On e par t o f kn o win g th e meaning s o f l e x eme s i n a n y languag e is th e recognitio n tha t tw o o r mor ID: 550802
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Slide1
Lexical relations
On
e
par
t
o
f
kn
o
win
g
th
e
meaning
s
o
f
l
e
x
eme
s
i
n
a
n
y
languag
e
is th
e
recognitio
n
tha
t
tw
o
o
r
mor
e
l
e
x
eme
s
ma
y
h
a
v
e
som
e
semantic
relationship
:
fathe
r
an
d
mothe
r
,
fathe
r
an
d
son
;
fathe
r
an
d
paternal;
employe
r
an
d
employee
;
bi
g
an
d
la
r
g
e
;
bi
g
an
d
little
;
r
ed
,
yellow
an
d
blu
e
.
Eac
h
o
f
thes
e
set
s
sh
o
w
s
a
di
f
feren
t
relationship
.
T
w
o
of
thes
e
l
e
x
emes
,
employe
r
an
d
employe
e
,
ar
e
relate
d
formall
y
a
s
well
a
s
semantically
;
suc
h
morphologica
l
relation
s
ar
e
th
e
topi
c
o
f
Chapter
13
.
Th
e
presen
t
chapte
r
deal
s
wit
h
semanti
c
relation
s
tha
t
h
a
v
e
no forma
l
similarit
y.Slide2
W
e
conside
r
t
w
o
approache
s
t
o
th
e
descriptio
n
o
f
l
e
xica
l
relations,
semanti
c
f
iel
d
theor
y
an
d
trut
h
conditiona
l
semantics
.
Fiel
d
theory
i
s
a
n
attemp
t
t
o
classif
y
l
e
x
eme
s
accordin
g
t
o
share
d
an
d
di
f
ferentiating
features
.
F
o
r
e
xample
,
wasp
,
hornet
,
be
e
an
d
othe
r
item
s
denote
‘flying
,
stingin
g
insects’
;
mot
h
an
d
housefl
y,
amon
g
others
,
denote
insect
s
tha
t
fl
y
b
u
t
d
o
no
t
sting
;
an
t
an
d
termit
e
ar
e
name
s
o
f
insects
tha
t
neithe
r
fl
y
no
r
sting
.
(An
d
wha
t
di
f
ferentiate
s
w
asp
,
hornet an
d
be
e
fro
m
on
e
another
?
Wha
t
di
f
ferentiate
s
insect
s
fro
m
other
l
i
vin
g
things?
)
Slide3
T
rut
h
conditiona
l
semantic
s
studie
s
l
e
xica
l
relation
s
b
y
comparing
predication
s
tha
t
ca
n
b
e
mad
e
abou
t
th
e
sam
e
referrin
g
e
xpression. It
s
tas
k
i
s
t
o
accoun
t
fo
r
th
e
meanin
g
relation
s
betwee
n
di
f
ferent
e
xpressions
in
a
language.
Three
such
relations
are
entailment,
paraphrase
an
d
contradictio
n
.
Slide4
Entailmen
t
i
s
th
e
relatio
n
betwee
n
t
wo
propositions—
let’
s
labe
l
the
m
‘p
’
an
d
‘q’—suc
h
tha
t
i
f
p
i
s
true
,
q
mus
t
als
o
be true
,
b
u
t
i
f
q
i
s
true
,
i
t
doe
s
no
t
necessaril
y
foll
o
w
tha
t
p
i
s
true
.
I
f
it
i
s
tru
e
tha
t
m
y
neckti
e
i
s
(entirely
)
maroon
,
i
s
i
t
tru
e
tha
t
m
y
necktie
i
s
red
?
I
f
i
t
i
s
tru
e
tha
t
m
y
neckti
e
i
s
red
,
i
s
i
t
tru
e
tha
t
m
y
neckti
e
is maroon
?
P
araphras
e
i
s
th
e
relatio
n
betwee
n
t
w
o
propositions
,
p
and q
,
suc
h
tha
t
i
f
eithe
r
i
s
true
,
th
e
othe
r
i
s
necessaril
y
tru
e
also
,
an
d
if eithe
r
i
s
f
alse
,
th
e
othe
r
i
s
false
.
Slide5
I
f
i
t
i
s
tru
e
tha
t
m
y
neckti
e
w
a
s
cheap
,
i
s
i
t
tru
e
o
r
f
als
e
tha
t
m
y
neckti
e
wa
s
in
e
xpens
i
v
e
?
