ErinAHeereyDacherKeltnerandLisaMCappsPsychologyDepartmentUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleyLisaMCappspassedawayonFebruary72000WethankDavidSobelforhisgenerouscontributionofthetheoryofminddataset ID: 165273
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BRIEFREPORTSMakingSenseofSelf-ConsciousEmotion:LinkingTheoryofMindandEmotioninChildrenWithAutismErinA.Heerey,DacherKeltner,andLisaM.CappsUniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleySelf-consciousemotionssuchasembarrassmentandshameareassociatedwith2aspectsoftheoryofmind(ToM):(a)theabilitytounderstandthatbehaviorhassocialconsequencesintheeyesofothersand(b)anunderstandingofsocialnormsviolations.ThepresentstudyaimedtolinkToMwiththerecognitionofselconsciousemotion.Childrenwithandwithoutautismidentifiedfacialexofself-consciousandnon-self-consciousemotionsfromphotographs.ToMwasalsomeasured.Childrenwithautismperformedmorepoorlythancomparisochildrenatidentifyingself-consciousemotions,thoughtheydidnotdifferintherecognitionofnon-self-consciousemotions.WhenToMabilitywasstatiscontrolled,groupdifferencesintherecognitionofself-consciousemotiondisap-peared.DiscussionfocusedonthelinksbetweenToMandself-consciousemTherecognitionofemotionfromfacialexpressionisavitalpartofsociallife(Keltner&Kring,1998).Fromothersfacialexpressions,infantslearntoavoiddanger(Klinnert,Emde,Butterfield,&Campos,1986),andromanticpartnersdiscernoneanotherscommitment(Gonzaga,Keltner,Londahl,&Smith,2001),tonametwowaysinwhichemotionrecogni-tionaidsadaptationtotheenvironment.Byimplica-tion,sensitivitiesordifficultiesinemotionrecogni-tionshouldrelatetopatternsofmaladjustment.Forexample,abusedchildrenhavebeenshowntobesen-sitivetofacialexpressionsofanger(Pollak,Cicchetti,Hornung,&Reed,2000),andpoorrecognitionofself-consciousemotionisrelatedtodifficultieswithsocialbehaviorregulation(Beer,Heerey,Scabini,Keltner,&Knight,2003).Thepresentarticleexploredthenotionthatdeficitsinsocialunderstanding,ortheoryofmind(ToM),areassociatedwithdifficultiesinrecognizingself-con-sciousemotions.Weassessedtheabilitytoidentifyembarrassmentandshame,aswellasotheremotions,fromphotographs,inapopulationimpairedinToM,childrenwithhigh-functioningautism(HFA),orAs-pergerssyndrome(AS).WeexpectedHFA/ASchil-drentohavegreaterdifficultythancomparisonchil-dreninidentifyingfacialexpressionsofself-consciousemotionsandthatgroupdifferencescouldbeaccountedforinameasureofToMability.Self-ConsciousEmotionandToMEmbarrassmentandshameareimportantintheregulationofsocialbehavior.Bothemotionstendtooccurwhenruleshavebeenviolated.Embarrassmenttypicallyfollowsviolationsofsocialconventions(Tangney,Miller,Flicker,&Barlow,1996);shameoccurswhenanindividualviolatesstandardsofper-sonalcharacter(Wallbott&Scherer,1995).Theun-pleasantexperienceofembarrassmentandshamemaydeterfutureuntowardbehavior(Tangneyetal.,1996).Thecharacteristicdisplaysofembarrassment(con-trolledsmiles,avertedgaze,headmovementsdownandaway)andshame(loweredhead,downcasteyes,diminishedposture)helpregulatesocialinteractions(Keltner&Anderson,2000).Thesedisplaysresemblenonhumanappeasementdisplays(Keltner&Buswell, ErinA.Heerey,DacherKeltner,andLisaM.Capps,PsychologyDepartment,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.LisaM.CappspassedawayonFebruary7,2000.WethankDavidSobelforhisgenerouscontributionofthetheoryofminddataset.Correspondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbead-dressedtoErinA.Heerey,PsychologyDepartment,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,3210TolmanHall,Room1650,Berkeley,California94720-1650.E-mail:Copyright2003bytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,Inc.2003,Vol.3,No.4,3944001528-3542/03/$12.00DOI:10.1037/1528-3542.3.4.394 