincommonwiththeeroticart[]Andwemustaskwhether,sincethenineteenthcentury,thescientiasexual-„undertheguiseofitsdecentpositivism„hasnotfunctioned,atleasttoacertainextent,asanarserotica.Perhapsthispro-ductionoftruth,intimidatedthoughitwasbythescienti“cmodel,multiplied,intensi“ed,andevencreateditsownintrin-sicpleasures.Itisoftensaidthatwehavebeenincapableofimagininganynewpleasures.Wehaveatleastinventedadif-ferentkindofpleasure:pleasureinthetruthofpleasure,thepleasureofknowingthattruth[...]thespeci“cpleasureofthetruediscourseofpleasure[...]theformidablepleasureofanalysis(inthewidestsenseofthelatterterm)whichtheWesthascleverlybeenfosteringforseveralcenturies:allthisconsti-tutessomethingliketheerrantfragmentsofaneroticartthatissecretlytransmittedbyconfessionandthescienceofsex.Mustweconcludethatourscientiasexualisisbutanextraordinarilysubtleformofarserotica,andthatitistheWestern,sublimatedversionofthatseeminglylosttradition?Ormustwesupposethatallthesepleasuresareonlytheby-productsofasexualsci-ence,abonusthatcompensatesforitsmanystressesandWhilstFoucaultsopen-endedquestionsonthepleasureonemightaccessviascientiasexualisamountedtoanambiguousprob-lematisationofhisdistinction,hewasmoreexplicitlybackpedal-lingduringhisinterviewsandconversationswithHubertDreyfus,PaulRabinowandtheircolleaguesatBerkeley:DreyfusandRabinow:ButyoualreadyillustratedthatinHistoryofSexualitybycontrastingourscienceofsexualitywiththeorientalarserotica:OneofthenumerouspointswhereIwaswronginthatbookwaswhatIsaidaboutthisarseroticaerotica...]TheGreeksandRomansdidnothaveanyarseroticatobecomparedwiththe ExamplesincludeLochrie(1999,p.237n114)andPotvin(2008,p.78n57)Johnson(2005,p.124)Turner(2003,p.18)Traub(2008,p.17)Doniger&Kakar(2003,p.xv)andGrant(2008,p.54)Stone(2003,p.178n22)P”ugfelder(1999,p.7and13).Emphasismine.Foucault(1978,pp.70…72).Foranalysesofthispassage,whichaddressespsychoanalysis,seeDavidson(2001b)andForrester(1991,pp.310…316)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 Chinesearseroticaerotica...]Theyhadatechnetoubiouinwhichtheeconomyofpleasureplayedaverylargerole.Inthisartoflifethenotionofexercisingaperfectmasteryoveroneselfsoonbecamethemainissue.AndtheChristianhermeneuticsoftheselfconstitutedanewelaborationofthisthis...]Ifbysexualbehaviour,weunderstandthethreepoles„acts,pleasure,anddesire„wehavetheGreekformulaInthisGreekformulawhatisunderscoredisacts,withpleasureanddesireassub- -plaisir-(désir).IhaveputdesireinbracketsbecauseIthinkthatintheStoicethicsyoustartakindofelisionofdesire,desirebeginstobecondemned...TheChinesefor-mulawouldbe .Actsareputasidebecauseyouhavetorestrainactsinordertogetthemaximumdurationandintensityofpleasure.TheChristianformulaputsanaccentondesireandtriestoeradicateit.Actshavetobecomesomethingneutral;youhavetoactonlytoproducechil-andpleasureisbothpracticallyandtheoretically(désir)-acte-(plaisir)AndIcouldsaythatthemod-ernformulaisdesire,whichistheoreticallyunderlinedandpracticallyaccepted,sinceyouhavetoliberateyourowndesire.Actsarenotveryimportant,andpleasure„nobodyknowswhatitis!FoucaultadmitsthathehasmadeamistakeinHistoryofSexu-alityVolume1,butneverthelessinsiststhatChinahasanarseroticaWhy?HowdidFoucaultcometoknowwhatheknewaboutChina?WhoseaccountofChineseculturedidFoucaultusetodrawhisconclusionsaboutsexualbehaviourinChina?Beforeansweringthissetofquestions,weshouldtakeaquickstepbacktolookathowwecanproblematisethescientiasexual-arseroticadistinction.WecanargueagainstFoucaultviatherouteofscientiasexualis.First,isscientiasexualisitselfausefulcat-egoryforhistoricalanalysis,ordoesithavethetendencyto”attenouttheheterogeneityofinquiresonsexandhumanbehaviour?Second,isscientiasexualisexclusivelyinventedbytheChristianWest,orhaveothersocietiescomeupwithwaystoregulaterepro-ductionanddesirethatmayresemblescientiasexualis?WhatwerepeopleintheEastdoingexactlywhilstscientiasexualisdevelopedintheWest?DoesFoucaultfailtoaccountforhowtheEastisalsoinvolvedintheconstructionofscientiasexualis?DoesFoucaultscharacterisationencouragesaparticularhistoriographyofsexualsci-ence,whichseesscientiasexualisasoriginatingfromtheWestandthendiffusingtotherestoftheworld,thusrelegatingnon-Western-erstotheroleofhandmaidensofmodernity,disciplesandfacil-itators,insteadofactiveparticipantsandcontributorsinaglobalnetworkofscienti“candmedicalknowledge?Third,doesconfessiononlyexistintheWest?Foucaultarguesthatthescientisationofconfession„atechnologyoftheself„wasthepreconditionoftheestablishmentofscientiasexualis,butwasitonlytheWesternManwhohadbecomeaconfessinganimal,whilsttheEasternManremainedsilent?Fourth,Foucault”irtswiththeideathatscientiasexualisisasublimationofarserotica,thatthepleasuresofthe”eshevolvedintothepleasuresofnarrativisationand(psy-cho)analysis„wepreferaboutsexinsteadofit.Butisthereanotherwaytoarguethatarseroticatoujours-déjà,attheoriginofscientiasexualis?Inotherwords,canonemakeacon-taminationargument,àlaDerrida?Alternatively,wecanargueagainstFoucaultviatherouteofarserotica.So,“fth:doesarseroticaaccuratelydescribethesexualculturesofChina,Japan,India,RomanandMuslimsocieties?Isitaromanticmisrepresentation?IsitOri-entalist?Howdoesoftheseculturesconceptualisesexualbehaviour,pleasureanddesire,andhowdifferentaretheyfromeachother?Sixth:ifwetakeintoaccountFoucaultselaborationofthetechnetoubiouandtheartoflifeinHistoryofSexualityVol-ume2:TheUseofPleasure,towhatextentistheGreekdifferentfromarseroticascientiasexualisThislistofquestionsisbynomeansexhaustive,andeachques-tionwillrequireaseparatepaper,ifnotindividualmonographstoanswer.HeretwoofthemostcrucialobjectionstoFoucaultwillbepointedout.First,thetwogreatprocedures,scientiasexualisarseroticaareentwined,mutuallycomplicit.InEroticMargin,thehistorianofOttomanEmpireIrvingSchickanalysestheworksoferoticareadbytheEuropeansfromtheeighteenthcentury.Theywerereadnotsimplyforshockorentertainment,butwereactivelyappropriatedasrawmaterialordatafortheirscientiasexualisSchickpointstoRichardBurtonsessayonhistranslationofsandandOneNights,whichturnedapieceofworkthatwasatoncephilosophical,instructional,humorous,fantasticalaspositiveevi-dencepertainingtothewaysinwhichsexualitywasactuallyprac-tisedinxenotopia.SincesexualityintheOrientisdegenerate,androgynous,andsoforth,theEasternOthershadtobecolonisedandcivilised.Assuch,theappropriationofEasterneroticaisatoncetransgressiveandconservative„itaimstoexposeandmockthehypocrisyandprudishnessoftheEuropeans,yetsimultaneouslymaintainsthepoliticalstatusquobyexhibitingtheprimitiveritu-alsandpracticesofthebarbarianswhoweretobedominatedandenlightened.ItprovidedthebasisfortheconstructionfortheOri-entandanon-scienti“c,mysticalarseroticaasanOther,againstwhichtheOccidentandthepositivist,scienti“cinquiryofsexcouldde“neitself.AsIrvingSchickargues,thesexualityoftheOtherwasatechnologyofplace;itsfunctionwasthespatialisationofdifference,thedifferentiationofspace,andthatsexualitywas