Keyboard Encoding Disk Storage Monitor Retrieval Sequential Process Studying memory Memory Persistence of learning over time through the encoding storage and retrieval of information ID: 784040
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Slide1
memory
Chapter 8
Slide2Studying memory
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval
Sequential Process
Slide3Studying memory
Memory
Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Evidence of memory Recalling informationRecognizing itRelearning it more easily on a later attempt
Slide4Studying Memory
EBBINGHAUS’ RETENTION CURVE
found
that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the less time he required to relearn it on day 2. Speed of relearning is one measure of memory retentionThe more you are exposed to information the more likely you are to retain it
Slide5Studying memory – memory models
Psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory
.
Information-processing modelsCompares human memory to computer operationsInvolves three processes: encoding, storage, and retrievalConnectionism information-processing modelFocuses on multitrack, parallel processingViews memories as products of interconnected neural networks
Slide6Slide7Studying memory -
memory models
Three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model
We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory (info from senses)From there, we process information into short-term memory
, where we encode it through rehearsalFinally, information moves into
long-term memory for later retrieval.
Slide8Studying memory – encoding memories
Working
memory (short term memory)
Involves newer understanding of short-term memoryFocuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memoryIs handled by a central executive (Baddeley, 2002)
Slide9Studying memory – Encoding memories
Dual-track memory system
Explicit memories
(declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processingEx: George Washington was the first president of US
Implicit memories (nondeclarative memories) that form through automatic processes and bypass conscious encoding track
Ex: Riding a bike
Slide10Slide11Studying memory - Encoding memories
Automatic processing and implicit memories
Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations.
Information is automatically processed aboutSpaceTimeFrequencyEx: What you ate for lunch
Effortful processing and explicit memories
With experience and practice, explicit memories become automatic.Ex: learning concepts in psychology
Slide12Slide13Studying memory – encoding memory
What is sensory memory?
First stage in forming explicit memories
Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory systemIconic memory
: Picture-image memoryEchoic memory
: Sound memory
Slide14Studying memory – encoding memory
Encoding by meaning
Encoding by images
Encoding by organization
Slide15Studying memory – encoding memory
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
Slide16Studying memory – storing memory
Short-term memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten
Working memoryNewer understanding of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Slide17Short-term memory
George Miller (1956)
Magical Number Seven: People can store about seven bits of information (give or take two)
Baddeley and colleagues (1975)Without distraction, about seven digits or about six letters or five wordsWorking memory
Capacity varies by age and distractions at time of memory tasks
Slide18Studying memory – storing memory
Past research
Whole past is contained in memory—waiting to be relived
Newer findingsFlashback during surgery are new creations of stressed brainInformation is not stored in single, specific spot.Perception, language, emotions and more require brain networks
Slide19Studying memory – storing memory
Mnemonics
Imagery
is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory.
Method of Loci
Link Method
Slide20Studying memory – storing memory
Organizing Information for
Encoding
Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.
Chunking
Hierarchy
Slide21Studying memory – storing memory
Explicit-Memory
System: Hippocampus And Frontal
Lobes are dedicated to explicit memory formationRegisters and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage. Neural storage of long-term memories is called memory consolidation
Slide22Studying memory – storing memory
Implicit memory system: Cerebellum and basal ganglia
Cerebellum plays important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning
Memories of physical skills are also implicit memories.Basal ganglia help form memories for these skills.
Infantile amnesiaConscious memory of first three years is blank.
Command of language and well-developed hippocampus needed
Slide23Frontal lobes and hippocampus: explicit memory formation
Cerebellum and basal ganglia: implicit memory formation
Amygdala: emotion-related memory formation
Slide24Studying memory
Excitement or stress triggers hormone production and provokes amygdala to engage memory.
Emotions often persist with or without conscious awareness.
Emotional arousal causes an outpouring of stress hormones, which lead to activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas.Flashbulb memories occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal.
Slide25Studying memory
Synaptic changes
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Increase in a synapse’s firing potentialAfter LTP, brain will not erase memories Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Slide26Studying memory - Retrieval cues
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
Who are the people on the right?
