ContentslistsavailableatjournalhomepageIntJHumanComputerStudies10715819seefrontmatter2013ElsevierLtdAllrightsreservedCorrespondingauthorTel441904325674EmailaddressespaulcairnsyorkacukPCairnsannac ID: 887812
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1 Whobutnotwhere:Theeffectofsocialplayonim
Whobutnotwhere:TheeffectofsocialplayonimmersionindigitalgamesPaulCairns,AnnaL.Cox,MatthewDay,HayleyMartin,ThomasPerrymanDepartmentofComputerScience,UniversityofYork,DeramoreLane,YorkYO105GH,UKUCLInteractionCentre,MPEB8thFloor,UniversityCollegeLondon,LondonWC1E6BT,UKarticleinfoArticlehistory: Contentslistsavailableatjournalhomepage:Int.J.Human-ComputerStudies1071-5819/$-seefrontmatter2013ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. Correspondingauthor.Tel.:441904325674.E-mailaddresses:paul.cairns@york.ac.uk(P.Cairns)anna.cox@ucl.ac.uk(A.L.Cox) Int.J.Human-ComputerStudies71(2013)10691077 aroundyouor,ifonline,thosenotintrinsicallyinandofthegame.Thus,thepresenceofrealothersinagamecanbeseenassomethingofadistractionorinterruptiontoanindividual'simmersiveexperience.Thisargumentpresupposesthatanyinter-actionwithanotherpersonisextrinsictothegame.Butitissimpletosee,forinstance,inagameof(realworld)tennis,withouttheinteractionofoneplayerwithanotherplayer,therewouldnotbemuchgamingexperienceatall.Similarly,withdigitalgames,whenplayingwithoragainstotherplayers,someinteractionsmaybeintrinsictothegameandthereforebecrucialtotheexperienceofthegame.Ofcourse,itmaybethatinteractionsincreaseenjoy-mentofthegamebutdecreaseimmersion.Oritmayalsobethattheotherplayersinsomesensebecomepartofthegameandinteractionwiththemincreasestheimmersioninthegame.Thispaperthereforeaddressesthequestionofhowsocialplayuencestheimmersiveexperienceofplayingdigitalgames.Wedescribethreestudiestoinvestigatetherelationshipbetweensocialplayandimmersion.Thestartingpointis:doessocialplaypositivelyornegativelyinuencetheimmersiveexperience?Therststudy,buildingonastudyinGajadharetal.(2008b),usedavariantofthegamePongandlookedatimmersionacrossthreeconditionswhenpeoplethinktheyareplayingagainstacomputeropponent(butwhowasactuallyaperson),againstahumanopponentonlineoragainstahumanopponentinthesameroom.Contrarytothepreviouslyreportedviewsintheliterature,itseemsimmersiondoesincreasewhenplayersplayotherpeoplebut,inthiscase,whereplayersarelocateddoesnothaveanyfurthereffectonimmersion.However,thegameusedinthisstudywasarelativelyold-fashionedgameandmoreovertheparticipantsweredeceivedaboutthenatureoftheonlineopponents.Thesecondstudythereforemanipulatedonlythecomputervsonlinehumanaspectofthegameforacommercialgame,MidtownMadness2andmaintainedthesocialcontextoftheplayers.Againitwasfoundthatplayingagainstpeopleismoreimmersivethanplayingcomputers.Itissomewhatsurprisingthatdespitethesubstantialchangeinsocialpresencebetweenthethreeconditionsoftherstexperi-ment,therewasonlyaslightchangeinimmersioninthemovefromonlinetoco-locatedplay.ThethirdexperimentthereforeexaminesthisfurtherwithalargersampleandanothermodernWiiMarioKart.Again,itwasfoundthatthereisnomean-ingfuldifferenceinimmersionbetweenonlineandco-locatedplay.Thisiseventhecasewhentakingintoaccountwhetherplayingpartnerswerefriendsorstrangers.Despitethedifferentgameswithdifferenttypesofsocialplay,aconsistentpictureemergeswithimmersionincreasingfromindi-vidualplaytoplayingagainstanotherpersonbutnosignidifferencebetweenwhethertheotherpersonwasonlineorco-located.Thiscontradictstheargumentmadebyothersagainstsocialplayreducingimmersion(ErmiandMäyrä,2005SweetserandWyeth,2005)andsuggeststhat,inallsocialcontexts,immersionisanimportantaspectofthegamingexperience.2.ImmersionandpresenceindigitalgamesThereareundoubtedlymanyaspectstotheexperiencethatplayerscanhavewhenplayingdigitalgames.Whilsttheprimaryexperiencethatissoughtisclearlyfunorenjoyment,therecanbemanyotherexperienceshadalongthewayincludingexcitement,surprises,frustration,anticipationandwinning.Oneexperiencethoughisconsistentlyreportedbygamersandreviewersofgames,thatofimmersion(BrownandCairns,2004).Thisisthesenseofinthegamebywhichismeantbeingwhollyinvolvedorabsorbedintheactivityofplayingtotheneglectoftherealworldaroundtheplayer.rstglance,immersionmighteasilybeconfusedwiththesenseofpresence(LombardandDitton,1997).Presenceisacomplextermthatisintendedtoaddressthefeelingthatpeoplehavewheninteractingwithmedia,particularlyvirtualenviron-ments,thatinsomesensetheyare(present)inthemedium.Thisissometimesdescribedastheillusionofnon-mediation,thatis,peopleareexperiencinginteractionsmediatedviaadigitalmed-iumasiftheywerenotmediated.However,thereissubstantialdebatearoundthisbecauseitthenbegsthequestionofwhatitisliketoexperiencethingsunmediated.Floridi(2005)suggeststhatitisbettertothinkofpresencenotasafailuretoperceivemediationbutastheabilitytohaveanobservableeffectonthemediatedenvironment.Thisthenmakesitclearthattherecanbedifferenttypesofpresencedependingontheeffectsthatapersonisabletohave.ThiswasalreadynotedbyLombardandDitton(1997)madeamajordivisionofthetypesofpresenceintospatialandsocialpresence.Spatialpresence(Wirthetal.,2007)isessentiallythesenseofbeingphysicallylocatedwithinavirtualenvironment.Manygames,suchasrstpersonshooters,allowplayerstofeelphysicallylocatedwithinthegameworldbecausethegamegivesthemabilitytonavigatethroughthegameworldandforthemtohaveaneffectonthegameworld(ortheirtools,forexample,guns)inthewaythatrealobjectswouldinteract.Socialpresence,bycontrast,iswhenthereareactionsthathavesocialmeaningsuchasbeingabletotalktootherplayersorthegamesimulatingsocialactorswhocanaffectyourmoodandyouractionsasaresponsetothesocialsituation.Thatis,socialpresenceisthesenseofbeingandinteractingwithothers.Thoughitmaymakesensetosayofbothtypesofpresencethataplayerisinthegame,thisisnotthesenseintendedforimmersion.Immersionisacognitiveexperiencewhereinthethoughtsofth