I
f
i
t
is
tru
e
tha
t
m
y
neckti
e
w
a
s
inexpens
i
v
e
,
i
s
i
t
tru
e
o
r
f
als
e
tha
t
m
y
necktie
w
a
s
cheap
?
Contradictio
n
i
s
th
e
relatio
n
betwee
n
tw
o
propositions
suc
h
tha
t
i
f
eithe
r
i
s
true
,
th
e
othe
r
i
s
necessaril
y
f
alse
.
I
f
m
y
necktie
w
a
s
cheap
,
i
s
i
t
tru
e
o
r
fals
e
tha
t
m
y
neckti
e
w
a
s
e
xpens
i
v
e
?
I
f
it
w
a
s
e
xpens
i
v
e
,
w
a
s
i
t
cheap?Slide6
L
e
xical
fields
’
A
l
e
x
em
e can be defined
b
y
tellin
g
wha
t
‘set
’
it belong
s
t
o
an
d
h
o
w
i
t
di
f
fer
s
fro
m
othe
r
member
s
o
f
th
e
sam
e
set. Som
e
o
b
viou
s
set
s
o
f
thi
s
sor
t
ar
e
sport
s
(
tennis
,
badminton
,
golf, socce
r
,
bas
k
etball
…
)
,
creat
i
v
e
writing
s
(
poem
,
n
o
vel
,
shor
t
stor
y
,
bi
o
g
r
aph
y
,
essay
…
)
,
manua
l
occupation
s
(
electrician
,
plumbe
r
,
welde
r
,
carpente
r
,
painter
…
)
,
color
s
(
r
ed
,
blue
,
bla
c
k
,
g
r
een
,
yello
w
…
)
.
It
i
s
no
t
di
f
f
icul
t
t
o
sa
y
wha
t
th
e
member
s
o
f
eac
h
se
t
h
a
v
e
i
n
common. Slide7
Som
e
l
e
xica
l
set
s
i
n
v
ol
v
e
part-whol
e
relationship
s
(
ar
m
includes
hand
,
whic
h
include
s
f
in
g
e
r
an
d
thum
b
)
.
Th
e
se
t
second-minute- hou
r
-da
y
i
s
a
part-whol
e
relationshi
p
tha
t
i
s
als
o
hierarchical.
Som
e
set
s
ar
e
sequentia
l
(number
s
one
,
two
,
th
r
e
e
etc.
)
o
r
c
yclical
(
J
anuar
y
,
F
ebruar
y
,
etc.
;
Sunda
y
,
Monda
y
,
etc.
;
spring
,
summe
r
,
autumn
,
winte
r
).
Som
e
sets
,
mostl
y
smal
l
ones
,
for
m
paradigms
.
Th
e
w
ord
s
man,
woman
,
bo
y
an
d
girl
,
al
l
denotin
g
humans
,
ar
e
interrelate
d
thi
s
way:
Male
Female
Adult man woman
Child boy girlSlide8
The
paradig
m
sh
o
w
s
that
l
e
x
eme
s
ar
e
systematicall
y
related
.
De
f
inition
s
ca
n
b
e
mad
e
som
e
what
mor
e
sophisticate
d
throug
h
binar
y
features
;
instea
d
o
f
[male
]
and [female
]
th
e
label
s
ca
n
b
e
[+male
]
an
d
[-male
]
(o
r
[-female
]
and
[+female])
,
an
d
instea
d
o
f
[adult
]
an
d
[child
]
w
e
ma
y
h
a
v
e
[+adult]
an
d
[-adult
]
(o
r
[-child
]
an
d
[+child])
.
Bu
t
th
e
notio
n
o
f
binarity
raise
s
problems
:
ca
n
al
l
contrast
s
b
e
e
xpresse
d
a
s
pairs
,
Y
e
s
v
ersus No
?
I
n
thi
s
cas
e
w
e
ma
y
accep
t
tha
t
human
s
ar
e
eithe
r
mal
e
or
female
;
s
e
x
i
s
a
biologica
l
distinctio
n
an
d
clearl
y
binar
y
.
Age
,
h
o
w
e
v
e
r
,
i
s
a
continuum
,
an
d
th
e
distinction
s
w
e
recogniz
e
ar
e
partl
y
biological
an
d
partl
y
social
.
Bein
g
social
,
th
e
y
ar
e
arbitrar
y.
Not
e
tha
t
English
ha
s
a
l
e
x
em
e
adolescent
,
whic
h
i
s
[-adult
]
an
d
[-child]
,
b
u
t
there ar
e
n
o
Englis
h
term
s
fo
r
mal
e
adolescen
t
an
d
femal
e
adolescent
e
xcep
t
bo
y
an
d
girl
.Slide9
componentia
l
analysi
s
All lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic features or semantic components which may be universal. This semantic theory is called Componential Analysis (CA).