Slide27Studying memory - Retrieval
Memory retrieval
Memories held in storage by web of associations
Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memory suspended in this web.Best retrieval cues come from associations formed at the time a memory is encodedPrimingActivation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Priming
Slide28Studying memory - Retrieval
In
recognition
, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.)Name the capital of France.
Brussels
RomeLondonParis
In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.)The capital of France is ______.
Slide29Studying memory – retrieval
Memory retrieval
cues
PrimingContext-dependent memoryState-dependent memorySerial position effect
Slide30Studying memory - Retrieval
PRIMING—AWAKENING
ASSOCIATIONS
Priming allows up to make associations After seeing or hearing rabbit, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word as h-a-r-e.
Associations unconsciouslyactivate related associations.
This process is called priming. (Adapted from Bower, 1986.)
Slide31Slide32Studying memory - Retrieval
Context-dependent memory
Involves improved recall of specific information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same
Encoding specificity principleSuggests cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall
Slide33Studying memory - Retrieval
State-dependent memory
Involves tendency to recall events consistent with current good or bad mood (mood-congruent memory)
Mood-congruent memory Involves tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad moodSerial position effectInvolves tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list
Slide34Studying memory - Retrieval
Serial Position Effect:
When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items
.
Slide35Studying memory – encoding, capacity, and durati0n
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working Memory
LTM
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited7±2 Chunks
Very LargeDuration0.25 sec.
20 sec.Years
Slide36Studying memory - forgetting
Humans have two distinct memory systems controlled by different parts of the brain
.
Forgetting has several causesEncoding failureStorage decayRetrieval failureInterferenceMotivated forgetting
Slide37We cannot remember what we have not encoded.
Slide38Studying memory - forgetting
Encoding failure
Age
: Encoding lag is linked to age-related memory declineAttention: Failure to notice or encode contributes to memory failureStorage decayCourse of forgetting is initially rapid, and then levels off with time
Physical changes in the brain occur as memory forms (memory trace).
Slide39Slide40Studying memory - forgetting
Reason for Failure
Events
and memories are not available because these were never acquired.Memories have been discarded due to stored memory decay.Insufficient information to access memories make these out of reach.
Slide41Studying memory - forgetting
Interference
Proactiv
e: Occurs when older memory makes it more difficult to remember new informationRetroactive: Occurs when new learning disrupts memory for older information
If the Spanish (new info) were to interfere with the French (old info) it would be retroactive interference
Slide42Studying memory - forgetting
Motivated forgetting
Freud
: Repressed memories protect self-concept and minimize anxiety.repressionToday: Attempts to forget are more likely when information is neutral, not emotional.
Slide43Studying memory - forgetting
WHEN DO WE FORGET
?
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose
much of it.
Slide44Studying memory - forgetting
Misinformation and imagination effects
Misinformation effect
occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.Imagination effect occurs when repeatedly imagining fake actions and events can create false memories.
Slide45Studying memory - forgetting
Source amnesia (source misattribution)
Involves faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagine
déjà vu Is sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Suggests cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
Slide46Studying memory - forgetting
FALSE MEMORIES
False
memories feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event.False memories are often a result of faulty eyewitness testimony.
Children’s eyewitness recallCeci
and BruckResearchers studied effect of suggestive interviewing techniques.58 percent of preschoolers produced false stories about one or more unexperienced events.Children often accurately recall events and actorsNeutral personNonleading questions soon after event containing words children can understand
Slide47Studying memory - forgetting
Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse
?
The debate between memory researchers and some well-meaning therapists focuses on whether most memories of early childhood abuse are repressed and can be recovered during therapy using “memory work” techniques using leading questions or hypnosis.What do you think?
Slide48Those committed to protecting abused children and those committed to protecting wrongly accused adults have agreed on the following
:
Sexual abuse happens.
Injustice happens.Forgetting happens.Recovered memories are commonplace.Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable.Memories “recovered” under hypnosis are especially unreliable.Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.
Slide49Studying memory – improving memory
SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review) study technique used in this book incorporates several learning strategies.
Rehearse repeatedly
Make the material meaningfulActivate retrieval cuesUse mnemonic devicesMinimize interferenceSleep moreTest your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you do not yet know