1 Psychoanalytical Theories Psychosexual psychosocial 2 JEAN PIAGET AND COGNITIVE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 3 Interpersonal Theories Harry Sullivan HILDEGARD PEPLAU 4 Humanistic Theories ID: 582308
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Slide1
Theories of personality development.
1: Psychoanalytical Theories
Psychosexual
psychosocial
2: JEAN PIAGET AND COGNITIVE
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
3: Interpersonal Theories
Harry Sullivan
HILDEGARD PEPLAU
4: Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers.
5: Behavioral Theories
Ivan Pavlov
Skinner
6: Existential TheoriesSlide2
Theories of personality development
Many
theories attempt to explain human behavior,
health, and mental illness. Each theory suggests
how
normal development occurs based on the theorist’s
beliefs, assumptions, and view of the world. These
theories suggest strategies that the clinician can use
to work with clients. Many of the theories discussed
in this chapter were not based on empirical or
research
evidence; rather, they evolved from
individual experiences
and might more appropriately be called
conceptual models or frameworks.Slide3
1: Psychoanalytical TheoriesPsychosexual Theories of
SIGMUND FREUD:
THE FATHER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sigmund Freud (
1856–1939)
developed
psychoanalytic theory in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries in Vienna, where he spent most of his life.
Several other noted psychoanalysts and theorists
have contributed to this body of knowledge, but Freud
is its undisputed founder. Many clinicians and theorists
did not agree with much of Freud’s psychoanalytic
theory and later developed their own theories
and styles of treatment
.Slide4
Personality Components:
Id
, Ego, and Superego
.
Freud conceptualized personality structure as having
three components: id, ego, and superego.
The id is the
part of one’s nature that reflects basic or innate desires
such as pleasure-seeking behavior, aggression
,
and sexual impulses. The id seeks instant gratification;
causes impulsive, unthinking behavior; and has
no regard for rules or social
convention.
The superego
is the part of a person’s nature that reflects moral
and ethical concepts, values, and parental and social
expectations
; therefore,
it is in direct opposition to the
id. The third component, the ego, is the balancing or
mediating force between the id and the superego. The
ego represents mature and adaptive behavior that allows
a person to function successfully in the world.
Freud believed that anxiety resulted from the ego’s
attempts to balance the impulsive instincts of the id
with the stringent rules of the superego. The accompanying
drawing demonstrates the relationship of
these personality structures
.Slide5
Five Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud’s
based
his theory of childhood development on the belief
that sexual energy, termed
libido, was the driving
force of human behavior. He proposed that children
progress through five stages of psychosexual development:
1):oral
(birth to 18 months),
2): anal
(18 to 36
months)3): phallic
/oedipal (
3 to5
years),
4): latency
(5 to 11
or3)
13 years),
5): and
genital
(12-18 years
).
Psychopathology
results when a person
has difficulty making the transition from one stage to
the next, or when a person remains stalled at a particular
stage or regresses to an earlier stage. Freud’s open
discussion of sexual impulses, particularly in children,
was considered shocking for his timeSlide6
Trust vs. mistrust (infant)
Autonomy vs. shame and
doubt (toddler)
Initiative vs. guilt
(preschool)
Industry vs. inferiority
(school age)
Identity vs. role confusion(adolescence)Intimacy vs. isolation(young adult)Generativity vs. stagnation(middle adult)Ego integrity vs. despair(maturity)
ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a German-born psychoanalyst
who extended Freud’s work on personality development across the life span while focusing on social development as well as psychological development in the life stagesSlide7
1: Viewing the world as safe and reliable; relationships as
nurturing, stable, and dependable
2: Achieving a sense of control and free will
3: Beginning development of a conscience; learning to manage
conflict and anxiety
4: Emerging confidence in own abilities; taking pleasure in
Accomplishments
5: Formulating a sense of self and belonging6: Forming adult, loving relationships and meaningful attachments to others7: Being creative and productive; establishing the next generation
8: Accepting responsibility for one’s self and lifeSlide8
2: JEAN PIAGET AND COGNITIVESTAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) explored how intelligence
and cognitive functioning developed in children. He
believed that human intelligence progresses through
a series of stages based on age with the child at each
successive stage demonstrating a higher level of functioning
than at previous stages. In his schema, Piaget
strongly believed that biologic changes and maturationwere responsible for cognitive development.Slide9
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development areas follows:
1. Sensorimotor—birth to 2 years: The child
develops a sense of self as separate from the
environment and the concept of object permanence;
that is, tangible objects don’t cease
to exist just because they are out of sight. He
or she begins to
form mental images.2. Preoperational—2 to 6 years: The child developsthe ability to express self with language,understands the meaning of symbolic gestures,and begins to classify objects.3. Concrete operations—6 to 12 years: The
child begins to apply logic to thinking, understandsspatiality and reversibility, and is
increasingly social and able to apply rules;
however, thinking is still concrete.
4. Formal operations—12 to 15 years and beyond:
The child learns to think and reason
in abstract terms, further develops logical
thinking and reasoning, and achieves cognitive
maturity
.Slide10
3: Interpersonal Theories
HARRY STACK SULLIVAN: INTERPERSONAL
RELATIONSHIPS AND MILIEU THERAPY
Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949) was an
American psychiatrist who extended the theory of personality
development to include the significance of
interpersonal relationships.