2 eplayerarewhollyabsorbedintheactionwithi
eplayerarewhollyabsorbedintheactionwithinthegame.Thus,immersionistypicallycharacterisedasinvolvingalossofawarenessoftheplayer'ssurroundings,alossofasenseoftime,totalinvolvementinthegameandastrongsenseofcontrolandchallengewithinthegame(Jennettetal.,2008).However,thereareotheraspectsofimmersionthatmaybeincludedasimportantforimmersionbutthereislessconsensusaboutthese.ErmiandMäyrä(2005)breakimmersiondownintothreetypes,sensory,challengeandimaginativeimmersion(SCI).Sensoryimmersionhasmuchinkeepingwithspatialpresencewhereastheothertwocorrespondmoretothecognitiveandemotionalsenseofimmersion.Qinetal.(2009)alsoaddtoimmersiontheimportanceofthenarrativeofacomputergameforimmersion.Whilstsomegamescanbesaidtohavestrongstory,forinstanceLegendofZelda:SpiritTracks,therelationshipoftheplayertothenarrativecanbequitecomplex(Ryan,2001)anditisarguablewhetherevengameswithaclearbackstorycanbesaidtohaveagoodnarrative.Qinetal.(2009)furtherclaimthatanygamecanbesaidtohaveanarrativeanditisthiswhichcausesimmersion.However,thisseemstobestretchingthenotiontoofar:whatexactlyisthenarrativebehindTetris?Brockmyeretal.(2009)lookedspecicallyatplayersmentparticularlywithviolentgames.There,engagementwasbrokendownintoimmersion,presence,absorptionandowbuttheirinterpretationsofthesetermsdifferfromotherliteratureinthisarea.Nonetheless,thereisasubstantialconceptualoverlapwiththeotherformulationsofimmersion.Immersionhasalsobeenconsideredwithinthewidercontextofthegeneralgamingexperience.Mostnotably,theEUfundedFUGAprojectdevelopedtheGameExperienceQuestionnaire(GEQ)whichcoveredarangeofelementsofthegamingexperi-enceincluding:thethreeSCIaspectsofimmersion;tension;emotionaloutcomeandcompetencewhilstplaying;andalsotheexperientialoutcomesofplayingtakingintoaccounttheeffectofP.Cairnsetal./Int.J.Human-ComputerStudies71(2013)106910771070 socialpresence.Unfortunately,theGEQanditsvalidationhasnotbeenpublishedinitsentiretyexceptforoverviewarticles,IJsselsteijnetal.(2007),andanarticledescribingthesocialpresencemoduleoftheGEQ(deKortetal.,2007bItshouldalsobenotedthatseveralapproachestostudyingthegamingexperienceconsiderowtobeanimportantpartoftheexperience(Chen,2007).Flowisconsideredtobeanoptimalpsychologicalexperiencewhereapersoniswhollyabsorbedintheactivitythattheyaredoing(Csikszentmihalyi,1990).Atypicalexamplemightbeanathletewhoisinthezone.Howevertheuseofowingamesseemstocomefromarathersuperinterpretationofowswappingitfortheallornothing,exhilaratingexperienceforsomethingthatcanbepartiallyexperi-encedandplacedonaLikertscalesothatpeoplecanbeabitinow.Thismakeslittlesensewiththetraditionalunderstandingofow:howwouldanathletebeconsideredtobeabitinthe?Inourunderstandingofimmersion,owcorrespondstotheextremeendofimmersionwhereapersonissoimmersedinthegamethattheyenteraowstate.Thisissupportedbyplayersreportsoftheirexperiencesanditshouldbenotedthatplayersalsoreportedthatthistotalimmersionwaseetinganddenitelynotthemostconsistentexperienceofplaying(BrownandCairns,2004).ItshouldalsobenotedthattheconceptofGameFlowappearstotalkaboutowexperiencesofgamers(SweetserandWyeth,2005)butitisinfactaframeworkforanalysinggamesandsaysnothingoftheactualexperienceshadbygamers.Whenitcomestostudyingthegamingexperiences,itispossibletotakeaholisticviewontheexperienceasitiswithallexperiencesaroundtechnology(McCarthyandWright,2007However,whilstthismayaddresstheindividualexperiencesgamershavewhilstplaying,itmakesithardtocompareexperi-encesandmakecausalassociationsbetweenelementsofthegameandtheexperienceshadbyplayers.Theapproachestoimmersiontherefore,onthewhole,operationalisetheanalyticalunderstand-ingofimmersionintheformofquestionnairesthatcanbeadministeredafterorduringthegamingsessionunderastudy.Unfortunately,theSCIquestionnaire(ErmiandMäyrä,2005)hasneverbeenpublishedandtheGEQhasnotbeenfullypublished.Inthestudiesreportedhere,wehavethereforeusedtheImmersiveExperienceQuestionnaire(IEQ)ofJennettetal.(2008)Inbrief,theIEQconsistsof31questionsscoreonavepointLikertscale.TheImmersionscoreisbasedonsummingtheanswerstoeachitem(havingreverse-scored6oftheitems).ThusIEQimmersionscoresrangefrom31to155andcanbeunderstoodasaunidimensionalscale.Theitemsrangeoveravarietyofaspectsthatcouldbesaidtoconstituteanimmersiveexperienceandsofactorintovecomponents:cognitiveinvolvement(9items)whichistheexperienceoffocusingonthegame;emotionalinvolvement(6items)whichisthestrengthoffeelingsexperiencedwhilstplaying;realworlddissociation(7items)whichisthesenseoflosingawarenessoftheworldaroundyouandincreasedawarenessofthegame;challenge(4items)whichistheexperienceofbeingchallengedbythegame;control(5items)whichistheextenttowhichtheplayerfeltincontrolwhilstplaying.Thoughthesecanbeconsideredseparately,theydocorrelateandarebetterunderstoodasameanstoanalysewhichcomponentsofimmersionareimportantinaparticularexperience.Aswellasbeingfoundedonqualitativestudiesofgamingexperience(BrownandCairns,2004theIEQhassubsequentlyhadgoodempiricalvalidationinstudiesrelatingimmersiontoattention(Jennettetal.,2009),addictionSeahandCairns,2008),timeperception(SandersandCairns,2010andeye-movements(Coxetal.,2006).ThequestionnairesofQinetal.(2009)andBrockmyeretal.(2009),beingrelativelynewer,havenothadthetimetobuildupthislevelofextensiveusewhichwouldcontributetoboththeunderstandingofimmersionbutalsotothevalidationofthequestionnaires.3.TheroleofsocialplayingamesInstarkcontrasttoearlyportrayalswhichoftendepictedgamersassociallyisolatedindividualswithalackofsocialskillsBryceandRutter,2003),itisnowarguedthatplayingcomputerg