CA is defined as a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. It believes that
the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components called semantic features.
let’
s
consider
thes
e
nouns:
stoo
l
chai
r
benc
h
so
f
a
Thes
e
h
a
v
e
i
n
commo
n
a
componen
t
[piec
e
o
f
furniture
]
tha
t
i
s
also share
d
b
y
,
fo
r
e
xample
,
tabl
e
,
b
u
t
no
t
b
y
doo
r
.
Th
e
y
als
o
shar
e
a
componen
t
[furnitur
e
fo
r
sitting]
,
whic
h
tabl
e
doe
s
no
t
share
.
A
bette
r
candidat
e
fo
r
a
di
f
ferentiatin
g
featur
e
is [h
a
vin
g
upholstery]
;
a
so
f
a
mus
t
b
e
[+upholstery
]
an
d
a
benc
h
i
s
[-
upholstery]
.
th
e
de
f
initio
n
o
f
a
l
e
x
em
e
withi
n
a
se
t
o
r
f
iel
d
require
s
u
s
to not
e
wha
t
featur
e
o
r
feature
s
distinguis
h
i
t
fro
m
othe
r
member
s
of
th
e
se
t
o
r
f
iel
d
an
d
wha
t
feature
s
ar
e
jus
t
‘there,
’
no
t
distinct
i
v
e
.
Slide10
Kinship
Kinship
systems make an interesting area for componential analysis. Kinship is universal since all humans are related to other humans through blood ties and through marriage, but kinship systems differ from society to society. A relationship is a kind of predicate. Sentences such as Harold is Alice’s father and Rose is Jerry’s sister have a propositional content that we represent this way:
Theme Predicate Associate
Harold father-of Alice
Rose sister-of JerrySlide11
Some of the predicate relations in all kinship systems can be described with four primitive features: [parent], [offspring], [sibling] and [spouse]. We also need the components [male] and [female], of course, which we will indicate as M and F, respectively. Combining M and F with the four basic features gives definitions of eight predicates: father=M parent, mother=F parent, brother=M sibling, sister=F sibling, son=M offspring, daughter=F offspring, husband
=M spouse, wife=F spouse.
Other relations are defined by combinations of features: grandmother=parent’s F parent, grandfather=parent’s M parent, granddaughter=offspring’s F offspring, grandson=offspring’s M offspringSlide12
Advantage of CA:
CA allows a highly explicit and economical account of meaning relations such as
hyponymy
and
incompatibility
.
Woman: + HUAMN +ADULT + FEMALE
Spinster: +HUMAN +ADULT +FEMALE -MARRIEDSlide13
Bachelor: +HUAMN +ADULT +MALE -MARRIED
Spinster: +HUMAN +ADULT -MALE -MARRIED
Wife: +HUMAN +ADULT -MALE + MARRIED
Thus,
spinster
is incompatible with bachelor by contrast of gender specification; and with
wife
by the marital specification.Slide14
5.3.5 Semantic relationships between words
Homonymy
Polysemy
Synonymy
Antonymy
Hyponymy
MeronymySlide15
Hyponymy
B. Definition of
Hyponymy
Hyponymy
is a sense relation in semantics that serves to relate word concepts in a hierarchical fashion. Hyponymy is a relation between two words in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word. The lexical relation corresponding to the inclusion of one class in another is hyponymy. Examples are : apple- fruit ; car- vehicles ; tool-
furntiture ; cow - animal.
The
more specific concept is known as the hyponym, and the more general concept is known
as the
hypernym
or
superordinate. Apple is the hyponym and fruit is the superordinate /
hypernymy
. Hyponymy is not restricted to objects, abstract concepts, or nouns. It can be identified in many other areas of the lexicon
.
E.g
: a. the verb cook has many hyponyms.Slide16
Word: Cook
Hyponyms: Roast, boil, fry, grill, bake.
b. the verb
colour
has many hyponyms
Word:
colourHyponyms: blue, red, yellow, green, black and purpleHyponymy involves the logical relationship of entailment. Example : ‘There is a horse’ entails that ‘There is an animal”. Hyponymy often functions In discourse as a means of lexical cohesion by establishing referential equivalence to avoid repetition.Slide17
SOME WORDS HAVE A MORE GENERAL MEANING, WHILE OTHERS HAVE A MORE SPECIFIC MEANING, WHILE REFERRING TO THE SAME ENTITY.
e.g.
tree
and
oak
oak
is a more specific object than
tree
.
tree
may be used to refer to objects that are not oaks, but which share with them the essential features of “
treeness
” (e.g. large plants, with trunk, branches, leaves,
etc
)
the term
oak
is the hyponym of
tree
, and the term
tree
is the superordinate of
oak
.