Foucault(1983a,pp.234…235,242…243)andForrester(1991,p.385n62)pointsoutthatthe“nalsentenceseemstobeinconsiderabletensionwithFoucaultsargumentselsewhere(particularlyinHistoryofSexualityVolume3)thattheChristianexaminationoftheselfisinsharpcontrastwith,ratherthanaprolongationof,theGreekcareoftheForinstanceinFoucault(1978,pp.63…64),helumpstogether:JoachimHeinrichCampe(1746…1818),whowantedtoadvancePrussiansocietybymaximisingtheofeachcitizenthroughuniversal,practicalequation;ChristianGotthilfSalzmann(1744…1811),Rousseaupedagogicalthinker;HeinrichKaan(1816…1893),whoPsychopathiaSexualisin1844;RichardvonKrafft-Ebing(1840…1902),whopublishedanothermorewidelyknownPsychopathiaSexualisin1886;AugusteAmbroiseTardieu(1818…1879),whowroteaboutthebatteredchild;AlbertMoll(1862…1939),authorofDiekonträreSexualemp“ndung(1891);HavelockEllis(1859…1939),authorofsixvolumesofStudiesinthePsychologyofSexThisisessentiallyoneofGregoryP”ugfeldersthesisinCartographiesofDesire,see(1999,p.13).TheEurocentricwayofwritingthehistoryofsexualscienceeasilydegeneratesintoattemptstomeasurethevaryingdegreesofThirdWorldnativesfaithfulnesstoandrespectofFirstWorldculture,commendingthosenon-WesternerswhoaredeemedtohavereproducedsciencecorrectlywhilstdenouncingthosewhoappropriatedorrejectedWesternthought.Foucault(1978,p.59).ChloeTaylor,inthemostrecentstudyofconfession,tracesthegenealogyoftheconfessinganimalfromAugustinetoFoucaulthimself…thusagreeingwithFoucaultthattheEastnevergavebirthtotheconfessinganimal.SeeTaylor(2008).OtherworkswhichtakeconfessionasanexclusivelyWesternphenomenonBrooks(2000),Radstone(2007),Streit(2004)andTambling(1990).Onconfessionasatechnologyoftheself,seeFoucault(1988).AdetailedcomparativestudyofconfessionEastandWesthasnotyetbeenwritten.BernardFaureandWuPei-yiarguethattherewassomethingidenti“ableasconfessioninChina,thoughratherdifferentfromRomanCatholicpractices:therewasnosinfulconfessantversusexpertconfessordynamic,ratheritwasaninternaldialogueorself-scrutiny().Andiftheconfessionwastextual,thenitwaseitherforprivatereadingorcirculationamongstothercloseliteratifriends,asopposedtopublicationordisseminationonawidescale.SeeFaure(1993,1998)andWu(1979,1990).InmyownworkonZhangJingsheng(1888…1970),whoproducedthe“rsttranslationofRousseausinthelate1920s,I“ndthatmanyearlytwentiethcenturyChineseintellectualsclaimedthatChinaneverhadconfession;itwasanew,Westernpracticetobeimportedforthemakingofthemodernself.SeeRocha,unpublishedPhDthesis,pp.128…132Schick(1999,pp.187…188)Schick(1999,p.188)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 madeintoahistoricalinvariantthatcouldbeusedtocharacteriseEastandWest,NorthandSouth,SelfandOther,HereorThere.OneofthegoalsofscientiasexualiswastodescribethedifferencesbetweenEasternandWesterncivilisations,betweendifferentraces,usingsexualityandsexualpracticesasattributes,whichinturnfur-therreinforcesthedividebetweenWesternscienceandEasternsuperstition.Onecouldfurtherpointoutthatthoseinvolvedintheenter-priseofsexualscienceactuallylookedtotheEastforinspiration.Late-Victorianandmodernistintellectualswereknownfortheirexplorationsofdifferentformsofmysticismsandreligions.TheworksofhistorianJoyDixonandHughUrbanareparticularlyinstructive.Dixondocumentsthecomplexrelationshipbetweentheosophyandthesuffragettes,andtracestheconnectionsbe-tweensexualreform,inquiresintosex,andtheconsumptionofalternativeandesotericspiritualitiesbytheBritishbourgeoisieinthelatenineteenthtoearlytwentiethcentury.HughUrbananal-ysestheemergenceofamagiasexualisinthesameperiod,afusionofolderesoterictraditionssuchasGnosticismandKabbalah,Hindu-ism,Daoism,BuddhistTantra,inturnaresponsetotheseeminglossofthesacredinmodernindustrialsociety[...]themostexplicitattempttorediscoverthesacredinandthroughthemostprofaneaspectsofhumanlife,sexualityitself.EdwardCarpenter,whoLovesComing-of-Agein1906,travelledtoIndiaandwasdee-plyinterestedinthesexualaspectsofHinduism,whichhecon-trastedtothehypocrisyandrepressioninhisnativeland.WehavetheinfamouscaseofAleisterCrowley,whotravelledtoChinain1905,wasfascinatedbytheBookofChangesYiJing),andintroducedhisbrandofsexualesotericisminBritain,freelymixingdifferentstrandsoftraditiontoformaprogrammeofspiritualenlightenment,personalempowermentandsocialliberation.HavelockEllis,whomFoucaultsinglesoutasrepresentativeofscientiasexualisRichardvonKrafft-Ebing,AlbertMollandothers,isnowmostlyrememberedforhissixvolumesofStudiesinthePsychologyofSexButElliswasalsoaChina-watcherandanadmirer.In1923,EllisTheDanceofLife,which,thoughrarelyreadtoday,washismostpopularandbest-sellingbookduringhislifetime.Inthislyricalmanifesto,Ellislaidouthisutopianvisioninwhichlifewasconceptualisedasadanceperformanceandthefuturesocietywouldberegulatedbyart,music,ceremonyandritesthatwouldanimatethewholebeing„aplacehethoughtmuchlikeChina:IwellrememberhowinyouthanewvolumeoftheSacredBooksoftheEastseries,apartoftheConfucianConfucianBookofRitescameintomyhandsandhowdelightedIwastolearnthatinChinalifewasregulatedbymusicandceremony.ThatwasthebeginningofaninterestinChinathathasnotceasedtogrow,thoughnow,whenithasbecomeasortoffashiontoexaltthespiritualqualitiesoftheChineseabovethoseofotherpeo-ples,onemaywellfeeldisinclinedtoadmitanyinterestinChina[]Therehadbeenreached[inChina]thehighestpointofurbancivilisationtowhichManhaseverattained,character-isedbycourtesy,fairdealing,animpartialexerciseofjustice,andhospitalsineverycityandnobeggars[...]Theircheerful,practical,social,good-mannered,tolerant,peaceable,humanewayofregardinglife,ortheremarkablyeducablespiritinwhichtheyarewilling,andeasilyable,tochangeevenancientanddeep-rootedhabitswhenitseemsconvenientandbene“cialtodoso;theyarewillingtotaketheworldlightly,andseemdevoidofthoseobstinateconservativeinstinctsbywhichweareguidedinEurope[]Thissimple,childlike,yetprofoundattitudetowardsliferesultsinaliberationoftheimpulsesofplayandenjoyment.ModernistintellectualsintheWestwerelookingtotheOrientfororientations;theywerelookingtoOrientalphilosophies,exoticreligion,age-old,timelesswisdomandharmonioussocialstructures„inordertorevisetheirunderstandingofthem-selves.Someofthemfoundmysticismandspirituality,associatedwiththeEast,asgoodready-maderemediestotheirproblemsathome.ThemysteriousOrientslivinginsomefarawaygardenseemedtohaveaprivilegedaccesstoenjoyment;theyweremoreemancipatedandenlightened,orevenclosertoNature.ThisisaspeciesofOrientalism„eventhoughtheydidnotnecessarilyden-igratethecultureoftheOther,neverthelesstheymobilisedanidealised,AsiaticOthertoconstructtheSelf.ThescientiasexualisthatFoucaultdelineatesoverlapswitharseroticaandHughmagiasexualis.Inotherwords,arseroticawasalwaysalreadyattheoriginofscientiasexualis;thedistinctionitselfcontributedtoandwasalsoaproductofscientiasexualis.GiventhatFoucaultscategoriesslipintoeachother,andcontaminateeachother,asempiricalhistoriansweshouldofcoursebevery6.SiloncroitvanGulikHowdidFoucault“ndoutwhatheknewaboutChinesesexual-ity?Mostlikely,exclusivelyfromtheworkofsinologistRobertHansvanGulik(1910…1967).ThereareanumberofsmokinggunsfromFoucaultswritings.First,vanGulikwascitedontwoocca-sionsinHistoryofSexualityVolume2:TheUseofPleasureThedocumentsassembledbyvanGulik,pertainingtoancientChineseculture,seemtoshowthepresenceofthesamethe-maticcomplex:fearoftheirrepressibleandthecostlyact,dreadofitsharmfulconsequencesofthebodyandhealth,representa-tionoftheman-womanrelationshipintheformofacontest,preoccupationwithobtainingdescendantsofgoodqualitybymeansofawell-regulatedsexualactivity.