3 amesismuchmoreofasocialactivitythanorigi
amesismuchmoreofasocialactivitythanoriginallyperceiveddeKortetal.,2007b).Ithasbeenarguedthatgamingprovidessocialopportunitiessimilartothoseofferedbyotherleisureactivities(BryceandRutter,2003)andthatco-locatedplayisapastimewhichpromotesandprovidestheopportunityforsocialinteractionbetweenfamilyandfriendsmuchliketraditionalboardgames(DurkinandBarber,2002).Observationsofgamersintheirhomeshaveshownthatco-operativeplayandsocialinteractionoccureveningameswhicharedesignedonlyforsingleplayers.Thisillustratesthatpeoplenotonlyenjoyplayinggameswithothersbutalsoenjoytheconversationalaspectandthepresenceofacrowd(deKortandIJsselsteijn,2008Inadditiontothehomeenvironment,earlyresearchshowedthatarcadegamingwasanimportantpastimeforyoungpeopleandaplacewherefriendshipsformedanddeveloped(Selnow,1984).Morerecentresearchintotheimpactwhichgaminghasonthesociallivesofchildrenhasshownthatthosewhofrequentlyplaydigitalgameshavemoresocialcontactcomparedwithnon-gamers(Bonnafont,1992)andsocialisemorewithfriendsoutsideofschoolhours(Colwelletal.,1995Themostconspicuousformofsocialgamingisthemassivelymultiplayeronlinegames(MMOGs)wheresocialplayisnotmerelyanoptionbutanessentialcomponentofthegame.BryceandRutter(2003)arguethatsuchmediatedgaminghasledtothedevelopmentofnewrelationshipsbetweenstrangersandanewtypeofonlinefriendship.OnlinegamingcommunitiesofferedbyMMOGshavepromotedthedevelopmentofsuchfriendships.thsetal.(2004)foundthatthemostpopularfeatureofMMOGsamongadultsandadolescentswasthesocialaspectofplay.Andfromthegamedesignersperspective,thesocialaspectofthegameleadstoplayersfeelingobligedfromsocialpressuretoplaythegamemoreoften(Duchenautetal.,2006ManyothergamesalsooffersocialplayasanimportantsellingpointofthegameforexampletheCallofDutyLittleBigNeedforSpeedseriesandsoon.deKortetal.(2007a)thatdigitalgamingprovidesasettingforinteractionwithothersinbothco-locatedanddistant(online)settingsandshouldthereforeberegardedasasocialpresencetechnology.Thatis,digitalgamingisatechnologythatallowspeopletofeelasiftheyareinbettersocialconnectionwitheachother.Theybelievethattheexperi-enceofdigitalgamingisshapedjustasmuchbythesocialsettinginwhichittakesplaceasitisbythegameitself,andthatcurrentmodelsandtheoriesshouldbeadaptedtoensurethatthesocialaspectsofgamingareaccuratelyrepresentedandrecognisedashavingmorethanjustamarginalroleinshapingthegamingexperience.Buildingonthis,thesameteamdevelopedtheSocialPresenceinGamingQuestionnaire(SPGQ)(deKortetal.,2007b).ThiscanbeconsideredasamoduleoftheGEQ,ttingwiththeconceptionofsocialaspectsasanotherconstituentpartofthegamingexperi-ence.However,italsofunctionsasastand-alonequestionnairebywhichtounderstandplayerssocialexperiences.SocialpresencewithintheSPGQconsistsof17itemsscoredonaLikertscalefrom0to4.Theitemsaredividedintothreedistinctbutweaklycorrelatedcomponents:PsychologicalInvolvementEmpathy(PI-E),6items,thesenseoffeelingtobeinthesameenjoyablesituationastheotherplayers;PsychologicalInvolvementNegativeFeelings(PI-NF),5items,whichisbasicallytheextenttowhichplayerswerecompetitiveandaggressivetootherplayers;andBehaviouralEngagement(BE),6items,beingthedegreeoffeelingthattheotherplayerswereinuencingthegame.BecauseP.Cairnsetal./Int.J.Human-ComputerStudies71(2013)106910771071 ofthedifferentnumbersofitemsinthescale,thescoreoneachscaleisgivenasthemeanscoreontheitemsofthescalesothateachscalerangesfrom0to4.Gajadharetal.(2008b)lookedattheeffectofsocialpresenceonaspectsofthegamingexperience.ThegameplayedwasWoodPong,amoremodernvariantoftheclassictennisgame.PlayersplayedagainsteachotherinpairsandthemanipulationwaswhetherplayersthoughttheywereplayingagainstanAIopponent,anonlineopponentoraco-locatedplayer.(Inallthreecasestheywereinfactplayingtheotherperson.)ThishadacleareffectonsocialpresenceasmeasuredbytheSPGQandontheenjoymentcomponentsoftheGEQ,namelyPositiveAttitude,CompetenceandChallenge.TherewasnoeffectofdifferencesinsocialpresenceonFrustration.OthercomponentsoftheGEQrelatedtoimmersionwerenotconsideredandsothisleavesitopenastohowsocialplaymightaffecttheimmersiveexperience.Inafurtherstudy,Gajadharetal.(2010)repeatedthesameexperimentalscenariowithanoldersampleofplayersagedbetween61and78.ThistimeimmersionandowaspectsoftheGEQwereincluded.Therewasasmallvariationbetweenthethreeconditions:immersionwashigherintheco-locatedconditionovertheothertwobutowwashigherinthemediatedcondition.However,inbothcases,theeffectwassmallanditwasalsonotablethattheoverallratingsofowandimmersioninthegamewereverylow.Thus,itseemsthatthegamewasnotofferingagoodimmersiveexperiencetotheseniorplayersandsoitishardtoknowhow,ingeneral,immersionisinuencedbysocialplayamongstabroaderpopulationandthereisanopportunityforagoodimmersiveexperience.Incontrasttothetwopreviousstudies,Weibeletal.(2009)explicitlymanipulatedtheopponenttobeeitheracomputeropponentorarealpersontoseetheeffectofspatialpresence,owandenjoymentwhilstplayingNeverwinterNights,afantasyrole-playinggame.Itwasfoundthatplayingagainstapersonledtoagreatersenseofspatialpresence,owandenjoyment.Similarly,usingphysiologicalmeasures,Mandryketal.(2006)foundthatplayingaco-locatedfriendwasmorefunthanplayingacomputer.Inbothcasesthough,theincreasedenjoymentmayhavebeenduetothedifferenceingameplaybetweenthepersonandcomputeropponentratherthanduetothedifferenceinsocialexperience.Inalltheworkconsideredsofar,thenatureofthesocialconnectionbetweentheplayerswasnotaddressed.Ravajaetal.(2006)consideredthedifferenceinexperientialoutcomesduetoplayingagainstacomputer,afriendorastranger(humano