Hyponym is a word whose referent is included in the
referent of a more general wordSlide18
ENTAILMENT
Consider these pairs of sentences:
1a Rover is a collie
1b Rover is a dog
2a There are tulips in the vase
2b There are flowers in the vase
THE TRUTH RELATIONSHIP:
a b
b
a
T
T
T
?
F ? F
F
3a There is a tennis in the court
3b There is a game in the courtSlide19
Notes:
1) There are co-hyponym without a
superordinate.
e.g. a knife, a fork, a spoon
2) This is an instance of a lexical gap
(see
Kreidler
1998, 94-95)Slide20
homonymy
word
Homonym has been derived from Greek term '
Homoios
' which means identical and '
onoma
' means name. So, Homonymy is a relation that holds between two lexemes that have the same form but unrelated meanings. Homonyms are the words that have same phonetic form (homophones) or orthographic form (homographs) but different unrelated meanings. The ambiguous word whose different senses are far apart from each other and are not obviously related to each other in any way is called as Homonymy. Words like tale and tail are homonyms. There is no conceptual connection between its two meanings.
For example the word ‘bear’, as a verb means ‘to carry’ and as a noun it means ‘large animal
’.
An
example of homonym which is both homophone and homograph is the word ‘fluke’. Fluke is a fish as well as a flatworm. Other examples are bank, an anchor, and so on
.
Homophony - Homophony is the case where two words are pronounced identically but they have different written forms. They sound alike but are written differently and often have different meanings. For example: no-know, led-lead, would-wood
.
Homograph - Homograph is a word which is spelled the same as another word and might be pronounced the same or differently but which has a different. For example, Bear-bear ; Read-read
.
When homonyms are spelled the same they are homographs but not all homonyms are homographs
. Slide21
Polysemy
A
polyseme
the phenomenon of having or being open to several or many
meanings.When
a word has several very closely related senses or
meanings.Polysemous word is a word having two or more meanings. For example, foot in : - He hurt his foot ; - She stood at the foot of the stairs
.
A well-known problem in semantics is how to decide whether we are dealing with a single
polysemous
word or with two or more homonyms.
F.R.Palmer
concluded saying that finally multiplicity of meaning is a very general characteristic of
language.Polysemy
is used in semantics and lexical analysis to describe the word with multiple
meanings.Crystal
and Dick
Hebdige
(1979) also defined
polysemy.Lexical
ambiguity depends
upon homonymy
and polysemy
.
The difference between homonyms and
polysemes
is subtle
. Lexicographers define
polysemes
within a single dictionary lemma, numbering different meanings, while homonyms are treated in separate
lemmata
. Semantic shift can separate a
polysemous
word into separate homonyms. For example, check as in "bank check" (or
Cheque
) , check in chess, and check meaning "verification" are considered homonyms, while they originated as a single word derived from chess in the 14th century.Slide22
Antonymy
1. Antonyms are opposite in meaning.
if one is true, the other must be false
e.g.
The television is on now
The television is off now.
big vs. small
2. The meaning—like
big
, is very much dependent on the topics they are associated with: a big rat is not as big as small elephant. Slide23
BINARY AND NON-BINARY ANTONYMS
1. BINARY ANTONYMS
THERE IS NO MIDDLE GROUND
e.g. On Vs. Off
An electric light is on/off.
2. NON-BINARY ANTONYMS
THERE ARE OPPOSITE ENDS OF A
SCALE THAT INCLUDES VARIOUS
INTERMEDIATE TERMS
e.g. Old Vs. Young
Mr. Jones is very old. Slide24
3. Non-binary antonyms can easily be
modified:
e.g. very old, rather young
4. But, it is also a fact that binary antonyms can be modified:
e.g. quite dead, wide open
5. Non-binary adjectives are gradable.
e.g. very long, rather short
6. Binary adjectives are considered
ungradable
though the expression “someone is too asleep.” is meaningful. Slide25
CONVERSE ANTONYMS
1. CONVERSE ANTONYMS
TWO LEXEMES SO RELATED THAT EITHER ONE PRESUPPOSE THE OTHER.
e.g. If A gives X to B, B receives X
from A
2.Converseness is a kind of
antonymy
between two terms.