[W]ecouldnotbefurtherfromtheartsofconjugalpleasuresuchasone“nds,accordingtovanGulik,inancientChina.There,prescriptionsconcerningthewomansobedience,herrespect,andherdevotionwerecloselylinkedwithadviceonthecorrecteroticbehaviourtomanifestinordertoincreasethepartnerspleasure.IfonestudiesthebibliographyintheTelGallimardeditionofLUsagedesplaisirs„thebibliographyisinfactomittedinRobertHurleysEnglishtranslation„one“ndsthatthe1971Frenchtrans-lationofvanGuliksSexualLifeinAncientChinaistheonlytextci-tedonChina.NoChineseprimarysourceswerecited.Inatleasttwointerviews,bothfrom1983,Foucaultname-checksvanGulik:Danslérotiquechinoise„silonencroitvanGulikimportant,cestleplaisirquilfallaitmajorer,intensi“er,pro-longerautantquepossibleenretardantlactelui-même,etàlalimiteensenabstenant. Schick(1999,p.232,13)Dixon(1999,2001)Urban(2006,p.6).SeealsoIrwin(2004),Schuchard(2000)andUrban(2003)Ellis(1923,pp.20…21,24)Foucault(1985,p.137)Foucault(1985,p.143)Foucault(1984,p.338)Foucault(2001f,p.1441)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 IfyoureadbooksIspeakformyselfIveneverreadChi-nesebooksabouttheeroticart,butIvereadbooksaboutandtheveryinterestingbookbyvanGulik,Idontknowifyouvereaditwhichisvery,very,veryinteresting,andyoullseethattheproblemwasnotatalltheproblemofdesire.TheproblemoftheChineseeroticartwasaproblemofplea-sure,howtotakepleasure,withwhichintensityandsoonandsoon.AndIthinkwereacivilisation,maybetion,wheretheproblemofdesirebecamemuchmoreimpor-tantthantheproblemofpleasure.And,whatsthereason?Whywerecogniseourselvesassubjectsofdesire,andnot,asagentsofpleasure?Why?ThebooktowhichFoucaultreferredwasvanGuliksSexualLifeinAncientChina:APreliminarySurveyofChineseSexandSocietyfromca.1500BCtill1644AD,“rstpublishedin1961byBrill.VanGulikalsowroteanotherfamouswork,EroticColourPrintsoftheMing(1951),butthereisnoevidencethatFoucaultknewthisSexualLifeinAncientChinawastranslatedintoFrenchbyLouisÉvrard,afriendofMichelFoucault,andpublishedin1971LaViesexuelledanslaChineancienne.ItisimportanttonotethatÉvrardtranslationwaspartoftheCollectionTeloftheprestigiousParisianpublisherGallimard.CollectionTelwasthespiritualsuc-cessorofCollectionTelQuel,foundedin1966byphilosopherPhilippeSollers.Itwas“rstconceivedbyClaudeandAntoineGallimard,whowishedtoproduceaseriesofaffordable,pocket-sizedpaperbacksofclassichumanitiestexts.ThebooksinCollectionTelhaveaniconicwhitecover,andsomeofthetitleswereillustratedbyHungarianartistVictorVasarely.TheCollectionoccupiesaprominentpositionintheFrenchliterary“eldandincludessomeofthemostglamorousworksofEuropeanthought,themust-readsfortheintellectualeliteinthe1960sand70s:fromJean-PaulSartresLÊtreetlenéant(1943,Tel1),ÉmileBenvenistesProblèmesdelinguistiquegénérale(1945,Tel4),MichelFoucaultsHistoiredelafolieàlâgeclassique(1972,Tel9)toworksbyRaymondAron,ErichAuerbach,JeanBau-drillardandRolandBarthes.FoucaultsHistoryofSexualityVolume1LaVolontédesavoir)wasTel248intheseries,andvanGuliksualLifeinAncientChinawasTel17.GiventhattheFrenchintellec-tualsceneinthelate60sand70swascaptivatedwithMaoandChina,astudyofancientChinesesexualitymightbedeemedtobeanextremelyvaluablepieceofwork,andthusvanGuliksinclusionintheCollectionTelisunsurprising.Indeed,vanGuliksworkwasappropriatedextensively(andidiosyncratically)inJean-FrançoisLyotardslargelyforgottenEconomielibidinale(1974)andinJuliaDesChinoisesTheEnglishoriginalofvanGuliksworkdidnotenjoyaswideareception;itwasmostlyreadbyThenameRobertHansvanGulik(1910…1967,inChineseGaoLuopei)shouldbeveryfamiliartoallscholarsinEastAsianStud-ies.Today,vanGulikisoftenrememberedoutsideofacademiaasawriterofChinesedetective“ction,theJudgeDeeMysteriesGoongAn),whicharestillprintedbyDoverandUniversityofChi-cagoPress.VanGulikwasthesonofamedicalof“cerintheDutchIndies,andlaterbecameaDutchdiplomatandSinologist.HewasraisedinJavaandlearnedChinesefromayoungage.EducatedattheUniversityofLeiden,hemovedtoUtrechtandcompletedhisdoctoralthesisin1935,entitledHayagriva:TheMantrayanicAspectoftheHorse-CultinChinaandJapan(theHayagrivaisahorse-headeddeityinHinduismandBuddhism),supervisedbyfamousIndologistJanGondaandpublishedbyBrill.Atruepolymath,vanGulikknewDutch,Greek,Latin,Sanskrit,Chinese,Tibetan,Ara-bic,Japanese,English,French,German,Russian,Javanese,Indone-sian,Malayandpossiblymanymorelanguages.AfterhisdoctoralstudieshejoinedtheDutchForeignServiceandwaspostedtovar-iouscountriesinAsiaandcontinuedresearching,writing,corre-spondingwithacademics.Throughouthiscareer,vanGulikproducedanextraordinaryrangeofimpeccablescholarship:com-parativelinguistics,thelanguageofBlackfootIndians,thehistoryofmusicandmusicalinstruments(especiallytheChineselute),translationsofSanskritplays,studiesinZenBuddhism,theology,artcollecting,calligraphy,jurisprudenceandhistoryandphiloso-phyoflaw,andoneofhisbestloves„gibbons.InthePrefacetoSexualLifeinAncientChina,vanGulikrelatedhowhestumbleduponChinesesexuality:In1949whenIwasservingasCounselloroftheNetherlandsEmbassyinTokyo,Ihappenedto“ndinacurio-shopasetofoldChineseprintingblocksofaMingeroticalbum,entitledHua-ying-chin-chen-chin-chenHuayingjinzhen],VariegatedBattleArraysoftheFloweryCamp.TheblocksemanatedfromthecollectionofanoldJapanesefeudalhousethatintheeighteenthcenturyhadbeencloselyconnectedwiththeChinatrade.Sincesuchalbumsarenowexceedinglyrare,andimportantfromboththeartisticandsociologicalpointofview,Ithoughtitmydutytomakethismaterialavailabletootherresearchwork-ers.Myoriginalplanwastohaveafewcopiesstruckofffromthoseblocksandpublishtheminalimitededition,addingabriefpreface[a200-pageessay]onthehistoricalbackgroundofChineseeroticart.Thisbecamethethree-volumeEroticColourPrintsoftheMing(1951),whichhadalimitedcirculationasonly“ftycopieswereprivatelyprintedinTokyo.CambridgeUniversityLibrarywaspresentedwithonecopy,andJosephNeedhamalsohadoneinhispossession.NeedhamandvanGulik“rstmetin1943inChongqing,whenNeedhamwastheDirectoroftheSino-BritishScienceCo-operationOf“ceandvanGulikwasthesecretaryfortheDutchmissiontoChiangKai-sheksgovernment.ThetwomenbecameclosefriendsandwhenvanGulikmarriedFrancesShuiShifang(granddaughterofZhangZhidong,oneoftheFourFamousOf“cialsoftheLateQing),theweddingpartywasheldattheScienceCo-OperationOf“ceandNeedhamdeliveredaspeechforthenewlyweds.NeedhamwouldlaterleaveChongqingforParistobecometheHeadoftheNaturalSciencesDivisionatUNESCO,beforereturningtoGonvilleandCaiusCollege,Cam-bridgein1948.MeanwhilevanGulikcontinuedhisperipateticlifeandspenttimeinWashingtonDC,Tokyo,NewDelhi,Cairo,KualaLumpur,BeirutandTheHague.NeedhamandvanGulikmain-tainedtheirfriendshipandcontinuouslycorresponded.NeedhamheldvanGulikinextremelyhighregard,discussinginaseriesoflettersaround1966…1967thepossibilityofvanGuliktakingtheChairofChineseatCambridgeuponhisretirementfromtheForeignService.GivenNeedhamsdif“cultrelationshipwithCambridge,followinghiscontroversialreportonAmericanuseofbiologicalweaponsinKorea,hewasunlikelytohavemuchleverage Foucault(1983b).IthankCatherineJamiforherhelpdealingwithFoucaultsaccent.AsofJuly2009,thisFrencheditionofvanGulikisstillwidelyavailableasapaperbackfor12.50euros.ComparethiswiththeEnglishversionbyBrill(2003reprint),aspartofSinicaLeidensiaseriesofspecialistmonographsonChina,pricedat122USdollars.Lyotard(2004,pp.202…241)andKristeva(1977,pp.61…64,76,82).ForananalysisonLyotard,vanGulik,sexualvampirismandMarxstheoryofcapital,seeHeubel(2003)Thede“nitivebiographyofvanGulikisBarkman&deVries-vanderHoeven(1994).CarlDietrichBarkman(1919…2006)washimselfaDutchdiplomatandSinologist.AnotherbiographyisbyDutchcrimenovelistJanwillemLincolnvandeWettering(1987).Forsomethingsweetandconcise,seePaulRakitaGoldinsIntroductiontothe2003reprintofSexualLifeinAncientChinaGoldin(2003)VanGulik(1961,p.xi)NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/260/12.L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 