Sullivan believed thatone’s personality involved more than individual characteristics,particularly how one interacted withothers. He thought that inadequate or nonsatisfyingrelationships produced anxiety, which he saw as thebasis for all emotional problems (Sullivan, 1953)
.Slide11
Five Life Stages. Sullivan established five life stages
of development (infancy, childhood, juvenile, preadolescence,
and adolescence), each focusing on various
interpersonal relationships
HILDEGARD PEPLAU: THERAPEUTIC
NURSE–PATIENT RELATIONSHIP
Hildegard Peplau (1909–1999) was a nursing
theorist and clinician who built on Sullivan’s interpersonaltheories and also saw the role of the nurseas a participant observer. Peplau developed the concept of the therapeutic nurse–patient relationship-Slide12
It includes four phases: orientation, identification,
exploitation, and resolution.
During these phases, the client accomplishes certain
tasks and the relationship changes that help the healing
process (Peplau, 1952).
1. The
orientation phase is directed by the
nurse and involves engaging the client intreatment, providing explanations and information,and answering questions.2. The identification phase begins when theclient works interdependently with the nurse,expresses feelings, and begins to feel stronger
.3. In the exploitation phase, the client makesfull use of the services offered.
4. In the
resolution phase, the client
no longer
needs professional services and gives up
dependent behavior
. The relationship ends.
Peplau’s concept of the nurse–client relationship,
with tasks and behaviors characteristic of each
stage, has been modified but remains in use todaySlide13
4: Humanistic Theories
Humanism represents a significant shift away from
the psychoanalytic view of the individual as a neurotic,
impulse-driven person with repressed psychic
problems and away from the focus on and examination
of the client’s past experiences.
Humanism
focuses on a person’s positive qualities, his or hercapacity to change (human potential), and the promotionof self-esteem. Humanists do consider the person’spast experiences, but they direct more attention toward the present and future.Slide14
Abraham Maslow (1921–1970) was an Americanpsychologist who studied the needs or motivations of
the individual
CARL ROGERS: CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was a humanistic American
psychologist who focused on the therapeutic relationship
and developed a new method of
client centeredtherapy. Rogers was one of the first to use theterm “client” rather than “patient.” Client-centeredtherapy focused on the role of the client, rather thanthe therapist, as the key to the healing process. Slide15Slide16
Rogers viewed the client as the expert on his orher life.
The therapist must promote the client’s self esteem
as much as possible through three central
concepts:
•
Unconditional positive regard—a nonjudgmental
caring for the client that is not
dependent on the client’s behavior• Genuineness—realness or congruence betweenwhat the therapist feels and what he or shesays to the client• Empathetic understanding—in which thetherapist senses the feelings and personalmeaning from the client and communicates
this understanding to the clientSlide17
5: Behavioral Theories
Behaviorism as a school of psychology grew out of
A reaction to introspection models that focused on the
contents and operations of the mind. Behaviorism is
a school of psychology that
focuses on observable behaviors
and what one can do externally to bring about
behavior changes. It does not attempt to explain howthe mind works.Slide18
IVAN PAVLOV: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Laboratory experiments with dogs provided the basis
for the development of Ivan Pavlov’s theory of classical
conditioning: behavior can be changed through
conditioning with external or environmental conditions
or stimuli. His experiment with dogs involved
his observation that dogs naturally began to salivate
(response) when they saw or smelled food (stimulus).Pavlov (1849–1936) set out to change this salivatingresponse or behavior through conditioning. He wouldring a bell (new stimulus) then produce the food, andthe dogs would salivate (the desired response). Pavlovrepeated this ringing of the bell along with the presentationof food many times. Eventually he couldring the bell and the dogs would salivate without seeing
or smelling food. The dogs had been “conditioned”or had learned a new response—to salivate whenthey heard the bell. Their behavior had been modified
through classical conditioning or a conditioned
response.Slide19
SKINNER: OPERANT CONDITIONINGOne of the most influential behaviorists was B. F.
Skinner (1904–1990), an American psychologist. He
developed the theory of operant conditioning,
which says
people learn their behavior from their
history or past experiences
, particularly those experiences
that were repeatedly reinforced.The following principles of operant conditioningdescribed by Skinner (1974) form the basis for behaviortechniques in use today:
1. All behavior is learned.2. Consequences result from behavior—broadly speaking, reward and punishment
3. Behavior that is rewarded with reinforcers
tends to recur
.Slide20
4. Positive reinforcers that follow a behaviorincrease the likelihood that the behavior
will recur.
5. Negative reinforcers that are removed after
a behavior increase the likelihood that the
behavior will recur.
6. Continuous reinforcement (a reward every
time the behavior occurs) is the fastest way
to increase that behavior, but the behaviorwill not last long after the reward ceases.7. Random, intermittent reinforcement (an occasionalreward for the desired behavior) isslower to produce an increase in behavior,but the behavior continues after the rewardceases.Slide21
These behavioral principles of rewarding or reinforcingbehaviors are used to help people change
their behavior in a therapy known as behavior modification.
Behavior modification
is a method of
attempting to strengthen a desired behavior or response
by reinforcement, either
positive or negative
.For example, if the desired behavior is assertiveness,whenever the client uses assertiveness skillsin a communication group, the group leader providespositive reinforcement by giving the client attentionand positive feedback. Negative reinforcementinvolves removing a stimulus immediately after a
behavior occurs so that the behavior is more likely tooccur again. For example, if a client becomes anxiouswhen waiting to talk in a group, he or she may volunteer
to speak first to avoid the anxiety
.Slide22
6: Existential TheoriesExistential theorists believe that behavioral deviations
result when a person is out of touch with himself
or herself or the environment. The person who is self alienated
is lonely and sad and feels helpless. Lack of
self-awareness, coupled with harsh self-criticism, prevents
the person from participating in satisfying relationships.
The person is not free to choose from all
possible alternatives because of self-imposed restrictions.Existential theorists believe that the person isavoiding personal responsibility and giving in to the wishes or demands of others.-Albert Ellis-Carl Roger
William Glasser