Believing versus Disbelieving in Free Will Correlates - PDF document

BelievingversusDisbelievinginFreeWill:CorrelatesandConsequencesRoyF.Baumeister*andLaurenE.BrewerFloridaStateUniversitySomepeoplebelievemorethanothersinfreewill,andresearchershavebothmeasuredandmanipu- (beliefininevitablecausationofallevents)withfatalism(believingthattheoutcomewillbethesameregardlessofwhatonedoes).Also,laypersonstendtoassumethatrigidcausaldeterminismisincompatiblewithfreewill,whereasphilosophersoftenmanagetoreconcilethetwoinsubtleways.Intheworkreviewedbelow,determinismisgenerallyregardedasantitheticaltofreewill,althoughsometraitmeasurestreatthetwoaslargelyindependentifnotfullyorthogonal(e.g.,Paulhus&Carey,2011).Manipulationsandtraitmeasuresoffreewillgenerallyrepresentacompromisebetweenexpertknowledgeofphilosophicalsubtletiesandsimple,evensimplisticlaypersonunderstandings.OnlyafewstudieshaveinvestigatedhowpeopleactuallydeÞneorunderstandfreewill.Inthemostdirectattempttostudythis,MonroeandMalle(2010)askedstudentparticipantswhattheythoughtitmeanttohavefreewillandthencodedtheiropen-endedresponses.PeoplemostoftendeÞnedfreewillaschoice,asdoingthingstofulÞlloneÕsdesires,andaslackofexternalcoercion(orindeedgoingagainstexternalpressure).Metaphysicalissueswererarelymentioned.AnotherapproachtoelucidatinglayconceptionsoffreewillwastakenbyStillman,Bau-meister,andMele(2011),whoinstructedpeopletowriteabouttheirownactionsthatweredoneeitheroftheirownfreewillornotoftheirfreewill.Theseaccountswerethencoded,andsystematicdifferencesweretallieduptofurnishapictureofhowpeopleunderstandfreewillintheirowndailylives.Commonthemesthatcharacterizedfreeaction(asdifferentfromunfreeaction)includedreachinggoals,achievingpositiveoutcomes,workingtowardlong-termanddistalgoals,makingdecisionsbasedonconsciousthoughtanddeliberatereßection,behavingconsistentlywithoneÕsownmoralvalues,resistingexternalinßuencesandovercomingobstacles,andavoidingharmtooneÕssocialgroup.Thesearepresumablythephenomenathatareinvolvedwhenresearchersstudylaybeliefsaboutfreewill.Multiplelinesofevidencesuggestthatbaselinebeliefinfreewillissomewhathigh,butwithcomplications,qualiÞcations,andvariations.Onesignisthatinmanyofthestudiesreportedbelow,manipulationsaimedatincreasingbeliefinfreewillyieldedbehavioraloutcomesidenticaltotheno-manipulationcontrolgroup(whereasmanipu-lateddisbeliefproduceddeparturesfromthebaseline).Thatsuggeststhatcontrolpartici-pantsalreadybelievedinfreewill.Inotherwork,Nahmias,Morris,Nadelhoffer,andTurner(2005)haveshownthatmostpeoplereportbelievinginfreewill,thoughtheseauthorsconcludedthatpeoplealsoexpresssomedeterministicbeliefandthereforeshouldperhapsbedescribedasnaõvecompatibilists.Sarkissianetal.(2010)showedthatmajoritiesinquitedifferentculturesbelieveinfreewillandconsidertheworldtobeessentiallyindeterministic.ProninandKugler(2011)showedthatpeopletendtobelievethemselvestohavemorefreewillthanotherpeople.VonaschandBaumeister(2011)foundthatpeoplebelievesomepeople(suchasmentallyretardedpersons)havelessfreewillthanothers.Ent,Baumeister,andLambert(2011)foundthatpeopleÕsbeliefintheirownfreewillßuctuatedacrosstimeaccordingtochangingcircumstances.Thus,beliefinfreewillwaslowerondaysduringwhichtheyhadvomited,andlikewiselowerwhentheyhadaconcurrenturgetourinateorastrongdesireforsexualintercourse.Meanwhile,intrigu-ingstudiesbyEbertandWegner(2011)concludedthatpeoplesometimesmistakeran-domactionforfreewill.Forexample,robotsthatexhibitedseeminglyrandomactionswereratedashigheronfreewillthanmorepredictable,patternedones.MethodsforStudyingDifferencesinFreeWillBeliefsThereareseveralwaysresearchershavegoneaboutstudyingthecorrelatesandconse-quencesofbeliefinfreewill.BothmeasurementandexperimentalmanipulationhaveFreeWillBeliefs7372012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x