4 pponentswereco-located).Spatialpresencea
pponentswereco-located).Spatialpresenceandengagementwasinfacthighestwhenplayingagainstafriendbutsotoowaschallenge.Thus,itmaybethatthestrongersociallinkwithafriendimprovedthespatialpresenceandengagementexperienceoritmaybethatthegamewastakenmoreseriouslywhenplayingafriendandhenceleadingtotheimprovedexperientialoutcomes.Overallthen,thereisgoodindicationthatalteringthesocialenvironmentofplayingdigitalgamesdoessubstantiallyalterthegamingexperience.However,whenitcomesspecicallytotheimmersiveexperienceofthegame,thereisonlyaslightindicationfromthestudywithseniorplayersthatincreasedsocialpresenceincreasedimmersion.Thisisfarfromconclusivethoughbecauseoftheissuesofrepresentativenessofthesampleandthegenerallylowlevelsofimmersion.Inothersituations,thereisincreasedengage-mentwhenplayingacomputerratherthanapersonbutthiscouldbeattributedtodifferencesinthegameplay.Thus,theaimofthispaperistoprovideaclearindicationofwhetherthesocialcontextofplayingdigitalgamesworkstoinuenceimmersioneitherpositivelyornegatively.Todothis,itisclearlyimportanttoconsiderbothonlineandco-locatedconditionsandpossiblytoaddresswhetherplayingpartnersarefriendsorstrangers.4.Experiment1:SocialpresenceandimmersionSocialplayandimmersionarebothwidelyacknowledgedbygamersasimportantforgoodgamingexperiences.Howeverbecausesociallyconnectingwithothersmeansthinkingaboutsomethingotherthanthegame,thishasbeenpositedtoleadtoareductioninimmersionasdiscussedearlier.Theaimofthisstudyisthereforetoexplicitlyinvestigatethechangeinimmersionexperiencedbyplayersasaconsequenceofdifferentsocialcontextsofplay.TheexperimentalsetupreplicatesthatofGajadharetal.(2008b).Thatis,toseethatthesocialcontextsreallyaredifferent,socialpresencewasusedtoindicatethedegreetowhichplayersfelttheiropponentsweresociallypresenttothem.Also,socialcontextsweremanipulatedbyplayersbeingaloneandbeingtoldtheyareplayingacomputeroranotherpersonorbytwoplayersbeingco-locatedinthesameroom.UnlikeGajadharetal.(2008b)'sstudy,theGEQisnotusedtomeasureallaspectsofthegamingexperiencebutinsteadtheIEQJennettetal.,2008)isusedtofocusspecicallyonimmersion.Thehypothesesareasfollows:1.Socialpresencewillbemorewhentheplayerplaysapersonthanwhentheyplayacomputerandmorestillwhentheyco-playerisco-locatedinthesameroom.2.Immersionwillbeaffectedbythelevelofsocialpresence.4.1.ParticipantsAtotaloftwenty-fourparticipants(12pairs)14malesand10femaleswererecruitedinanopportunitysample.Allparticipantswerepost-graduatestudentsatUniversityCollegeLondonagedbetween21and32.Participantswererecruitedinfriendshippairs(regardlessofsexofthepairs)andwererequiredtohaveplayedcomputergamesagainsteachotheratleastonceinthepast.Duringrecruitmentitwasrequestedthatparticipantswithinpairsshouldhaveasimilarlevelofgamingexpertise,thiswasanattempttoavoidtheconfoundingvariableofcontinualwinningorlosingandwasjudgedbytheparticipantsthemselves.Allparticipantshadexperiencewithplayingdigitalgames,howevertheextentofparticipantsgamingexperienceandexpertisewasnotcontrolled.4.2.DesignThestudywasawithinparticipantdesign.Theindependentvariablewasthemanipulationofsocialpresencewiththreelevels:1.Computer:playingagainstthecomputer2.Online:playingagainstahumanmediatedbytheinternetbutnotinthesameroom3.Co-located:playingagainstahumaninthesameroomTocontrolforthedifferencesinplayingabilitiesorstyleswhenplayingacomputerasopposedtoplayingahuman,inthecondition,playersinfactplayedotherpeople.TheprimarydependentvariableisimmersionasmeasuredbytheIEQ.SocialpresencewasalsomeasuredusingtheSPGQtoensurethattheexperimentalmanipulationdidinfactalterthesocialcontextasintended.Thisinturnisbrokendownintoitsthreeconstituentfactors:PsychologicalInvolvementEmpathy(PI-E),PsychologicalInvolvementNegativeFeelings(PI-NF),BehaviouralEngagement(BE).P.Cairnsetal./Int.J.Human-ComputerStudies71(2013)106910771072 4.3.MaterialsThegameWoodPongwasusedasthedigitalgameinthisstudyandwasplayedonastandard17computermonitorwithastandardQWERTYkeyboard.WoodPongwasreleasedin2005andisanupdatedversionofthegamePong.Itisasimplegamewhichsimulatesthesportsgametennis.Theaim,asintennis,isforopposingplayerstoreturntheballandpreventitfrombouncingoutofplay.ThegamewaschoseninpartasitwasusedinGajadharetal.(2008b).Alsoitwaschosenbecauseitssimplicitywouldaidinfocusingtheoutcomeoftheexperimentonthesocialcontextofthegamingsituationratherthanonthegraphicsofthegame,theindividualpreferencesforthegameorthecontrolsofthegame.TheIEQandSPGQwereadministeredinpaperformaftercompletionofthegame.Allparticipantscompletedapost-studyinterviewtorecordtheirdemographicinformationandtocollectinformationregardingtheirexperienceduringthestudy.Inaddi-tion,thisinterviewallowedfortheidenticationofindividualdifferencesbetweenparticipantswhichmayberelevanttotheoutcomesofthestudy.4.4.ProcedurePairsofparticipantswerebroughtintothelabtogetheranduponarrivalwerebriefedontheprocedureofthestudybutwereinformedthatthestudyaimedtoevaluatelatencyduringperiodsofonlinegaming.Itwasdecidedthatparticipantsshouldbemisledabouttherealaimsoftheexperimenttoavoidthemrespondingtothedemandcharacteristicsoftheexperimentandproducingwhattheyanticipateisthecorrectanswerstothequestionnairesusedinthestudy(FieldandHole,2003Intheonlineandcomputerconditions,thetwoparticipantswereinseparatelaboratorycubiclesandsounabletohearorcommunicatewitheachother.Obviously,intheco-locatedcondi-tion,bothparticipantswereinthesamecubicle.Theorderingoftheconditionswasrandomisedandcounterbalancedacrosstheparti-cipants.Intheco-locatedcondition,participantsplayedagain