1997)andevokeforgivenessinothers,bringingaboutreconciliationwhensocialinteractionshavegoneawry(Keltner&Anderson,2000).Reliablerecogni-tionofsuchdisplayiscriticaltoappeasementandTherecognitionofself-consciousemotionfromfa-cialexpression,establishedindifferentcultures(Haidt&Keltner,1999),isaidedbytwospecificinferences(Keltner&Buswell,1997).First,perceiv-ersinferthattheindividualexpressingembarrassmentorshamehasviolatedsomerule,andsecond,thatheorsherisksnegativeevaluationfromothers(Eisen-berg,2000).Studiesfindthatperceiversmaketheseinferenceswhenpresentedwithphotosdepictingem-barrassmentandshame,butnototheremotions(Kelt-ner,Young,&Buswell,1997).Accordingly,iftheabilitytoreasonaboutsocialnormviolationsandsocialevaluationisimpaired,self-consciousemotionrecognitionabilityislikelytodiminish.Howmightself-consciousemotionrecognitionre-latetoToM?referstotheabilitytounderstandmentalstatesandrangesincomplexityfromtherelativelysimpleunderstandingthatothersmayhavedifferentdesiresthanoneselftothemorecom-plicatedabilitytotheorizeaboutothersthoughts,andintentions(Flavell,1999).ToMiscloselytiedtotheunderstandingofothersgoals,socialaction,andsocialreasoning(Happe,1993).Germanetoourpresentinterests,ToMalsoinvolvesanappreciationofsocialnormsandaware-nessofothersevaluations(Tager-Flusberg,1999).Hence,deficitsinToMmayrelatetodeficitsinrec-ognizingself-consciousemotionfromfacialexpres-AutismandToMAutismisdefinedbyahostofsocialdifficulties,includingproblemswithnonliteralcommunication,understandingotherssocialintentions,andlinkingspeechandactionstosocialcontext,skillstypicallyacquiredbyage8(Flavell,1999).Consequently,nu-meroustheoristshavesuggestedthatacentraldeficitofautismisdifficultywithToM(seeCapps&Sig-man,1996).IndividualswithHFA/AShavenormallanguageabilities,andmanyperformindistinguishablyfromcomparisonindividualsoncomplexToMorsocialreasoningproblems(Happe,1993).EvenamongHFA/ASindividuals,however,ToMdeficitsexist,manifestindifficultyunderstandingcomplexsocialinteractions(Tager-Flusberg,1999).Toassessdefi-citsincomplexsocialreasoning,ataskentitledStrangeStoriesutilizedsocialvignettestocaptureabilitytounderstandwhitelies,jokes,pretense,indirectpersuasion,andotherambiguousspeechacts.Forexample,inonevignette,achildcoughsthroughoutlunch.Thechildsfathersays,PoorEmma,youmusthaveafroginyourthroat.Relativetocomparisonchildren,childrenwithHFAweremorelikelytoconcludethattheambiguouscom-mentswereliterallytrueandusedlessmentalstatereasoningintheirjustifications(Happe,1994).Inotherstudies,childrenwithHFAareimpariedatin-terpretingothersperspectivesandnonliteralbehav-iors(Capps,Yirmiya,&Sigman,1992;Flavell,AutismandEmotionInlightofthemanysocialdifficultiesexperiencedbychildrenwithautism,researchershavebeeninter-estedinemotionalcorrelatesofautism.Forchildrenwithautismwhoarenothighfunctioning,emotion-relateddeficitsappeartobebroadandpervasive,in-volvingdeficitsinbothunderstandingandrecognition(Hobson,1986;Ozonoff,Pennington,&Rogers,1990).ForindividualswithHFA/AS,emotion-relateddeficitsappeartobemorespecific.Whenprompted,HFA/ASchildrendemonstraterelativelyintactemo-tionconceptsandrecognitionabilityforhappiness,sadness,fear,andanger(Cappsetal.,1992;Ozonoffetal.,1990),althoughspontaneously,theymayignoretheemotionalpropertiesofsocialstimuli,attendinginsteadtomoreconcrete,physicalaspects(Hobson,1986).OtherstudiessuggestthatHFAchildrenmayhavedifficultyunderstandingemotionsinvolvingcontradictionsbetweenexpectationsandknowledgestates,suchassurprise(Baron-Cohen,Spitz,&Cross,1993),andinrelatingemotionalexpressionstosocialcontext(Buitelaar&vanderWees,1997).Fewstudieshaveinvestigatedembarrassmentandshameamongchildrenwithautism.Inonestudy,HFAchildrenhaddifficultyrecountingexperiencesofself-consciousemotions,conveyingfactualratherthanpersonalknowledge,whereastheydidrelateper-sonalizedaccountsofnon-self-consciousemotions.Theauthorsconcludedthatself-consciousemotionsareproblematicforchildrenwithautismbecauseoftheirdecreasedabilitytoengageinsocialreferencingandperspectivetaking,centralaspectsofToM(Cappsetal.,1992).Moreover,self-consciousemotionsmaynotarisespontaneouslyforchildrenwithautism.Inonestudy,onlysituationsinwhichnormviolationsBRIEFREPORTS wereexplicitlycalledtothechildsattention,elimi-natingtheneedforToM,didchildrenwithautismexperienceself-consciousemotion(Kasari,Chamber-lain,&Bauminger,2001).AlthoughtheprecedingevidencestronglyimplicatedToMinself-consciousemotionunderstanding,nostudyhasdirectlydocu-mentedthisrelationship.PresentResearchToexaminetherelationshipbetweenToMandtherecognitionofself-consciousemotion,wepresentedvalidatedphotographsofself-consciousandnon-self-consciousemotionstoHFA/ASchildrenandtotypi-callydevelopingchildren.WethenrelatedemotionrecognitionperformancetoscoresonameasureofToM.Onthebasisoftheforegoingreasoning,wepre-dictedthefollowing:Hypothesis1:HFA/ASchildrenwouldnotdifferfromcomparisonchildrenintheirabilitytorecog-nizenon-self-consciousemotionsfromphotosofemotionalfacialexpressions.Hypothesis2:HFA/ASchildrenwouldbeim-paired,relativetocontrols,atrecognizingexpres-sionsoftheself-consciousemotions,embarrass-mentandshame,fromphotographs.Hypothesis3:Groupdifferencesintheabilitytorecognizeexpressionsofself-consciousemotionwouldbeexplainedbyscoresonaToMmeasure.Forty-six8-to15-year-oldchildrenparticipatedinthepresentstudy,aspartofalargerinvestigationofsocialunderstanding.Twenty-fivechildrenwithdiag-nosesofHFA(10)orAS(15)comprisedtheHFA/ASgroup,and21typicallydevelopingchildrenmadeupthecomparisongroup.DiagnosesofeitherHFAorASwereconfirmedusingtheAutismDiag-nosticInterviewRevised(Lord,Rutter,&LeCouteur,1994),aninstrumentthatgeneratesdiag-nosesonthebasisoftheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders(4thed.;AmericanPsy-chiatricAssociation,1994)criteria(seePilowsky,Yirmiya,Shulman,&Dover,1998).HFA/ASchil-drenwerereferredtothestudybycliniciansunaffili-atedwiththeproject.Comparisonchildrenwerere-cruitedviaflyersplacedinlocalschools.Childrencamefromacomparablerangeofsocioeconomicbackgroundsand,withtheexceptionof2HFA/ASchildren,participatedinmainstreamclassrooms.Atelephonescreeningconductedbyclinicalpsy-chologygraduatestudentsensuredthatnoneofthecomparisonchildrenhadpriorpsychiatrichistoriesandthepresenceofHFA/ASwasruledoutusingthePervasiveDevelopmentDisorderScreeningTest(Sie-gel,1986),aparent-ratedquestionnaire.TocontrolfordifferencesincognitiveabilityandensurethatallparticipantsfellwithinthenormalrangeonIQ,onlychildrenwithcurrentVerbal,Performance,andFullScaleIQscores,measuresusingtheWechslerIntel-ligenceScaleforChildrenThirdEdition(Wechsler,1991),of80orhigherwereincluded.GroupswerestatisticallymatchedonVerbalIQ,FullScaleIQ,chronologicalage,andgender(SeeTable1).BecauseHFAandASafflictboysatahigherratethangirls(Capps&Sigman,1996),formingatargetgroupcom-prisedof75%boys,thecomparisonsamplelikewiseincludedmoreboysthangirls.Childrenweretestedindividuallybyclinicalpsychologygraduatestudentsinaquiet,universitysetting.ToMTaskandProcedureToassessToMability,thestrangestoriestask,asetof12shortvignettesinwhichchildrenareaskedtointerpretthemeaningsofambiguousspeech,wasad-ministered.Thevignettesdescribecommonevents(e.g.,visitingafriend,engaginginpretendplay,ac-cidentallybreakingsomething)inwhichstorychar-actersproducespeechthatisnotliterallytrue(foradescriptionofthetaskaswellasrelatedToMfind-ings,seeHappe,1994).ParticipantslistenedwhiletheexperimenterreadeachstoryandwerethenaskedwhethertheambiguousstatementwithinthestorywasTable1ParticipantCharacteristicsAcrossGroups MSDMSDVerbalIQ105.909.24104.4416.17FullscaleIQ107.818.07103.0012.84Chronologicalage10.511.2110.702.51Verbalmentalage11.191.6011.082.75Gender4girls,17boys5girls,20boysToM19.402.8915.253.72**high-functioningautism/Aspergerssyndrome;intelligencequotient;ToMtheoryofmind..01.BRIEFREPORTS true(comprehension)andtodescribewhyithadbeensaid(justification).Thestrangestoriestaskwaschosenforthreerea-sons.First,thestrangestoriestaskwasdesignedtopresentToMscenariosinthenaturalistic,linguisticfashioncharacteristicofthoseencounteredduringac-tualsocialinteractions.Second,manyHFAchildren,includingallthoseinthepresentsample,performidenticallytocomparisonchildrenontypicalToMtasks,evenrelativelycomplexones(Happe,1993).Thestrangestoriestaskissensitiveenoughtodiffer-entiateToMabilitiesamongthesegroups(Happe,1994).Third,strangestorieshasbeenshowntomea-sureToMability(Happe,1994).ToMScoringTworaterscodedtheToMdatafromtranscripts(.87).Childrenwhogeneratedcorrectanswerstothejustificationquestionsandexplainedtheiranswerswithreferencetostorycharactersmentalstatere-ceived2points.Thosewhogeneratedcorrectanswersandexplainedtheiranswersbyreferringtoincorrectmentalstatesortoperceptualfeaturesofthestoryreceivedascoreof1point.Childrenwhogaveerro-neousanswersorsaid,Idontknowreceived0points.Scoresweresummed,yieldingamaximumscoreof24points(foramoredetaileddescriptionofresultswithchildreninthissample,seeSobel,Capps,&Gopnik,1999).GroupsdifferedsignificantlyonToM(seeTable1).EmotionStimuliandProcedureParticipantswerepresentedwithninecolorphotosofamaleactorposingthefollowingfacialexpres-sions(withrelevantactionunitsfromEkmanandsFacialActionCodingSysteminparenthe-ses):anger(4,5,7,17,23,24),contempt(14),disgust(9,10,26,29),embarrassment(12,24,51,54,64),fear(1,2,4,5,20,26),happiness(6,12),sadness(1,4,15,17,24),shame(54,64),andsurprise(1,2,5,27).Theexpressionswereposedaccordingtodescriptionsofprototypicalexpressionsofemotion(Ekman&Friesen,1975;Haidt&Keltner,1999;Keltner&Buswell,1997)andhavebeenshowninpreviousstudiestobereliablyidentifiedasthetargetemotionsbyAmericanadultandcollegestudentobserversaswellasadultsandstudentsinIndia(Haidt&Keltner,1999;Keltner&Buswell,1997).Onthebasisofconcernsaboutforced-choicemeth-ods(Haidt&Keltner,1999;Russell,1994),apartlyfree-responsemethodwasusedthatallowedchildreneithertochooseanemotionwordfromalistof10(anger,contempt,disgust,embarrassment,fear,hap-piness,neutral,sadness,shame,andsurprise)ortospontaneouslygeneratelabelsfortheemotionphoto-graphs.Participantsweregiventheemotionwordlistandtoldthattheymighteitherchooseawordfromthelisttodescribeeachphotoorgeneratetheirown.Theywerethenaskedtonametheemotionportrayedineachpicture.Photoswerepresentedinrandomorder,oneatatime.Participantsrespondedverbally.Re-sponseswererecorded,verbatim,bytheexperi-EmotionScoringResponseswereclassifiedaseitherForexample,ifaparticipantlabeledaphotodepictingangerwiththewordstheresponsewasconsideredcorrect.Abouthalfofthechildren(11HFA/ASand10comparison)chosewordsexclusivelyfromthelist.However,16%ofresponses(37uniquewords),generatedby14HFA/ASchildrenand11comparisonchildren,didnotappearontheemotionwordlist(e.g.,frus-trated,cross,andshy).Todeterminewhetherthere-sponsewascorrect,agroupoffivegraduatestudentsstudyingemotionindependentlyclassifiedchildrenresponsesintotheemotioncategorythatbestrepre-sentstheresponse(anger,contempt,disgust,embar-rassment,fear,happiness,sadness,shame,surprise,andnonemotion;.89).Codersmodalemotioncategoryforeachwordwastheanswer.Nomorethantwocodersdisagreedwiththemodalcat-egoryforanyword.Achildsresponsewasconsid-eredcorrectifthecodersclassificationofthere-sponsematchedtheemotiondepictedinthephoto.ChildreninthepresentsamplediagnosedwithHFAwerenotstatisticallydifferentfromthosediagnosedwithASonanyofthevariablesmeasured.Therefore,weanalyzedtheirdataasasinglegroup(HFA/AS).Weconductedchi-squareteststoexaminedifferencesbetweentheHFA/ASandcomparisongroupsforourfirsttwohypotheses.WeusedlogisticregressiontotesttherelationshipofToMtoself-consciousemotionNon-Self-ConsciousEmotionsForthenon-self-consciousemotions(anger,con-tempt,disgust,fear,sadness,happiness,andsurprise),wecountedthetotalnumberofcorrectresponsesforeachchild,yieldingascorethatrangedfrom0to7.ABRIEFREPORTS chi-squareanalysiscomparingthetotalnumberofcorrectresponsesproducedpergroupconfirmedHy-pothesis1,thatis,groupswouldnotdifferintheirresponsestothenon-self-consciousemotionphotos(seeTable2),Self-ConsciousEmotionsWecomputedself-consciousemotionscoresforeachchildbytallyingthenumberofcorrectresponsestophotosdepictingembarrassmentandshame.Achi-squaretestcomparedthetotalofcorrectresponsesineachgroup.Comparisonchildrenrecognizedself-consciousemotionssignificantlybetterthandidHFA/ASchildren,.01.Addi-tionalchi-squareanalysesshowedthatHFA/ASchildrenperformedsignificantlyworseonembarrass-.02;andtendedtoperformworseonshame,ToMasaPredictorofSelf-ConsciousEmotionRecognitionForbothgroups,ToMabilitywasuncorrelatedwiththerecognitionofnon-self-consciousemotion(HFA/;comparison:).However,withineachgroup,asignificantrelationshipexistedbetweenself-consciousemotionrecognitionandToM.011;comparison:ToexaminewhetherToMabilityac-countedforgroupdifferencesinself-consciousemo-tionrecognition,weusedgroupstatus(HFA/ASorcomparison)asthecriterionvariableinathree-steplogisticregressionanalysis.Stepwiselogisticregres-siontestswhetherthepredictivepowerofamodelchangesastermsareadded.WeenteredchildrensIQscoresandagesatStep1,.735;Step2includedToMscores,.001;andStep3includedself-consciousemotionscores.Afteraccountingfordif-ferencesinToMability,thegroupdifferencesinself-consciousemotionrecognitiondisappeared,.400,suggestingthatToMabilityisanimportantaspectoftherecognitionofself-consciousemotion.Inacomplementaryanalysis,whichreversedthepresentSteps2and3,ToMre-taineditsabilitytopredictgroupdifferences,overandaboveself-consciousemotion,.02;supportingtheideathatToMmayunderpintheabilitytorecognizeself-consciousemo-tions,althoughself-consciousemotionrecognitionrepresentsonlyoneaspectofToM.Therecognitionofself-consciousemotioninvolvestheunderstandingofsocialnormviolationsandnega-tivesocialevaluations,bothimportantaspectsofToM.WeexaminedemotionrecognitionandToMinapopulationdemonstratingimpairedToM,therebylinkingself-consciousemotionwiththeabilitytoun-derstandothersevaluationsoftheselfwithrespecttosocialnorms.Inthepresentstudy,ToMabilityac-countedfortheHFA/ASgroupsdeficiencyintherecognitionofself-consciousemotion.Thisfindingdoesnotappeartoberelatedtoper-ceptualdeficitsormoregeneralemotionrecognitiondeficits.ChildrenintheHFA/ASgroupperformedcomparablytoanage-andIQ-matchedgroupoftypi-callydevelopingchildrenwithidentifyingnon-self- Nosignificantcorrelationsexistedineithergroupbe-tweenToManddevelopmentalvariablessuchasage(HFA/;comparison:),IQ(HFA/AS:),verbalmentalage),andnon-self-consciousemotionandage(HFA/AS:),IQ(HFA/AS:),verbalmentalage(HFA/AS:),ornon-self-consciousemotion(HFA/AS:Table2ProportionsofEmotionsCorrectlyIdentifiedbyGroup Non-self-conscious.70.67.85Anger.81.761.56Contempt.37.301.53Disgust.62.541.35Fear.48.362.32Sadness.76.922.51Happiness1.001.00Surprise.86.801.02Self-conscious.64.386.39*Embarrassment.81.524.28*Shame.48.243.36§Eachemotionlistedrepresentsasinglestimulusitem.Itemswerescoredaseithercorrect(1)orincorrect(0).Eachscoreinthetableindicatestheproportionofcorrectresponsestotheitem.Com-positescoreswerecomputedforemotionsandemotions.Thesereflecttheoverallproportionofcorrectresponsestophotosinthecomposite.HFA/ASfunctioningautism/Aspergerssyndrome;dashindicatesthatnochi-squaretestwasconductedforthisemotion..05.§.10.BRIEFREPORTS consciousemotionsfromphotographs.Itisunlikelythatgeneralfacerecognitiondifficultieslieattherootofthisfinding,astheidentificationofself-consciousemotionaloneappearstohavebeenaffected.More-over,theHFA/ASchildrendidnotsimplyconfuseembarrassmentwithshame.HFA/ASchildrenfre-quentlydescribedembarrassmentastheytendedtodescribeshameaswerenogroupdifferencesinwhetherparticipantschosetorespondtotheitemsspontaneously,ortousetheemotionlist.Takentogether,thesefindingssug-gestthatself-consciousemotiondeficitsarelinkedtoToMability(seeBaron-Cohenetal.,1993).Itisim-portanttonote,however,thatdifferencesinthenum-berofstimulusitemsfortheToMandself-consciousemotionmeasuresmayhaveaffectedourresults.Wedidnotfinddifferencesacrossthegroupsonsurprise,anemotionpreviouslyrelatedtofalsebelief,onecomponentofToM.Inonestudy,childrensabil-itytounderstandfalsebeliefrelatedtotheirdifficultyinidentifyingsurprise(Baron-Cohenetal.,1993).Be-causeallofourparticipantsdemonstratedfacilitywithfalsebelief,itisnotunexpectedthatwefailedtorep-licatethisfinding.Anotherpossibleexplanationofourresultsisthattheself-consciousemotionsaremoredifficultstimulitointerpret,forreasonsotherthanthoserelatedtoToM,andthatstimuluscomplexityhinderedtherec-ognitionofourHFA/ASparticipants.Severalresultsunderminethisexplanation.Weincludeddifficultex-pressionssuchasthatofcontemptinthestimulusset.Thoughchildrenhaddifficultyrecognizingcontempt,bothgroupsperformedsimilarlytoadultsinpreviousstudies.Moreover,peopleareaboutasabletojudgeself-consciousemotionsfromthefaceasotheremo-tions,suchasfear,sadness,oranger(Keltner&Buswell,1997).Therefore,itseemsthatdifficultiesinrecognizingself-consciousemotionfromfacialex-pressionarefairlyspecifictoHFA/ASchildren.Ifthedifficultyinrecognizingself-consciousemo-tionweresimplyrelatedtocognitiveabilityingen-eral,onemightexpectself-concsiousemotionrecog-nitiontobecorrelatedwithIQ,age,verbalmentalage,ornon-self-consciousemotionrecognition.Noneofthesecorrelationsapproachedsignificance.Wecannot,however,ignorethefactthatHFA/ASpartici-pantsmayexperienceemotiondifficultiesthatourmeasuresdidnotdetect,astheclosematchacrossgroupsonageandIQmayhaveprecludedusfromidentifyingexistingdifferences(seeOzonoffetal.,Thefactthatweusedonlyonephotoofeachfacialexpressionisalimitationtoourstudy.Clearly,itwillbeimportanttoaddresswhetherthedifficultyinjudg-ingself-consciousemotiondisplaysassociatedwithautismreplicates,generalizingtootheremotionpho-tosets,dynamicdisplaysandotherchannelsofcom-munication.Wenote,however,thatourcomparisonchildreninterpretedallthephotosinthepresentsetinasimilarfashionasparticipantsinothersamples(e.g.,Haidt&Keltner,1999;Keltner&Buswell,1997),andlikewiseforHFA/ASchildrensnon-self-con-sciousemotioninterpretations(Haidt&Keltner,1999).Thus,itwouldseemthatthefindingisnotanartifactofthephotosetitselfdrivingthefindings,ratheritreflectstheabilityofHFA/ASchildrentointerpretdisplaysofself-consciousemotions.Variousscholarshavenotedthecentralityofself-consciousemotiontosociallife(e.g.,Eisenberg,2000;Keltner&Buswell,1997).Emotionssuchasembarrassmentandshamemotivateadherencetoso-cialnorms,andtheirdisplayshelpindividualsrepairsocialrelationsmomentarilyjeopardizedbysocialtransgressions.Theseobservationsandourpresentfindingspointtoavarietyofwaysinwhichthein-abilityofchildrenwithautismtoidentifyself-consciousemotionsmayhavebroadersocialconse-quences,disruptingtheinteractionsandrelationshipsofindividualswithautism(forabroaderargument,seeKeltner&Kring,1998).AmericanPsychiatricAssociation.(1994).Diagnosticandstatisticalmanualofmentaldisorders(4thed.).Wash-ington,DC:Author.Baron-Cohen,S.,Spitz,A.,&Cross,P.(1993).Dochildrenwithautismrecognizesurprise?Aresearchnote.tionandEmotion,7,Beer,J.S.,Heerey,E.A.,Scabini,D.,Keltner,D.,&Knight,R.T.(2003).Theregulatoryfunctionofself-consciousemotion:Insightsfrompatientswithorbito-frontaldamage.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsy-chology,85,Buitelaar,J.K.,&vanderWees,M.(1997).AredeficitsinthedecodingofaffectivecuesandinmentalizingabilitiesJournalofAutismandDevelopmentalDis-orders,27,Capps,L.,&Sigman,M.(1996).Autisticaloneness.InR.D.Kavanaugh&B.Zimmerberg(Eds.),Emotion:In-terdisciplinaryperspectives(pp.273296).Hillsdale,NJ:Capps,L.,Yirmiya,N.,&Sigman,M.(1992).Understand-ingofsimpleandcomplexemotionsinnon-retardedchil-BRIEFREPORTS 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