Thinking, Language, and Intelligence - PowerPoint Presentation

1. Thinking, Language, and IntelligenceChapter Seven

2. Thinking, Language, and Intelligence:Basic TermsCognition: Mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge.Thinking: Manipulation of mental representations of information in order to draw inferences and conclusions.Mental image: Mental representation of objects or events that are not physically present.

3. The Building Blocks of ThoughtThinking often involves the manipulation of two forms of mental representations: Mental images and mental concepts.Mental representations are manipulated in the same way as an actual image, using all the senses.What types of cognitiveactivities might be required to plan and implement a new clothing line?

4. The Building Blocks of Thought

5. Brain Activation During Perception and Mental ImageryMental images are manipulated in much the same way as the actual objects they represent.Mental images of things seen visually are not perfect duplicates of actual sensory experience; are memories of the visual images. Like other memories, visual images are actively constructed and potentially subject to error.

6. Brain Activation During Perception and Mental Imagery

7. The Building Blocks of ThoughtConceptsProvide a mental shorthand by economizing cognitive effortFormed by learning defined rule or features (formal concept)SimpleComplexFormed as result of everyday experience (natural concept)PrototypesExemplars

8. Solving Problems and Making DecisionsProblem-solving strategiesTrial and errorAlgorithmsHeuristicsUseful heuristicsRecipes are often developed through a process of trial and error.

9. Insight and Intuition

10. A Demonstration of Insightful SolutionsProblem 1Six drinking glasses are lined up in a row. The first three are full of water, the last three are empty. By handling and moving only one glass, change the arrangement so that no full glass is next to another full one, and no empty glass is next to another empty one. Problem 2A man who lived in a small town married 20 different women in that same town. All of them are still living, and he never divorced any of them. Yet he broke no laws. How could he do this?

11. Obstacles to Solving Problems:Thinking Outside the BoxFunctional fixednessInvolves tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary wayMental set Refers to the tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the pastMay prevent seeing other possible solutions, especially in areas in which one is knowledgeable or well trained.Can sometimes suggest a useful heuristic

12. Overcoming Functional FixednessHere’s a classic problem for you to solve. You have two candles, some thumbtacks, and a box of matches. Using just these objects, try to figure out how to mount the candles on a wall.

13. Decision-Making Strategies

14. Estimating the Probability of Events: Decisions Involving UncertaintyThe Availability HeuristicProbability of an event is judged by how easily previous occurrences of that event can be recalled.The less accurately our memory of an event reflects the actual frequency of the event, the less accurate our estimate of the event’s likelihood will be.The availability heuristic is more likely to be used when people rely on information held in their long-term memory to determine the likelihood of events occurring.

15. Estimating the Probability of Events: Decisions Involving UncertaintyRepresentativeness heuristic refers to the likelihood of an event and estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event.Faulty estimates can be produced if:Possible prototype variations are not consideredApproximate number of existing prototypes are not considered.

16. The Persistence of Unwarranted Beliefs: Obstacles to Logical Thinking

17. Language Characteristics

18. The Effect of Language on PerceptionWhorfian HypothesisWhorf (1956): Language determines the very structure of thoughts and perceptions.Whorfian hypothesis also called the linguistic relativity hypothesis.Whorf’s strong contention that language determines perception and structure of thought has not been supported.Language use, however, has been found to influence particular concepts, as in mathematics.

19. Animal Communication and CognitionAnimals communicate with one another, but are they capable of mastering language?Bonobos, dolphins, and parrots can respond to spoken commands and questions but not nearly as well as humans.Birds and elephants can demonstrate cooperation, social status, and complex memories of the past.Researchers are interested in specific cognitive capabilities that have evolved in different species to help them best adapt to their ecological niche.Do you know how prairie dogs communicate?

20. Measuring IntelligenceIntelligenceGlobal capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environmentReflected in effective, rational, and goal-directed behavior

21. Development of Intelligence TestsAlfred Binet (1857–1911)Devised a series of tests, for the French government, to measure different mental abilities in schoolchildren Focused on elementary mental abilities, such as memory, attention, and the ability to understand similarities and differencesDeveloped goal to help identify “slow” children who could benefit from special helpInvented concept of mental age based on the average age at which questions were answered correctlyAlfred Binet(1857–1911)

22. An Interesting IronyAlfred BinetDid not believe that he was measuring an inborn or permanent level of intelligenceBelieved that intelligence was too complex a quality to describe with a single numberNoted that an individual’s score could vary from time to time What do you think?

23. Lewis Terman and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence TestTerman developed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales at Stanford UniversityHis test a revision of Binet’s testDeveloped the concept of IQ:IQ formula = MA/CA × 100Example: A bright child of a chronological age (CA) of 8 scores at a mental age (MA) of 12 for an IQ of 150.12/8 x 100 = 150

24. World War I and Group Intelligence TestingU.S. Army needed to develop mass testing option for millions of recruits.Two versionsArmy Alpha test was administered in writing.Army Beta test was administered orally to recruits and draftees who could not read.May have led to overuse of tests and discrimination

25. Testing Immigrants at Ellis IslandThis photograph, taken in 1917, shows an examiner at the U.S. immigration center at New York’s Ellis Island administering a mental test to a newly arrived immigrant.The new science of “mental testing” was used to argue for restrictions on immigration.