5 steachotheronthesamecomputerusingtwosepa
steachotheronthesamecomputerusingtwoseparatekeyboards.ParticipantsplayedthegameWoodPongundertheirallocatedplayconditionuntiloneparticipantinthepairwon3sets,afterthisthegamewasendedautomaticallyandawinnerdeclared.AftertherstconditionwascompletedtheparticipantswereaskedindividuallytomovetodifferentcomputercubiclestollouttheIEQandtheSPGQandweretoldthatduringthistimetheirexperimentalcubicleswouldbesetupreadyforthenextplaycondition.Therewerenoopportunitiesfortheparticipantstointeractinthebreaksothatallofthesocialinteractioncouldonlytakeplacewhiletheywereplaying.Oncethecubicleswereadequatelysetupandparticipantshadcompletedtheirquestion-naires,theywerecollectedandmovedbackintotheirrespectiveexperimentalcubiclestocompletethenextplaycondition.ThisprocesswasrepeateduntileachpairhadexperiencedallthreeAftertheIEQandSPGQhadbeencompletedforthenalplaycondition,ashortinterviewwascarriedoutwitheachofthepairsindividually.Participantswerethenfullydebriefedaboutthetrueaimsoftheexperiment.4.5.ResultsToconrmthattheexperimentalmanipulationhadthedesiredeffect,thethreeSPGQcomponentswerecompared.Underthethreeconditions,themeans(andsd)arereportedinTable1Ascanbeseen,thetrendisasexpectedwithmeasuresofsocialpresenceincreasingfromcomputertoonlinetoco-located.Thesechangesareallsignicant:PsychologicalInvolvementEmpathy001;PsychologicalInvolvementNegativeFeelings(PI-NF),001;BehaviouralEngagement(BE),001.Pair-wise-testswereconductedoneachscaleseparatelytolookatthedifferencesbetweenthecomputerandonlineconditionsandtheonlineandco-locatedconditions.TheywereallsignicantevenafteraBonferronicorrectionforthe6teststhatweredone:PI-E,computervsonline,001,onlinevsco-located,001;PI-NF,computervsonline,001,onlinevsco-located,001;andBE,computervsonline,001,onlinevsco-located,TheoverallIEQscoresbetweenthethreeconditionshadmeans(sd):computer86.5(10.88),online108.8(11.80),co-located113.2(6.52).Thesedifferencesaresignicantlydifferent,04,001.Apairedsamples-testwithBonferronicorrectionshowedthattherewasastatisticallysignicantincreaseinIEQscorebetweenthecomputerandthemediatedhumanopponentconditions616,001,Cohen's1.55),howevernosignicantdifferencewasfoundbetweenthemediatedhumanconditionandtheco-locatedhumancondition(622,1,Cohen's0.28).Effectsizeshavealsobeenincludedforthesepairwisecomparisonsinordertofacilitateinterpretationoftheresultsacrossthethreeexperiments.4.6.DiscussionTheresultsobtainedsupportthepredictedhypothesisthatplayingsociallyresultsinhigherlevelsofimmersion.First,participantsshowedprogressiveincreasesinlevelsofsocialpresencethroughthe3systematicvariationsofco-playertypeandlocation.Thisshowsthattheexperimentalmanipulationswereadequateenoughtoproducedifferentperceptionsofthesocialcontextforeachcondition.Itisalsointerestingtonotethatitwasenoughthatpeoplebelievedtheywereplayingagainstacomputerforittoreducetheirsenseofsocialpresence.Clearlythereisnoactualdifferencebetweenthecomputerandonlineconditionsinthisstudyintermsofgameplay.Thus,thesenseofsocialpresenceisanexpectationintheplayerandnotperceivedinsomewaythroughhowthegameisplayed.Secondly,immersiondifferedbetweenthecomputerandonlineconditionsandthoughthereisasmalleffectonimmersionbetweenonlineandco-locatedconditions,thiswasnotsigniThus,thesenseofsocialplaywasimportantforincreasingimmersionbuttheincreaseinsocialpresenceduetowheretheotherplayerwaslocateddidnottranslateintoadiscernibleincreaseinimmersion.Again,itsupportstheimportanceoftheexpectationoftheplayerbutthistimefortheimmersiveexperi-encebecausetherewasnoactualdifferencebetweentheonlineandcomputerconditionsbutimmersionwasdifferentbetweenthoseconditions.Thisemphasisestheimportanceofthebeliefthataplayerhasofplayingagainstahumanratherthanacomputer,butisalsosuggestivethatthelocationofthehuman Table1Meansand(sd)forthethreemeasuresofsocialpresenceintheSPGQwhichrangefrom0to4.SPGQComputerOnlineCo-locatedPsych.InvolvementEmpathy0.57(0.35)1.90(0.66)2.96(0.52)Psych.InvolvementNegativeFeelings0.72(0.42)1.73(0.79)2.47(0.68)BehaviouralEngagement1.60(1.03)2.45(0.79)3.00(0.48) games.brothersoft.com/woodpong.htmlP.Cairnsetal./Int.J.Human-ComputerStudies71(2013)106910771073 opponentisnotasimportantforfacilitatingimmersion.Thisthereforebeginstoquestiontheideathatfacetofacecontactbetweenplayersisasimportantasoriginallyperceived(JanszandMartens,2005)andshowsthat,insomecontextsatleast,mediatedplaycaninfactfacilitateimmersionthroughsocialcontacttoasimilarextentasthatofco-locatedplay.Amajorlimitationofthisstudywasthechoiceofgamewhich,thoughupdatedforamodernPC,wasstillverymuchanold-fashionedgamewithverysimplegameplay.Thiswaspickedupbytheparticipantswhere10ofthe24commentedinthepost-testinterviewthatthegraphicsareterriblethisisnotthesortofgameIenjoyplaying.However,commentssuchasitwasfunforwhatitwasIenjoyedthecompetitiveaspectalsocamefromparticipantswhoreportedhavingnotenjoyedplayingthegame.DespitetheexperimentaladvantagesofusingWoodPong,itisreasonabletosaythatitisnolongeranaccuraterepresentationofthetypeofrealismofferedbythegraphicsofmoderndayPCorconsolegames.Toensurethattheexperimentalmanipulationwasvalid,duringthepost-testinterviewscarriedoutwithallparticipants,thequestionwasposed:Didyoubelieveyouwereplayingagainstthecomputerduringoneoftheconditionsyouexperienced?Mostparticipantsrespondedasanticipatedanddidnotrealisethatduringthecomputeropponentconditiontheywere,infact,playingagainsttheirpartner.Howevertwooutofthetwentyfourparticipantssaidtheyhadsuspectedthattheywereplayingagainsttheirpartnerandnotthecomputer.Theresu