overtheemploymentissuesattheFacultyofOrientalStudies,andDenisTwitchett(1925…2006)tookovertheChairfrom1968to1981afterEdwinGeorgePulleyblank(1922…)relocatedtotheUni-versityofBritishColumbia.Ifitwerenotforhisearlydeathfromcancerin1967,vanGulikmightwellhavebeenreunitedwithNeed-haminCambridgeinsomecapacity,engagingwiththeScienceandCivilisationinChinaproject.Thetwomenin”uencedeachothersviewonChinesesex,scienceandDaoistalchemyenormously.7.VanGulik,BobCohenandRoutledgeThemakingofSexualLifeinAncientChinaisatalefulloftwists.PaulGoldinclaimsthatBrillcommissionedvanGuliktocomposethebook;thisisnotquitethefullstory.ThestartingpointisinfactBobCohen(RobertSonnéCohen,1924…),currentlyProfessorEmeritusofPhilosophyofScienceatBostonUniversity,andfoundingeditoroftheimportantBostonStudiesinthePhilosophyofScience.Inthe1950sCohenwasAssociateProfessorofPhilosophyandPhysicsatWesleyan,butleftbecauseofMcCarthyismandtravelledtoBrit-ainandspenttimeattheUniversityofCambridge.Hewasac-quaintedwithJohnG.Carter,oneofthedirectorsatRoutledgeandKeganPaul.AtthattimeRoutledgepublishedtheSexualLifeseriesofbooks,whichincludedBronis›awMalinowskisSexualLifeofSav-agesinNorthWestMelanesia(1929),translationsofHansLichts[PaulBrandt]SexualLifeinAncientGreece(1932),OttoKiefersLifeinAncientRome(1934)andJohannJakobMeyersSexualLifeinAncientIndia(1953).Allofthesewerepioneeringworksofscholarship.CohentoldCarterthatRoutledgeoughttoaddavolumeonsex-uallifeinancientChina,andthatJosephNeedhamwouldbetheidealmantowriteit.CarterwrotetoNeedhamon13September1956,invitinghimtowriteaforewordtoEdgarZilselsTheSocialOriginsofModernScience,andtoconsiderthepossibilityofbegin-ningaprojectonsexinChina.Needhamrepliedon28September,acceptinghisinvitationtowritetheZilselforeword,butdeclinedtheopportunitytowriteonsex.InsteadNeedhamrecommendedvanGulik,whoatthatpointhadalreadypublishedEroticColourPrintsintheMingPeriod.NeedhamthenwrotetoJohnG.Carter:IcanassureyouthatIshalldomybesttopersuade[vanGulik]toundertakethetask,becausethereisadebtwhichhasnotyetbeenpaidtoChinesecivilisation.BythisImeanthatChinesesexologywasofanextremelyhealthy,humaneandnon-sadisticcharacter,comparingfavourablywiththesexualtheoryandpracticesofotherAsianpeoples,andindeedwithallotherpeo-plesintheworld.NeedhamthenwrotetovanGulik,stationedinBeirut,on28September1956:IndeedIreallydohopethatyoucouldseeyourwaytoprepar-ingabookofageneralcharacteronthesubject,summarisingforthegeneraleducatedpublicthemostimportantfeaturesofyourstudyofChinesesexlifepublishedinTokyoin19511951EroticColourPrintsoftheMingPeriod].Ibelieveyouwouldbedoingaverygreatservicetoworldcultureifyouthinkseri-ouslyofthis,andatthesametimepayadebtowingtotheChi-nesefortheirveryhealthyandhumaneideasonthesesubjectsthroughouttheMiddleAgesandlatertimes.On5October1956,JohnG.Carterreplied:DrRobertvanGulikiswithoutadoubtmostcompetenttoundertakethevolumeonSEXUALLIFEINANCIENTCHINAforourseries.HeiscustomerofourBookshop,KeganPaulofGreatRussellStreet[inBloomsbury,London].ItismostkindofyoutowritetohimpersonallyonourbehalfandIvalueyourintroduc-tionwhichIwillnowfollowup.On6November,CarterwrotetoNeedhamagain:IhavehadafavourableletterfromDrRobertvanGulikinacknowledgingmysuggestionthathecontributestoourseriesaSEXUALLIFEINANCIENTCHINA[]HealsosuggestshewouldeventuallyliketoconsiderabookonARABICSEXOLOGY.ItisallverypromisingandIhopethatwewillreachasatisfac-toryunderstandingandacontractforthetwobooks.VanGulikdidreachanagreementandpreparedamanuscript.However,eighteenmonthslater,on16June1958,CarterinformedNeedhamthat:DrvanGulikhashonouredtheagreementbydeliveringthemanuscriptontimebut,tomygreatregret,theworkissofrankthatitwouldnotbearpublicationinthiscountrywithoutattractingtheattentionofthepublicprosecutor.Ourviewshavebeencon“rmedbythecounselfortheAuthorsSociety[SocietyofAuthors,Playwright,Composers],Mr[Denys]KilhamRoberts,whoalsohadtheadvantageofconsultingthepresentsittingcommittee,whoareadvisingthegovernmentonNormanFranklin,anotherdirectoratRoutledge,alsowrotetoNeedhamandvanGuliktoextendhisapologies,statingthatRoutl-edgecouldnotundertake[the]publication[ofSexualLifeinAn-cientChina]withoutsuchheavyexpurgationthattheworkwouldbemeaningless.VanGulikthendecidedtopublishthroughBrillofLeiden.Allsexuallyexplicitpassageswereren-deredinLatin.ButwhenLouisÉvrardtranslatedSexualLifeFrench,hetranslatedalloftheLatinpassagesintoFrench.Finally,BrillreprintedSexualLifeinAncientChinain2003,editedbyPaulRakitaGoldin,ProfessorofEastAsianLanguagesandCivilisationattheUniversityofPennsylvania,withvanGuliksscandalousmateri-alsinLatintranslatedbackintoEnglishforthevery“rsttime.HadvanGulikpublishedhisbookwithRoutledge,itscirculationintheEnglish-speakingworldwouldhavebeenmuchwider.8.SexualvampirismsandtheinterventionsoftheCambridgeEroticColourPrintsoftheMingPeriod(1951),vanGulikdidnothaveawhollypositiveviewofancientChinesesexuality.In ForaccountsofthehistoryofChinesestudiesinCambridge,seeMcMullen(1995),Que(2002)andSterckx(2008).IthankRoelSterckx,whoisnowtheJosephNeedhamProfessorofChineseHistory,ScienceandCivilisation,forbringingthishistorytomyattention.Goldin(2003,p.xv)Needham(2004,pp.xi…xiv).ZilselsbookalsocontainsaPrefacebyBobCohen.NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/213/9/10.NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/213/9/10.NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/213/9/10.NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/213/9/10.NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/213/9/10.RoyJenkinsObscenePublicationsActcameineffectin1959(i.e.itbecamepossibletochallengethelegalde“nitionofanobscenepublicationbyusingasdefencetheartisticorscholarlymeritofthetextinquestion),andtheLadyChatterleysLovertrialin1960(Reginav.PenguinBooksLtd)wasthe“rsttestcasefortheAct.NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/213/9/10.L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 particular,hehighlightedtheDaoistalchemicalpracticeof„returningthesementothebrain(huanjingbunaoprolongingerection,absorbingsexual”uidsorthroughintercoursewithmanyyounggirls„asaformofsexualUnderthisscheme,womenandespeciallyyoungvir-gins,becamerepositoriesorbatteriesofvitalessenceavailableatthedisposalofthemalepractitionerofalchemyinhisprojectofrejuve-nation,preservationofyouth,attainmentofhigherconsciousnessandimmortality.Thepractitionerharnessedwomenasaresourcelikeanyother;pleasure,particularlyforthefemale,wasinconse-quential.ForvanGulik,thiswasanexploitative,objectifying,misog-ynisticandpossiblypervertedpractice,blackmagicandsuperstition.HeconfessedthatthosepracticeshadrathershockedNeedham,whowasatthetimeworkingonVolumeIIofandCivilisationinChinaHistoryofScienti“cThought),consultedvanEroticColourPrintsattheCambridgeUniversityLibrary.HecompletelydisagreedwithvanGuliksassessmentandcastigatedhiminaseriesofletterssentbetweenJuneandJuly1955.hamtoldvanGulik,Onthecontrary,Daoismhadonthewholein”u-encedfavourablythedevelopmentofsexualrelations,andenhancedthepositionofChinesewomeningeneral.VanGuliksuccumbedtothegravityofProfessorNeedhamsexpertintervention,andcorrectedhimselfwhenhewroteSexualLifeinAncientChina,evengoingasfarassayingthatasalayman,itwasdif“culttomaintainalwaysproperdetachedattitudeofmind.Needhamlaterrecalled,perhapsalittlesmugly,thathepersuadedvanGulikthattherewasnothingperverseorpathologicalinthesexualtechniquesdescribedandprescribedbytheDaoistadepts[...]Chinesesexlifethroughthecenturieshadbeenremarkablyhealthy,freefromtheaberrationsofsadismandmasoch-ism,butimmenselyskilledinhappyvariationandmutualdona-IagreewithPaulGoldinsassessmentthatwithhindsight,wecanseetodaythatvanGuliksearlierthoughtsonthematterweremorejudicious,anditisapitythatheallowedhimselftobehectored[byNeedham].Daoistsexualteachingsdidnotnecessarilyencour-agemutualgrati“cationorrespectofwomen,norcouldthesexman-ualsbeconstitutiveevidenceofsexualfreedom„insteadtheyhadtobeunderstoodinthecontextofconcealmentandsuppression,ofregulationandrestriction.NeedhamsidealisationofancientChi-naappearstobemisplaced.ForNeedham,thewisdomofChinesecultureintheaffairsoftheheart,inloveandsexistheantidoteneededbyallpeopleeverywhere,startlingthoughitmaybeforWesterners.hamsideologyofsexisparticularlyclearinanaddressdeliveredattheChapelofGonvilleandCaius,his“naloneasMasteroftheCol-lege,onWhitSunday1976,aheavilypolemicalpieceattackingthedistinctionbetweenForNeedhamthereoughtnotbeanydistinctionbetweensacredandprofanelove(whichaccordingtohimdoesnotexistinChina);becauseitledtotherepression,prudishness,hypocrisy,hystericalPuritanism,andneedlessshameandguiltintheChristiancultureoftheWest.Moreover,NeedhamwroteaforewordtoJolanChangs(ZhangZhon-TheTaoofLoveandSex:TheAncientChineseWaytoEcstasy(1977).Inthisbook,atranscriptofNeedhamsaddressattheCaiusChapelwasincludedasapostscript.JolanChang(1917…2002)wasaCanadian-SwedishChinesewriterandagoodfriendofNeed-ham.ChangclaimedtobeapractitionerofDaoistsexualregimesandwouldmakeloveseveraltimesaday,eventhoughhewasclosetosixtywhenhewroteTaoofLoveandSexOftenonaSundayImakelovetwoorthreetimesinthemorn-ingandthengocyclingfornearlythewholeday,abouttwentyorthirtymiles,andthenmakeloveagainbeforegoingtosleep.TheresultisthatIamnotintheleastexhausted,andmyhealthcouldnotbebetterormymindmoretranquil.Andaboveallthehelplesssituationoflyingbesideanunsatis“edmatenolongerexists.Whatisthereasonforthischange?TheansweristhatInowpractisewhattheDaoistphysicianSunSsû-Mo[SunSimiao]prescribed1300yearsago:Loveonehundredtimeswithoutemission.NeedhamsaidJolanChangwas:[A]luminary[appearingfromthe]skies,ourfriendChangChung-lanfromStockholm,whosebookonChinese„andUni-versal„sexologyIherecommendtothecandidreader.WithconsiderablelearningandskillhasfoundwordstoexplaintomenandwomenofthemodernworldsomethingofhowthewisdomofChineseculturemanifesteditselfintheaffairsoftheheart,inloveandsex.Changsbookwasahodgepodgeofsextips,including:theregulationofejaculation;theimportanceofforeplayandfemalesatisfaction;theclaimthatmaleorgasmandejaculationarenotthesamething;thecontroloftherhythmanddepthofmalepen-etration;fourbasicpositionsandtwenty-sixvariations;erotickissingandoralsex;howtoovercomeimpotencethroughDaoism;breathingexercisesbasedonTaiChi.ManyoftheseChangsaidhadbecomeimportantpointsintheWomensLiberationMove-mentandinthescienti“cstudiesofKinsey,MastersandJohnson,andtherest.Inotherwords,DaoistpracticesofsexhavebeenvindicatedbyWesternscience.OnecouldplaceChangsbookwithinthegenreofself-helpmanualsfromthe1960sand70sinEuropeandAmerica;itslanguageandideologyofsexarecomparabletopublica-tionssuchasAlexComfortsJoyofSex(1972).IndeedthesimilaritiesbetweenChangandComfortmayleadonetothinkthatChangsbookisTheJoyofSexwithChinesecharacteristics.ChangsattempttoshowtheapparentcompatibilitybetweenancientChinesewis-domandWesternscience„andtherebyimplyingthatChinahadal-waysalreadyhadtheanswerstoWesternculturalcrises„wasalsosimilartoFritjofCaprasTaoofPhysics(1975)andthewritingsofMantakChia.ItwouldnotbeunfairtocallChangsbookOriental-ist,andNeedhamsunreservedpraiseofTaoofLoveandSexhighlyproblematic. VanGulik(1951,p.11).OnsexualvampirismseeGoldin(2006)VanGulik(1961,p.xiii)CorrespondencebetweenNeedhamandvanGulik,7Juneto4July1955,NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/213/9/5.VanGulik(1961,p.xiii)andNeedham(1956,p.146)VanGulik(1961,p.xiii)Needham(1977a,pp.9…10)Goldin(2003,p.xxii)Schipper(1993,p.147)Needham(1977a,pp.9…10)Needham(1977b)Needham(1977b,p.121)NeedhamResearchInstituteSCC2/220/1/7.Chang(1977,p.120).Needham(1977a,pp.9…10)Chang(1977,p.17).Forananalysisoftwentieth-centuryappropriationsofDaoistpracticesonsex,seeClarke(2000,pp.117…139)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 CharlotteFurth,inhertrenchantattackonSexualLifeinAncient,repeatedlylabelledvanGulikanOrientalist.Furthar-guedthattheclassicalbedchambermanualsteachingDaoistsecretsoflongevityportrayanaristocraticandlavishlypolygamoussocietywhereveryyoungwomenwereexploitedassexualhandmaidens„thestereotypeofaroyalharem.arseroticainChinawasnotatallbotheredaboutpleasure,insteadtheywereconcernedwith:(a)culticvisionsoflongevityorimmortalitythroughpreserva-tionofhealth,bodilydisciplines,regimensincludingbreathingexer-cises,dietandingestionofmedicines;(b)theregulationofreproductionandgenderrelations.Inthelatter,Chinesesexualcul-tureisnotatalldiametricallyoppositetotheaimsofso-calledentiasexualis.ButithastobenotedthatFurthslineofargumentisactuallyinagreementwiththeearlyvanGulik:hewasnotanaïveOrientalistwhenitcametosexinChina,buttoacertainextent,Needhammadehimso.GiventhatMichelFoucaultbaseshisopiniononChinaandhisformulationofscientiasexualis/arseroticaonasourceascontentiousasvanGuliksSexualLifeinAncientChina,ofcourseashistorianswehavetoapproachFoucaultsdistinctionwithextremecaution.9.FoucaultsChinesedreamsTheChinathatFoucaultspeaksof,oneinwhicharseroticasupposedlypractisedwiththeaimtoheightenpleasureandde-light,isautopia.Foucaultistryingto,inhisownwords,thinkotherly(penserautrement),toimaginethepossibilityoflivingotherly(vivreautrement)withoutthesurveillanceandregulationofsexassociatedwithscientiasexualisintheWest.ToborrowFredricJamesonswords:Sexuality,itselfameaninglessbiologicalfact,isinsuch[utopian]societiesfarlessinvestedwithallthesym-bolicmeaningswithwhichwemodernandsophisticatedpeopleen-dowit.Whatwoulditmean,then,fromwithinourownsexualisedexistentiality,toimagineahumansexualitythatwassounre-pressed,yetsoutterlydivestedofthemultiplesatisfactionsofmean-ingsassuch?ThisisoneofthecentralparadoxesthatthelaterFoucaultgrappledwith.Foucaultdreamsofthedaywhen:inadifferenteconomyofbodiesandpleasures,peoplewillnolongerquiteunderstandhowtherusesofsexuality,andthepowerthatsustainsitsorganisation,wereabletosubjectustotheausteremonarchyofsex,sothatwebecamededicatedtotheendlesstaskofforcingitssecret,ofexactingthetruestofconfessionsfromashadow.Andasopposedtotheincitementtospeak,theproliferationofdiscourseonsex,thecompulsiveandcompulsoryconfessionthatFoucaultdiagnosesintheWest,FoucaultprefersEasternsi-lenceoverWesternscience:Silencemaybeamuchmoreinterestingwayofhavingarela-tionshipwithpeople[]Ithinksilenceisoneofthosethingsthathasunfortunatelybeendroppedfromourculture.Wedonthaveacultureofsilence[]TheJapanesedo,Ithink.Silencewasthenaspeci“cformofexperiencingarelationshipwithothers.ThisissomethingthatIbelieveisreallyworthwhilecul-tivating.Iminfavourofdevelopingsilenceasaculturalethos.TheHistoryofSexualityVolume1:TheWilltoKnowledgewrittenpartlytocritiquetheideaofaSexualRevolution,partic-ularlythepoliticsofHerbertMarcuseandWilhelmReich,whoar-guedthatcapitalismreliedonsexualrepressiontoensuretheproductivityofthelabourforce,andthusliftingtherepressiononlibidowouldunderminecapitalism.Yet,despitehis“ercepo-lemicagainsttheRepressiveHypothesis,intheprocessofconceiv-ingthepossibilityofawholedifferentcon“gurationofdesireandpleasure,FoucaultdreamsoftheEast,andviavanGulikdreamsofChina,ofarseroticafromalessrepressive,farawayland,andthusendsupimplicatinghimselfintherepression-liberationmodeofthinkingthathepainstakinglydeconstructs.ThiskindofdreamingabouttheEastandChinawasbynomeansexclusivetoFoucault.Infact,itwasacommonsymptomamongsttheinthe1960sand70s:Barthes,Lacan,Krist-eva,Derrida,Lévi-Strauss,Bataille,Lyotard,Sollers,Irigarayandmanyothers.AllofthesethinkershadinvokedChinaintheirwork,asautopianstrategytoescapetheworldinwhichtheyinhabited,asakindofcognitiveestrangement,shocktreatmentforethnocen-trismandEurocentrism.Chinaisusedtodefamiliarise,toremindusofthespeci“chistorythatliesbehinddichotomiesandclassi“ca-tionswhichfurnishthewayweintheWestunderstandtheworldaroundus.Chinaisdeployedtounsettleoursmug,lazypatternsofthought,ourdelusionsofgrandeuranduniversality.Chinaismeanttobedumbfounding,astonishing,astounding,aspaceoutsideofthefortressofWesternthought,outsidetheprisonhouseoflo-gos.AsHaunSaussylyricallyputsit:Asimagesofapossibleworld,theseconstructionsofChinalendsupporttoadeconstructiveproject.Toputitquitesimply,Chinaisdeconstruction;orperhaps,Chinaiswhatdeconstructionwillturntheworldintoorrevealtheworldasalwaysalreadyhavingbeen.Stagingthesurprise-effectofnewsfromfaraway,thewriterscalculate(moreorlesstransparently)ademystifyingoutcome.Thedistinctivenessof[China]evokesavisionoflogicalrelations,subjectivity,ontology,temporality,andeschatologythatcountersthemodelsassociated[withtheWest].Acertainwayofdoingthingsisnottheonlyway;historycouldhaveadifferentsetofgivensandadifferentplotstructure;theendofcivilisationasweknowitwouldjustbetheendofcivilisationasweknowit[NoneofFoucault,Sollers,Derridaetc.have]tobeaChinaspecial-isttosaythisorlistentothecomplaintsofthoseofuswhoFoucaultisalwaysatpainstopointoutthespeci“city,situated-ness,localness,theWestern”avourofthediscoursesheanaly-ses:thehistoricalconsciousnessintheWestinArchaeologyof,historyoftechniquesofpowerintheWestinplineandPunish,thedeepeststrataofWesterncultureinTheOr-derofThings.ThedilemmaisthatFoucaultsattempttodeliberatethe“nite,Occidentalboundariesofthecollectionofpracticesandsystemsheisstudyinginevitableleadsintoasubtleessentialisa-tionoftheWest(andimplicitlytheEast).TheWestismocked Furth(1994,pp.126…128)Furth(1994,pp.145…146);seealsoFurth(2005)Foucault(1985,p.8).RobertHurleytranslatespenserautrementasthinkdifferentlybutthinkotherlyorthinkotherwiseisabetter“ttoFoucaultsmJameson(2004,p.53)Foucault(1978,p.159)Foucault(1990,pp.3…4)Foucault(1978,p.131)LacanwastheonlyonetohavestudiedChinese;hedidsoattheSchoolofOrientalLanguagesinParisduringtheOccupation.HewasalsoafriendofSinologistFrançoisCheng(ChengBaoyi,1929…),whomheconsultedonChineseclassicssuchasRoudinesco(1997,pp.158…159,351).Barthes,Kristeva,MarcelinPleynert,SollersandFrançoisWohltravelledtoChinain1974;Lacanwasoriginallyscheduledtotravelwiththisgroupbutwithdrewatthelastmoment.SeeHayot(2004,p.110).ItisworthnotingthattheChinathatLacanwantsistheConfucianChina,whereastheTelQueliansembracetheChinaofMao.Saussy(2001,pp.149…150);seemoregenerallypp.146…182.Almond(2007,p.24)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 foritspreoccupationwithindividualism,foritsinauthenticity,super“ciality,repressionanddenial,whilsttheEastbecomesequa-tedtohonesty,authenticity,collectivism,immutability,resilience„thetherapythatFoucaultprescribestodispelEurocentrismisironi-callyentirelyEurocentric.AttimesFoucaultisawarethathisresorttoAsia,histalkofChineseencyclopaedias,arseroticaandothercuriositiesoftheEastisacalculated,tacticalmove:IsnotChina,inourdreams,theprivilegedhomeofspace?Forourimaginarysystem,Chinesecultureisthemostmeticulousculture,themosthierarchical,themostimpervioustooccur-rencesintime,theonemostattachedtothepureunfoldingofdistance.WeimagineChinaasacivilisationofdikesanddamsundertheeternalfaceofHeaven,spreadandmobilisedacrossthewholeextentofawall-encircledcontinent.EvenChinesewritingdoesnotreproduceinhorizontallinesthe”eetingpas-sageofthevoice,butarrangesincolumnsthemotionlessandstillrecognisableimagesofthingsthemselves.IntheuniversalityoftheWestern,thereisthisdivisionwhichistheOrient;theOrient,thoughtofastheorigin,dreamtofasthevertiginouspointfromwhichnostalgiaandpromisesofreturnareborn,theOrientofferedtothecolonisingreasonoftheOccident,butinde“nitelyinaccessible,foritalwaysremainsthelimit:thenightofthebeginning,inwhichtheOcci-dentwasformed,butinwhichittracedadividingline,theOri-entisfortheOccidenteverythingthatitisnot,whilstremainingtheplaceinwhichitsprimitivetruthmustbesought.Whatisrequiredisahistoryofthisgreatdivide,allalongthisOcciden-talbecoming,followingitinitscontinuityanditsexchanges,whilstalsoallowingittoappearinitstragichieratism.TheOrientisfortheOccidenteverythingthatisnot,Foucaultadvisesus.However,inHistoryofSexualityVolume1,Foucaultap-pearstohaveforgottenhisownprescriptionandlosthiscriticaldistancefromtheWesternthathisprojectsaresupposedtoexamine.HeisactivelyinscribingandreinforcingtheEast…Westdividehimself„erasingaf“nities,continuities,identities,similari-ties,contactandexchangebetweenEastandWest.Scientiasex-ualis/arseroticaturnsfromadefamiliarisationstrategyintoanindefensiblehistoricalclaim.IanAlmondsuggeststhatFoucaultsuseoftheEastiscarriedoverfromNietzsche,whilstotherscholarsarguethatitcomesfromHeidegger,whointeractedwithSinolo-gistsandJapanologistsinGermany.InFoucaultslatercareer,hispreoccupationwithEasternthought„withZen,magicandmys-ticism,hermeticism,Gnosticism,Pythagoreans,Kabbalah,asceticspeculation„wastodowiththeattempttoconstructacounter-dis-coursetomodernitythatappropriatesOrientalloreinoppositiontoWesternstrategiesofcontrol.OrtouseKarlisRacevskissele-gantphrase,theOrientwasFoucaultsepistemologicalalibi.isFoucaultsmotivationforsearchingtheOrientforsolutions,totra-veltofarawaylands,oratleasttheAsiansectionofhislibrary,forelixirs,panaceas,antidotes,anecdotes...10.SinographiesandtheempireoftheoryThepointofthispaperisresolutelytochastiseMichelFou-cault,JosephNeedham,RobertvanGulikandothersfortheirOri-entalism,forbeingnaïveormisinformed„thatwouldbetoofacile.InfactIamwaryofthewaythatOrientalismhasbeenof-tenbandiedaroundandendsupforeclosinganalysis.Myaimisnottowagmy“nger,orsimplycorrectwrongsandmisrepresenta-tions.Myobviouspointisthatweabsolutelyneedtosubjectthetheoristswhomweregularlyinvokeinourworktohistoricalandsociologicalanalysis.Weneedtounpacktherichhistoryoftenembeddedinasingleconcept.AsIhavealreadyexplained,theno-tionthattheoryisasetofprefabricated,off-the-shelftoolswhichwecanpickuptightenourhistoricalnarrative„animageofthe-orythatFoucaulthimselfperpetuatesinhistalkofscrewdriversandspannersandpetitesbôitesàoutils„isextremelydangerous.SomescholarsinEastAsiaStudieshavebecomeincrediblyallergictotheory,becausetheyhaveseenfartoomanyuncriticalusesoftheoryand-ismsintheliterature,orcasesinwhichtheadop-tionofideasfromliterarycriticismorcriticaltheoryisnotcarefullyexplained.WeshouldpaycloseattentiontothenaturalhistoryoftheParisianintellectuals,andanalysetheirprideandprejudice,theirpreoccupationsandobsessions,theirsourcesofinformationandauthority,theiroperationsintheindustryoftheory.Whatkindofbooksdiddifferentgroupsofpeoplereadto“ndoutaboutChina?FoucaultandhiscolleaguesreadvanGulikforsure,someofMaxSacredBooksoftheEastde“nitely,FenollosasChineseWrit-tenCharacterasaMediumforPoetry,MariaAntoniettaMacciocchisbestsellingDelaChine(1970),MarcelGranetsworkonmatrimonyinChina(CatégoriesmatrimonialesetrelationsdeproximitédanslaChineancienne),andsoforth.Howdidtheseavant-gardeintellectu-alsuseChinaforthepurposeofaestheticandpoliticalinspiration,edi“cation,renewalandrejuvenation,defamiliarisation,dichotomi-sation,legitimation,asarhetoricaldevice,aliterarytrope?HowdoesChinabecomegristfortheParisiantheoreticalmill;howdoesChinaanimatetheirideas?WhatsortofChinasarebeingwrittenintobeing?MovingacrosstheChannel,whatimagesofChinainformBritishscholarssuchasJosephNeedham?Whatwehavehereisadovetailingoftwoprojects.The“rstisSinographies,associatedwithcomparativeliteraturescholarsHaunSaussy,EricHayot,TimothyBillings,ChristopherBushandStevenG.Yao.AsHayotexplains:ItakeSinography,literallythewritingofChina[...]thestudynotsimplyofhowChinaiswritten,butofthewaysinwhichthatwritingconstitutesitselfsimultaneouslyasaofwritingandasaofChineseness[...]anyparticularwrit-ingofChinabothestablishesaparticularChinesedifference(fromtheWest,fromitself)andsimultaneouslypositsChinaastheoriginandsourceofthedifferencethatmakesitsdiffer-encevisible,asitwere,intheobjectofstudyIhopetonamewithterm.Takeninthisway,SinographyrelatestoSinologyashistoriographydoestohistory.ToreadSinographi-callywouldbetoabandontheattempttoforceeveryreferencetoChinaintotruthorfalsehood,withoutatthesametimeabandoningthequestionofreferencealtogether„rather,thequestionofreferencewouldhavetobefoldedintothebroaderdiscussionofwritingChina,adiscussion[]oftheactionofwritingChinaasitactualisesitselfwithintheworld-textinde-pendentlyofthenotionofauthenticity. FoucaulttranslatedbyandquotedinSaussy(2001,p.147)Foucault(1961,p.iv).ThispassagescomesfromthePrefaceofthe“rsteditionofMadnessandCivilisationwhichissubsequentlysuppressedinallfutureeditions.IamusingJeanKhalfas2006Routledgetranslation,p.xxx.Afary&Anderson(2005,pp.17…21).ForHeideggersrelationshipwithEastAsianthought,seeMay(1989),Ma(2007,pp.10…26)andZhang(2006,pp.45…86)Schaub(1989,p.308)Racevskis(1983,p.18)InthecontextofChinesehistory,onethinksof,forinstance,JosephEshericksfamousattackonthepostmodern(orpoststructuralorpostcolonial)studybyJamesHeviaoftheMacartneyEmbassy,CherishingMenfromAfarHevia(1995).Forthisdebate,seeEsherick(1998a,1998b),Hevia(1998),Elman&Huters(1998)andZhang(1998b).OnthequestionofpostmodernismandChinesehistory,seeDirlik(2001).OnliterarytheoryandChineseliterature,seeHockx&Smits(2003)Hayot(2004,p.185).SeealsoHayot(2009),Hayotet.al.(2007),Saussy(2001)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 Thesecondprojectisthestudyofintellectualsandtheaca-demicindustryintheveinofHomoacademicus,MarjorieGarbersAcademicInstincts(2001)orStefanCol-AbsentMinds(2006).Onemightask:Inwhatwaydidknowl-edgeofothercultures,includingChina,countasculturalcapitalandhowwassuchknowledgeconsumedanddisplayedinthelit-erary“eld?Howweredifferentsocialpositionsinatophilosophicaloutlooks?Howdidhistoricalactorsmaintaintheirrelationshipsandallianceswithvariousinstitutions,translators,booksellersandpublishers?HowdidideasconcerningChinacircu-late„transnationally,globallyvialong-rangenetworks?Bywayofconcludingthispaper,Iwillelaborateonthe“nalquestion,particularlypertinenttocontemporarydebatesontheempireoftheory„theindustryofculturalandliterarytheoriesproducedinEuropeandAmerica,andtheirimpactonacademicproductionaroundtheworld.Theglobalexpansionofthetheorymachinehaschangedwhatnon-Westernscholarsinotherpartsoftheworldhavetoread,andwhattheyhavetocite„forinstanceMichelFoucault,Jacques,psychoanalytictheorists,postco-lonialthinkers,etc.„inorderforthesenon-Westernscholarsontheperipherytobeacceptedbyinstitutionsatthecentre„betheyuniversitydepartmentsorEnglish-languagejournals.Third-Worldscholarsnowhavetowrite,accordingtotherulesofthegenreofWesternacademicwriting,inordertoberecogni-sedasbona“deknowledge-producingsubjects.Thisisadevelop-mentofwhatEdwardSaidhaslongagocalledthequestionoftravellingtheory:Likepeopleandschoolsofcriticism,ideasandtheoriestravel„frompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation,fromoneperiodtoanother.Culturalandintellectuallifeareusuallynour-ishedandoftensustainedbythiscirculationofideas,andwhetherittakestheformofacknowledgedorunconsciousin”uence,creativeborrowing,orwholesaleappropriation,themovementofideasandtheoriesfromoneplacetoanotherisbothafactoflifeandausefullyenablingconditionofintellec-tualactivity.Havingsaidthat,however,oneshouldgoontospecifythekindsofmovementthatarepossible,inordertoaskwhetherbyvirtueofhavingmovedfromoneplaceandtimetoanotheranideaortheorygainsorlosesinstrength,andwhetheratheoryinonehistoricalperiodandnationalculturebecomesaltogetherdifferentforanotherperiodorsituationsituation...]Suchprocessesmovementintoanewenvironmentisneverunimpeded.Itnecessarilyinvolvesprocessesofrepresentationandinstitutionalisationdifferentfromthoseatthepointofori-gin.Thiscomplicatesanyaccountofthetransplantation,trans-ference,circulation,commerceoftheoriesandideas.SaidusestravellingtheorytodiscusstheappropriationofGeorgLukácsideasbyLucienGoldmann,andthentheappropria-tionofGoldmannsversionofLukácsbyMichelFoucaultandRay-mondWilliams.LimitinghisanalysistoEuropeancontexts,Saidseesthisasabenignphenomenon„itisforhim,asquotedinthepassageabove,afactoflifeandanenablingconditionofintel-lectualactivity.However,inarecent,highlypolemicalvolume,LatinAmericanStudiesscholarsDaphnePataiandWilfridoCorralhavetakentheoppositeview.Theystronglyarguedthatthespreadoftheoryaroundtheworldassomethingmalevolentandcrippling,andanimperialistforcetoberesisted,becauseFrenchthe-orydeniestheauthenticvoicesofThirdWorldscholars,homog-enisestheproductionofscholarship,andleadstothedearthofempiricalworkandevengrossmisrepresentationofnon-WesternOthers.Neithersideseemstobeentirelycorrect,butitistruethatThirdWorldscholarsappeartobestuckinaterribledilemma:theyhavetoshouldertheburdenofengagingwithWesterntheory,orriskmarginalisationoraccusationofignorance.TheyhavetoshowtheirappreciationofthedepthandsophisticationofWesterntheory,ortheyendupbeinglabelledofbutcheringideaswhichdonotbelongtothem.TheothersideofthecoinisthatThirdWorldscholarshavetolearnWesterntheoryinsuchawaythattheydonotjustendupbeingseenasanimitator,simplyparrotingwhatWesternscholarshavesaid.ThenextimportantstepinthecurrentanalysisofMichelFou-scientiasexualisarseroticadistinctionishowithastrav-elledbacktoChina,or,amoregeneralinvestigationofthereceptionofFoucauldeanideasamongstChinesescholars,whoareconspicuouslyabsentinthispaper.HistoryofSexualityVolumewas“rsttranslatedintoChinesein1988byWangYongminandYuBaofa,bothProfessorsoftheCollegeofForeignLanguagesandLiteratureatFudanUniversityinShanghai.WangandYuusedRobertHurleysEnglishtranslationandneitherknewFrench.An-othertranslationisproducedin1999byJiXusheng,alsobasedontheEnglishtranslation.ThemostrecenttranslationofallthreevolumesofHistoryofSexualityappearedbetween2000and2005(publishedasXingJinyanShi,literallyTheHistoryofSexualExperiences),byYuBiping,ProfessorofPhilosophyatFudan,whowentbacktotheFrenchoriginal.Animportantandamongstthe“rstsystematicanalysisofHistoryofSexuality,withaneyeto-wardsthequestionofsexualliberationinpost-communistChina,wassexologistLiYinhesFoucaultandSexuality:DecodingFou-HistoryofSexuality.FromsomeofmyobservationsonthehistoriographyofChinesesexualityinChina,thereisevidencethatthescientiasexualisarseroticadistinctionhasmadearound-tripbacktoChina.TheoeuvreofLiuDalin(1932…)isparticularlystriking.LiuwastherecipientoftheMagnusHirschfeldMedaloftheDeutscheGesellschaftfürSozialwissenschaftlicheSexualfors-chungin1994andwasformerlyProfessorofSociologyatShanghaiUniversity.In1992heproducedtheso-calledChinaKinseyRe-portofsexualbehaviourinChina,anduponretirement,setuptheChinaSexMuseum(Zhonghuaxingwenhuabowuguan)inShanghaiin1999„movingtoTongliinJiangsuProvincein2001,becausetheShanghaiauthoritiesdidnotallowLiutoputupasignthatreadSexMuseum,concernedapparentlywiththequestionofdecencyandthepublicdisplayofthewordsex(Dalinsproli“coutputonthehistoryofsexuality,particularlythatofancientChina,hasbeenlabelledasself-orientalising.Itap-pearsthatLiuhasreadFoucaultandadoptedthescientiasexualisarseroticadistinction.His2001bookisactuallyentitledTheHistoryofSexualityXingdelishi),whichisahistoryofChinesesexuality,simultaneously,thehistoryofrepression„withfoot-binding,chest-bindingandthecastrationofeunuchsasemblematicofChi-neseperversionandbrutality„thehistoryofpleasure-oriented,life-af“rmingarserotica.LiuDalinalsoacceptsRobertvanGuliksromanticisationofancientChinesesexualityinSexualLifeinAncient,andinthisregardhecontrastswithfamousSinologistLi Said(1983,p.226)Patai&Corral(Eds.)(2005).ForcritiquesofPataiandCorral,seeHolbo(2007)Li(2001)ChinaSexMuseumswebsite:http://www.chinasexmuseum.com/jsp/index/andtheso-calledChinaKinseyReportisLiu(1992).SeeJudithFarquharsdescriptionofLiuDalininFarquhar(2002,pp.239…241).Forastudyoftheglobalcirculationsoftheory,usingtranslationandtheTurkishintellectual“eldasacasestudy,see.FortheChinesecase,seeWang&Sun(Eds.)(2008).ForAmerica,seeCusset(2008),Lotringer&Cohen(Eds.)(2001)andVanderPoel&Bartho(1999)Theself-orientalisingcommentcomesfromMicollier(2005,p.9).SomeofLiuDalinsoutputinclude:Liu(1993,1998)SexualLifeinPastDynastiesinChinaZhongguolidaifangneikao),aclearreferencetovanGuliksSexualLifeinAncientChina,theChinesetitleofwhichisZhongguogudaifangneikaoLiu(2001)HistoryofSexualitydelishiLiu(2004a,2004b,2005a,2005b,2005c)L.A.Rocha/StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences42(2011)328…343 Ling„ChinesetranslatorofSexualLifeinAncientChina„andhistori-anofscienceJiangXiaoyuan.ArethereanygoodreasonsforChinesescholarslikeLiuDalintoportrayancientChinesesexualcultureasarserotica,superiortoscientiasexualisoftheWest?Itmayberelatedtosexualpoliticsinthepresent„tocontrastCommunistsexualrepression,particu-larlyduringtheCulturalRevolution,againsttheperceivedfreedomandpleasurethattheChineseinthepastenjoyed(barringseveralunfortunatehistoricaldevelopmentslikefoot-bindingorthesubjugationofwomen).TheclaimisthattheancientChinesehadatraditionoferoticplay,thatthisisoneoftheimportantaspectsofChineseness„arealChineseculturalheritagetobecelebrated,revived,displayedanddiscussed.Itisironicthen,toseethetiasexualisarseroticadistinctionbecomespartoftheRepressionHypothesisthatFoucaulttakesapartinHistoryofSexualityVolume„inthiscasethedistinctionissubsumedintherepression-libera-tionrhetoricoftheChinese,andintheconstructionofaChinesesexualtraditionthatthencontributestothesearchofChinesecul-turalidentity,tothethingsthatseparateusChinesefromthem.FoucaultsChina,vanGuliksChinaandNeedhamsChinacometoimpactthewritingofChinashereandinChina,asifweareall“ndingourselvesinacross-culturalhalloffunhousemir-rors.ThustheambitionoftheSinographyprojectistounderstandtheseintellectualdynamics„howassumptionsconcerningtheessentialfeaturesofChinesecivilisationprecedetheactofpro-ducingknowledgeaboutChina.In“guringoutwhetherChinaissimilarordifferentfromtheWest,wehaveoftenalreadydecidedChinaissimilarordifferentfromtheWest.ReadinginaSino-graphicalveinwillnotonlyrevealwhatvisionsofChinaweareallcarryingwithus,itwillalsoconfrontthepoliticsofre-presentationandidentity,andencouragethekindofhealthyself-re”exivethinkingontheglobalbusinessofacademicwritingandtheoryproductionwhichweurgentlyneed.NoteonRomanisationandEastAsianCharacterssystemofRomanisationhasbeenusedthroughoutthispaper,withtheexceptionof(a)afewspellingsbestknownoutsideofChinainanotherform,(b)namesofTaiwanesepersonswhichareoftenwrittenintheWade-Gilessystem.AcknowledgementsIamgratefultoJohnForresterandSusanDaruvalafortheirsup-port,andtoHaunSaussyandEricHayotfortheirinspiration.IwishtothankChristopherCullen,CatherineJamiandJohnMoffettattheNeedhamResearchInstitutefortheirkindhelp,andthepartici-pantsoftheDepartmentalSeminarattheDepartmentofHistoryandPhilosophyofScienceatUniversityofCambridge,andtheaudienceattheThemedLectureSeries(MedicineAcrossAsia)organisedbyVivienneLoattheWellcomeTrustCentrefortheHis-toryofMedicineatUCLfortheirprobingquestions.Finally,Ithankthetwoanonymousreviewersfortheirinsightfulcomments.ThisresearchwassupportedbytheWellcomeTrustandtheD.KimFoundationforthehistoryofScienceandTechnologyinEastAsia.Afary,J.,&Anderson,K.B.(2005).FoucaultandtheIranianrevolution:GenderandtheseductionsofIslam.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Almond,I.(2007).ThenewOrientalists:PostmodernrepresentationsofIslamfromFoucaulttoBaudrillard.London:I.B.Tauris.Barkman,C.D.,&deVries-VanderHoeven,H.(1994).Eenmanvandrielevens:Biogra“evanDiplomaat/Schrijver/Geleerde.Amsterdam:Forum(FrenchtranslationbyRaoulMengarduque,publishedin1997asLestriosviesdeRobertvanGulik:Unebiographie.Paris:ChristianBourgois).Boer,R.(1999).Knockinonheavensdoor:TheBibleandpopularculture.London:Bourdieu,P.(1990).Homoacademicus[PeterCollier(Trans.)].Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.Brooks,P.(2000).Troublingconfessions:Speakingguiltinlawandliterature.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Clarke,J.J.(2000).TheTaooftheWest:WesterntransformationofTaoistthoughtLondon:Routledge.Cryle,P.M.(1994).Geometryintheboudoir:Con“gurationsofFrencheroticnarrativeIthaca:CornellUniversityPress.Cryle,P.M.(2001).Thetellingoftheact:SexualityasnarrativeineighteenthandnineteenthcenturyFrance.Delaware:UniversityofDelawarePress.Cusset,F.(2008).Frenchtheory:HowFoucault,Derrida,Deleuze,&Co.transformedtheintellectuallifeoftheUnitedStates.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.Davidson,A.I.(2001a).Theemergenceofsexuality:Historicalepistemologyandtheformationofconcepts.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.Davidson,A.I.(2001b).Foucault,psychoanalysis,andpleasure.InT.Dean&C.LaneHomosexualityandpsychoanalysis(pp.43…50).Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Derrida,J.(1988).LimitedInc..Evanston,IL:NorthwesternUniversityPress.Dirlik,A.(2001).PostmodernismandChinesehistory.Boundary,2(28),19…60.Dixon,J.(1999).Ancientwisdom,modernmotherhood:Theosophyandthecolonialsyncretic.InA.Burton(Ed.),Gender,sexualityandcolonialmodernities(pp.193…206).London:Routledge.Dixon,J.(2001).Divinefeminine:TheosophyandfeminisminEngland.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.Doherty,G.(2006).Arseroticaorscientiasexualis?NarrativevicissitudesinD.H.LawrencesWomeninLove.InD.Ellis(Ed.),D.H.LawrencesWomeninLove:A(pp.135…157).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Doniger,W.,&Kakar,S.(2003).[InW.Doniger,&S.Kakar(Trans.),(withexcerptsfromtheSanskritJayamangalacommentaryofYashodharaIndrapada,theHindiJayacommentaryofDevadattaShastri)(pp.xi…lxviii)].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Ell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