26. David Wechsler and Wechsler Intelligence ScalesDeveloped for adults: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Its several components included a verbal score and performance score.IQ calculated by comparing an individual’s score with scores of others in same general age groupDeveloped for kids: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)David Wechsler (1896–1981)

27. Does a High IQ Score Predict Success in Life?Terman followed children with IQs above 140After few years: Children socially well-adjusted, stronger, healthier, successful in schoolLater, personality factors seemed to account for subgroup differencesThe A group most successful; more goal-oriented, had greater perseverance, had greater self-confidenceThe C group less successful“[W]ith the exception of moral character, there is nothing as significant for a child’s future as his grade of intelligence.”—Lewis M. Terman (1916)

28. Principles of Test Construction:What Makes a Good Test?Many kinds of psychological tests measure various aspects of intelligence or mental ability.Achievement test: Test designed to measure a person’s level of knowledge, skill, or accomplishment in a particular area.Aptitude test: Test designed to assess a person’s capacity to benefit from education or training.

29. Basic Requirements of Good Test Design

30. The Normal Curve of Distribution of IQ Scores

31. The Nature of IntelligencePsychologists do not agree about the basic nature of intelligence, including whether it is a single, general ability, and whether it includes skills and talents, as well as mental aptitude.

32. Theories of IntelligenceSpearmanBelieved that a single factor (g) underlies many different kinds of mental abilitiesPosed that the level of intelligence was person’s equivalent to his or her level of “mental energy”Found that scores on different tests tended to be similarCharles Spearman (1863–1945)

33. Theories of IntelligenceThurstoneProposed seven different primary mental abilities, each relatively independent of intelligenceSuggested intelligence is cluster of abilitiesBelieved intelligence was too diverse to be quantified in a single number or IQ scoreLouis L. Thurstone (1887–1955)

34. Theories of IntelligenceGardnerMental abilities are independent of each other and cannot be accurately reflected in single measure of intelligenceLooked at skills and products valued in different culturesIdentified eight distinct, independent intelligences; ninth awaiting further research (existential intelligence)Howard Gardner and His Theory of MultipleIntelligences

35. Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesLinguistic intelligenceAdept use of language: poet, writer, public speaker, native storyteller Logical-mathematical intelligenceLogical, mathematical, and scientific ability: scientist, mathematician, navigator, surveyorMusical intelligence Ability to create, synthesize, or perform music: musician, composer, singer Spatial intelligence Ability to mentally visualize the relationships of objects or movements: sculptor, painter, expert chess player, architect Bodily-kinesthetic intelligenceControl of bodily motions and capacity to handle objects skillfully: athlete, dancer, craftspersonInterpersonal intelligence Understanding of other people’s emotions, motives, intentions: politician, salesperson, clinical psychologist Intrapersonal intelligence Understanding of one’s own emotions, motives, and intentions: essayist, philosopher Naturalist intelligence Ability to discern patterns in nature: ecologist, zoologist, botanist

36. Neurodiversity: Beyond IQNeurodiversityRefers to recognition that people with autistic spectrum symptoms process information, communicate, and experience their social and physical environment differently than neurotypical people who don’t have autistic symptomsIncludes advocates who view autism as a disability or a difference, not as a disorder or disease

37. Theories of IntelligenceSternbergUniversal aspects of intelligent behavior and importance of social and environmental adaptationProposed that successful intelligence involves three distinct types of mental abilities:AnalyticCreativePractical.Robert Sternberg

38. Roles of Genetics and Environment in Determining Intelligence

39. Twin StudiesIdentical twinsIdentical twins raised together have very similar IQ scores.Identical twins raised in separate homes have IQs that are slightly less similar than identical twins raised together, indicating the effect of different environments.Fraternal twinsFraternal twins raised together have IQs that are less similar than identical twins raised together, but they show more similarity in IQ scores than non-twin siblings raised together.

40. Genetics, Environment, and IQ Scores

41. Heredity and Environment

42. Differences Within Groups Versus Differences Between GroupsThe Two Pots AnalogyEach cornfield is planted from same package of genetically diverse seedsOne field is quite fertile, the other is notWithin each field, the differences are due to geneticsBetween each field, the differences are due to environment (fertility)Same point can be extended to the issue of average IQ differences between racial groups

43. The Two Pots Analogy

44. Remember…Unless the environmental conditions of two racial groups are virtually identical, it is impossible to estimate the overall genetic differences between two groups.

45. Differences Within Groups Versus Differences Between GroupsOther evidence for the importance of environment in determining IQ scoresImprovement in average IQ scores has occurred in several cultures and countries during the past few generations.14 nations have shown significant gains in average IQ scores in just one generation.Average IQ score in the U.S. has also steadily increased over the past century.Such changes in a population can be accounted for only by environmental changes.

46. Defying Centuries of DiscriminationOvert discrimination against the estimated 1 million Buraku people is technically illegal in Japan, yet they remain the poorest group in the country, and discrimination persists in employment, marriage, and other areas (Ikeda, 2001).

47. Cross-Cultural Studies of Group Discrimination and IQ DifferencesTests reflect the culture in which they are developed; cultural factors also influence test-behavior (culture bias).Butakinge rakumin of Japan are not racially different from other Japanese but have suffered from generations of discrimination; their average IQ scores are about 10 to 15 points below those of mainstream Japanese.Percentage of Children Scoring in a Given RangeRange of IQ Scores Non-Burakumin BurakuminAbove 125 23.32.6124–109 31.819.5108–93 23.322.192–77 11.718.2Below 76 9.937.6

48. Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased?ChallengesRely on white, middle-class cultural knowledge and valuesOther cultures unfamiliar with the white, middle-class cultureImpossible to design completely culture-free testDifferences in cultural test-taking behavior Differences in motivation, attitudes toward test taking, and previous experiences with tests

49. Enhancing Creative ThinkingCreativity can be defined as a group of cognitive processes used to generate useful, original, and novel ideas or solutions to problems.