6 ltsoftheseparticipantswerenotexcludedfro
ltsoftheseparticipantswerenotexcludedfromtheanalysisaswhenviewedindividuallytherewasnoindicationthattheirscoreswereout-lyinginanywayoneitherthesocialpresence(SPGQ)orimmer-sionscales(IEQ).This,althoughusefulfortheoverallaimsoftheexperiment,raisestheissueofdemandcharacteristicsasacon-foundingvariableinthisstudywherebyparticipantsmayhaveguredouttheaimsoftheexperimentandactedinawaywhichtheydeemedtobefavouredbytheexperimenter(FieldandHole,20035.Experiment2:humanandcomputeropponentsThepreviousstudygaveaclearresultthatwho(orwhat)peoplethinktheyareplayingagainstwasveryimportantforthesenseofimmersion.However,asthismayhavebeenduetothedemandcharacteristicsoftheexperimentwherepeoplegivesociallydesirableresponseshavingworkedoutthepurposeoftheexperiment,thesecondexperimentisdesignedtocontrastplayingagainstpeoplewithplayingagainstcomputerswhereitisclearwhatthesetupis.Thus,playersplaybotheachotherandcomputeropponentsandinthesamephysicalsetup.Toreducethesocialinteractionoutsideofthegamethough,playersaresatfarapart.Thuswhatisbeingmanipulatedissimplywho(orwhat)theopponentis.Socialpresencewasnotconsideredasitisclearthattheonlymanipulationofthesocialcontextisthroughthegameandsoanychangeinmanipulationcanbedirectlyattributedtothat.Inaddition,theexperimentalsolookstouseamoremoderngame.WoodPong,whilstprovidingasimplegametolearn,maynotofferastronglyimmersiveexperiencesothatanyattempttoimprovethegame,suchashavingahumanopponent,mayincreasetheopportunityforimmersion.However,theriskisthatmoremoderngamesrequiresubstantiallymoreknowledgetobeabletocontrolthegameproperly.Wehavethereforeoptedtouseadrivinggamewhichhasastrongelementofcompetitionbutrelativelysimplecontrols:turn,speedupandslowdown.Thisiscomparedwith,say,arstpersonshooterwheretypicallythereareavatardirectionalcontrols,cameradirectionalcontrolsandcontrolsforselectingandringweapons.Theexperimentalhypothesisisasfollows:PlayerswillbemoreimmersedwhenplayingagainsthumansthanagainstthecomputerPersonalitywasalsomeasuredtoseeifitwasrelevanttotheimmersiveexperienceinsocialgameplaybuttheresultsarenotreportedhere.5.1.ParticipantsTwelveparticipantstookpartinthisstudy.TheywereallmaleundergraduatesintheDepartmentofComputerScienceattheUniversityofYork.Theparticipantsweredividedintofourgroupsofthreeparticipants.Theywerealsopaid5fortakingpartintheexperiment.5.2.DesignThestudywasawithinparticipantsdesignwhereeachgroupplayedonlineandagainstthecomputerwiththeorderingcounter-balanced.Intheonlinecondition,playersracedagainsteachotheronaparticulartrackselectedfromthestandardMM2tracks.Inthecomputercondition,playersplayedagainsttheAIofMM2thoughconcurrentlywitheachother.Playerswerelocatedinthecornersofateachinglaboratoryandalsofacedthesamedirection.Thus,whilstabletoseeeachother,theywerenotabletoeasilydirectlytalkorcommunicatetoeachotherotherwise.Thismanipulationmeansthatalldifferencesinsocialcontextofplayingaremediatedbythegame.ImmersionwasmeasuredusingtheIEQ.PersonalitywasalsomeasuredusingtheEysenckpersonalityquestionnairerevised(EPQ-R)butitsanalysisisnotreportedhere.5.3.MaterialsThegameusedwasMicrosoftMidtownMadness2(MM2),anarcade-stylecarracinggame.Whilstthisisanoldgame,releasedin2000(Wikipedia,accessedJuly2012),itisstillpopular,aspeoplearestillplayingthisonline(www.voobly.com).Itfeaturesbothofinemodesagainstarticialintelligence(AI)opponents,andsimilarracingmodesbutagainstrealopponents.Playersweretoldtoraceononeofthetwopre-selectedcircuits.Theexperimenttookplaceinalargeteachinglaboratorywhereallscreensfaceonedirection.Thethreemembersofeachgroupwereseatedinthecornersofthelab.Threeidenticallaboratorycomputerswereusedforthisexperiment.ThespecicationsareIntelCore2DuoE6600@2.4GHz,4gbRAM(3.5gbavailabledueto32-bitOS),IntelG965integratedgraphics,160gbSeagateBarracuda7200rpmSATAhdd,MicrosoftWindowsXPProfessional.5.4.ProcedureParticipantstookpartingroupsofthree.Onarrival,theyweredirectedtothethreecornersoftheteachinglaboratorywherethegamewassetup.Theywerebrieyintroducedtopurposesofthegameandaskedtosigntheinformedconsentform.Theywerethenintroducedtothecontrolsofthegameandaskedtoplayineithertheonlineagainsteachotherorthecomputer.After6min,theywerestoppedeveniftheywereinthemiddleofplayingandaskedtocompletetheIEQ.Therewasnoopportunityfortheparticipantstointeractbetweenthetwoconditions.Afterthequestionnaireswerecompleted,theparticipantswerethensettoplayingagainintheotherconditionandtheprocessrepeated.Finallytheparticipantsweredebriefedabouttheaimsoftheexperiment.P.Cairnsetal./Int.J.Human-ComputerStudies71(2013)106910771074 5.5.ResultsThemeans(sd)oftheimmersionscoresfromtheIEQinthetwoconditionsarecomputer99.8(15.7)andonline115.4(15.6).Thusthereisacleardifferenceinthelevelofimmersionexperi-encedbytheplayers.Apairedsamples-testconrmsthiswith0.023,Cohen's1.41.5.6.DiscussionTheresultsconrmthendingsofthepreviousexperimentandthattheeffectsizeissimilarinbothstudies.Moreover,itisclearthatwhatisbeingmanipulatedisnotthephysicalsocialsituationwhichwasidenticalinbothconditions.Instead,itiswhoisbeingplayedthatisimportant.Whenplayersareplayingeachother,thesenseofimmersionincreases.Thechoiceofgamealsoshowedthat,ashoped,thisgamewasmoreimmersiveastheIEQscoreswerehigherinbothconditionscomparedtotheequivalentconditionsinthepreviousgame.ThiswaswhatwasintendedforthisgamebutalsoincontrasttoGajadharetal.(2010),therewasacientlevelofimmersiongenerallyforittobeclearhowthechangeinsocialsituationmightinuenceit.Thishelpstomakeitclearthatitisplayingagainstpeoplethatisincreasingthesenseofimmersi
7 onnotjustlimitationsintherichnessofthega
onnotjustlimitationsintherichnessofthegameplay.6.Experiment3:onlineandco-locatedplayingrsttwoexperimentsmakeitclearthatachangeinthesocialcontextaffectsthelevelofimmersionexperiencedbyplayers.However,itisthereforesurprisingthatintheexperiment,therewasacleardifferenceinthesocialcontextbetweenonlineandco-locatedplayersbutthatthishadasmallcanteffectonthelevelofimmersionexperienced.Thisthirdexperimentaimstoinvestigatemorecloselytherelationshipbetweenimmersioninonlineandco-locatedplay.Itimprovesuponexperiment1inthreeways.Firstly,asinExperiment2,amoremoderngamewasused,inthiscaseWiiMarioKart.Secondly,Experiment1showedasmallchangeinimmersioninthedirec-tionexpectedsothisexperimentusesalargersampleofpartici-pantsinthehopetoperhapsbetterresolveanydifferencesinimmersionbetweenthesetwoconditions.Finally,becauseco-locationinvolvesputtingplayersinreasonablycloseproximity,itispossiblethatwhetherplayersarefriendsorstrangersmayuencetheplayingexperience(Ravajaetal.,2006).Whilstthiswasquitedifculttocontrolduetoconstraintsinthesettingupoftheexperiment,wehavenonethelessatleastidentiedthisasapossiblevariablewhenanalysingtheresults.Thehypothesesaretherefore:Playersaremoreimmersedwhenplayingco-locatedthanwhensimplyplayingonline.Friendsaremoreimmersedthanstrangerswhenplayingco-6.1.ParticipantsOverall,39participantsusedforthisstudyandtheytookpartintheexperimentingroupsoftwo(oneparticipantplayedtwicebecauseofthefailureofaparticipanttoturnup,butonlythedataforthisparticipant'srstplaywasused).Theparticipantswere32menand7womenwhoseagerangewas1825,ofwhichthemean(sd)was20.4(1.56).AllparticipantswereanopportunitysampleofstudentsattheUniversityofYork.Thedemographicsoftheparticipantsshowedthatallpartici-pantshadplayeddigitalgamesbefore,with35participantshavingalreadyplayedontheWiibefore.12oftheparticipantsusedorownaWiiand36participantshadplayedthegameweusedfortheexperimentbefore.Whilethegatheringofparticipantswasgoingon,thosewhoofferedtotakepartwereaskediftheyhadafriendtheywishedtobringtoplaywith.Thisenabledustotest30participantsasfriendsand9asstrangers.Theparticipantsweregivena10Amazonvoucherfortakingpartintheexperiment.6.2.DesignTheexperimentwasawithinparticipantdesignwiththeindependentvariableofthisexperimentbeingthesettingsoftheparticipants.Thetwoconditionswereonlineandco-locatedasintherstexperiment.Itwasalsoensuredthattheparticipantscouldnotseeeachother'sscreenwhilstco-locatedsoasnottogiveanaddedadvantageinthegameovertheonlinecondition.ThedependentvariablewasimmersionasmeasuredbytheIEQ.Whetherparticipantpairswerefriendsorstrangerswasnotedasapseudo-independentvariable.6.3.MaterialsMarioKartWiiwasusedasthegameinthisstudybeingaverypopulargame(over31millioncopieshavebeensoldNintendo,2012).TwoidenticalWiiconsoleswereusedandnetworkedthroughthebuilt-inonlineracingfunctionofthegame.ThecontrollerwastheWiicontrollerwiththenunchukjoystickforsteering.Eachparticipantwasgivenasheetofpaperwhichhadalistofthecontrolsforthegame.TheIEQwasadministeredonpaperalongwithademographicquestionnairelookingatpreviousdigitalgamingexperience.6.4.ProcedureBeforetheexperimenttheparticipantswerebriefedonwhattheexperimententailed.Intheirpairs,theparticipantsweregiveninstructionsofthecontrolsofthegameandthedemographicsquestionnairetocomplete.Atthispointanyquestionstheparti-cipantshadwereanswered.Theywerethenaskedtoraceeachotherthreetimesonthreedifferenttracksinoneconditionandthenrepeatthethreeracesintheothercondition.Theorderingofonlinevsco-locatedsettingwascounterbalancedacrossthepairs.Theparticipantswerealsogivena10minbreakbetweeneachsetting,whichwasalsorequiredtorearrangetheexperimentalapparatus(movetheWii'stoseparateroomsorintothesameroom).Duringthistime,playerswerekeptapartsothattheirsocialinteractionoutsideofthegamewouldnotinuencethesecondcondition.Itwasensuredthatonceplayhadcommencedtheparticipantswerenotdisturbeduntilthegamehadcompleted.Afterplayingineachconditionsettingwasimmediatelyfol-lowedbythecompletionoftheIEQ.Oncebothsettingshadbeencompleted,theparticipantsweredebriefed.6.5.ResultsThescoresfromtheIEQalsobrokendownbyfriendsandstrangersaresummarisedinTable2Thereisnosignicantdifferenceintheoverallimmersionbetweenthetwoconditions(0.62,Cohen's0.08).Evenwhentakingintoaccountthedifferencesbetweenfriendsandstrangers,amixedmeasuresANOVAgivesneitherP.Cairnsetal./Int.J.Human-ComputerStudies71(2013)106910771075 maineffectforonlineorco-locatedconditions(0.62)norforwhetherplayerswerefriendsorstrangers0.80)norwasthereaninteractioneffect0.27).6.6.DiscussionDespitethelargersamplesize,theuseofamoderngameandtheconsiderationofdifferencesbetweenplayingagainstfriendsorstrangers,therewasnosignicantdifferenceinimmersionwhetherpeopleplayedonlineorco-located.Indeedtherewasonlyaverysmalleffectofthesocialmanipulationonimmersion.ThissupportsthendingsofExperiment1wheretherewasalsonosignicantdifferenceinimmersionbetweentheonlineandco-locatedconditions.Theimmersionscoresweregenerallyhighandcomparabletotheimmersionscoresoftheonlineconditionofthepreviousexperiment.ThissuggeststhatWiiMarioKartwasofferingtheopportunityforgoodimmersiveexperienceslikeMidtownMadnessItisofcourseclearthattheproportionoffriendsishigherthantheproportionofstrangersandsothataspectoftheanalysisisnotwellrepresentedinthisstudy.Nonetheless,itdoesstronglysupportexperiment1'sndingsthat,whenplayersarefriends,co-locationdoesnotnecessarilyimprovetheimmersivenessofplaying.Furthermore,contrarytotheliterature,itdoesnotnecessarilyimpairimmersioneither.Itwouldbeinformativetomakeal
8 argersampleofplayerswhoarestrangerstoeac
argersampleofplayerswhoarestrangerstoeachothertoseeifthesmallreductioninimmersionwhenplayingco-locatedisanythingmorethanthechancevariationitseemstobe.Overallthen,theseresultsofferaclearpicturethatthereisnostrongeffectonimmersionofwhetherplayersaremerelyonlineorareco-locatedwhentheyplaytogether.7.DiscussionandfurtherworkThesestudiessetouttoexaminewhetherplayingsociallyaffectstheimmersiveexperiencehadbyplayersofdigitalgames.Previousworkhadsuggestedthatthepresenceofothers,evenmediatedviaonlineplay,wouldrequireplayerstothinkabouttheotherplayersandsodrawtheirattentionawayfromthethinkingaboutthegame.Thiswouldthereforereducethelevelofimmer-sion.Thestudiesheresuggestthatthisisnotthecaseatall.Frombothexperiments1and2,itisclearthatpeoplearemoreimmersedwhentheyareplayingagainstanotherpersonthanwhen(theythink)theyareplayingagainstacomputer.Itistemptingtoattributethedifferenceinimmersionduetoincreasedsocialpresence.Experiment1conrmstheintuitionthatthereisanincreaseinsocialpresencefromplayingalonetoplayingonlineandfromplayingonlinetoplayingco-locatedinthesameroom.However,thereisnocorrespondingincreaseinimmersionmovingfromonlinetoco-locatedplayineitherexperiment1orexperi-ment3.Thus,socialpresencealonecannotaccountforthepatternofdifferencesinimmersionseenacrosstheconditions.Giventheargumentthatthepresenceofotherswouldreduceimmersion,itcouldhavebeenthecasethatimmersionwouldinfactreducefromtheonlinetoco-locatedconditions.Insomesense,anonlineplayerissimplyanaspectofthegamebutaplayerinthesameroomisanotherperson.Thesestudiesfailedtoproducesuchareduction.Fromexperiments1and3,whetherco-playerswereco-locatedoronlinehadatbestasmalleffectonimmersionandnotonethatwassignicanteitherintermsofincreasedorreducedimmersion.Thissuggeststhatwhateverinteractionwastakingplacebetweenplayerswastakingplacethroughthegame.Thus,wheretheotherplayerisphysicallylocatedisnotamajorinuenceonimmersion.Whatisimportantisthattheotherplayerwaspartofthegameworldtobecomeimmersedin.Thereisperhapsaninterestingfutureapproachtotakeinwhichplayersareaskedwhethertheythinktheotherplayerisimmersedorevenpresentinthegame.Fromthesestudies,immersionindigitalgamesdoesseemtobeabletomovebeyondtheindividualandbecomeasharedexperiencewithotherplayers.However,thesestudieshavelookedatonlyalimitedsetofgames,namelyarcadestyleandracinggames,whichwereallcompetitive.Insomesense,anopponentisanopponentonlybyvirtueofbeinginthegameandthattheopponentisapersonaddstothevalueoftheoutcomeofthegameJuul,2005):playingisnicebutknowingthatyouareplayingagainstanotherpersonandmoreoverthattheyknowthattooisnicer.Soincompetitivegames,itisnottoosurprisingthatimmersionincreaseswithotherhumanplayers.Theseresultsthougharecurrentlyfarfrombeingabletoinformgamedesign.Anyparticularfeatureofagamecouldleadtoagreateremphasisonthegameandhenceworktoreducesocialpresencebutsimultaneouslypromoteimmersionormayencou-ragesocialinteractionsunrelatedtothegameplayitselfandsoreduceimmersioninthegame.Theseexperimentsarebutasteptowardsprovidingasoundempiricalbasisforoneparticularaspectofgamingexperience,immersion,andhowitrelatestothericher,widerecologyofgamingplayingactivities.Toseethis,considertherangeofsocialinteractionsalreadyseeninmanygames,forexample,largeteamsworkingtoajointendincertainpartsorstylesofMMORPGgameslikeWorldofWarcraftteamvsteamgamesinrstpersonshootersliketheCallofDutyseries.Moreover,thesesamegamescanbeplayedasindividualswithoutanyprevioussocialconnection,inasocialgrouponlineandinaco-locatedsocialgroupinLANparties.Thoughitissupposedthattheexperienceofimmersionisthesameinallofthesegamesandcontexts,howtheimmersionarisesmaybestronglyinuencedbythesocialcontextofthegameandtheactivitieswithinthegamewhichplayershavetoengagein.Theteamvsteamplaypresentsparticularchallenges:playersaresociallypresentwithothermembersoftheirteamandalsomembersoftheopposingteambutsurelyinquitedifferentwaysandwithconictingsocialgoals.Thismaymoveplayersoutfromthegameworldtoexplicitmanagementofthesocialsituation.Animportantavenueforresearchisthereforetoconsiderimmersioningameswhereplayersenterintocomplex,heterogeneousandcon-trastingsocialrelationships.Thismatchestheperceptionofgamedesignersthatplayersareaformalelementinthegamewithcomplexrelationshipswithinandtothegame(Fullerton,2008)butitisnotmadeclearinsuchformalisationshowplayersintrinsicroleinthegameinteractswithotherplayersinformingspecicexperiences.Forsomegames,thesocialaspectmaybefarmoreimportantthaninthegameswehavelookedatanditisinthesecontextsthatimmersioncouldbereducedinthegameasdiscussedinthepreviousliterature.Thiseffect,though,maybeamelioratedbytheplayerschoosingtoengagewitheachotherinagameconsistentway,forexample,inarole-playinggameonlyusinglanguageappropriatetothecharacterstheyareplaying.Playinggames,andplayinggamessocially,isanimportantpartofthehumanexperience.Itseemsthoughthatwhenweplaydigitalgamessociallywearenotonlyabletoimmerseourselvesintheworldbutwearealsoabletodosointhecompanyofothers. 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