beenused.Thecombinationisuseful,becausemeasurementfurnishesinsightintogenu-ineandpresumablystableindividualdifferences,whileexperimentalmanipulationmakesitpossibletoestablishcausality.VohsandSchooler(2008)manipulatedbeliefinfreewillintwoways.Onewastohaveparticipantsreadapassagethateitherimpugnedtheverynotionthatfreewillexistsorcoveredneutral,irrelevantmaterial.Theother,basedontheclassicVeltenmood-inductionmanipulation,wastohaveparticipantsreadandponderaseriesofstatements.Byrandomassignment,participantsheardasequencethatafÞrmedtherealityoffreewill,ordeniedandrejectedthatreality,orexpressedscientiÞcfactsirrelevanttofreewill.Amorerecentvariationonthisprocedureconsistsofhavingparticipantsreadthosestate-mentsandre-statethemintheirownwords(Alquist,Ainsworth,Baumeister,Stillman,&Daly,2010).Tomeasurefreewillbelief,researcherstendtorelyoneithertheFreeWillandDeter-minismPlusScale(FAD+;Paulhus&Carey,2011)ortheFreeWillandDeterminismScale(FWDS;Rakos,Laurene,Skala,&Slane,2008).TheFAD+isarecentlyrevisedandpsychometricallyvalidatedversionofanearlierFreeWillandDeterminism4Scale(FAD;Paulhus&Margesson,1994)thatwasusedinmanystudiesbutwasneverofÞciallypublished.IthasonemainsubscaledevotedspeciÞcallytomeasuringfreewillbelief,aswellasthreeothersubscalesfocusingonrelatedconstructs:fatalisticdeterminism,scien-tiÞcdeterminism,andunpredictability.OneadvantageoftheFAD+isthatitmeasuresfreewillbeliefanddeterministicbeliefswithseparatescales,allowingforanydegreeofcompatibilism.Incontrast,theFWDStreatsdeterminismasthepolaroppositeoffreewill,suchthatincreasesinonebeliefnecessarilyreßectdecreasesintheother.Aparticu-laradvantageofFWDSisthatithasseparatesubscalesformeasuringbeliefinfreewillgenerallyandformeasuringthespeciÞcsenseofoneselfashavingfreewill.Becausepeo-plemayhavespeciÞcbeliefsaboutthemselvesthatdeparttosomedegreefromtheirabstractviewsaboutpeopleingeneral(seePronin&Kugler,2011),researcherscanusewhicheverismorerelevanttotheirinvestigation.Thesearethemostpopularmethods.Othermeasures,includingone-itemortwo-itemquestionsaboutwhetheronebelievesinfreewill,arealsosometimesused.Asalways,relianceonpsychometricallyvalidatedfullscalesisconsideredthebestmethodforreliableresults,thoughsimplerapproachescanbeusefultoo.BehavioralEffectsofFreeWillWeturnnowtothemainpurposeofourreview,namelythecorrelatesandconse-quencesoffreewillbeliefs.TheseminalstudiesbyVohsandSchooler(2008)showedthatinducingdisbeliefinfreewillcausedparticipantstolie,cheat,andsteal.Inseveraldifferentprocedures,participantsperformedtaskswithÞnancialincentivesandhadtheopportunitytotakehomeextramoneybyoverreportingtheirperformanceorseeingadisplayofthecorrectanswersduringthetest(whichtheyhadbeenexplicitlytoldnottodo).ThosewhohadbeenledtodisbelieveinfreewilltookmoreadvantageoftheseillicitopportunitiesforgainthandidpeoplewhosefreewillbeliefshadbeenUsingsimilarprocedures,Baumeister,Masicampo,andDeWall(2009)demonstratedothershiftstowardantisocialbehavior.Inonestudy,inductionofdisbeliefinfreewillcausedparticipantstobehavemoreaggressivelythancontrolparticipantstowardanotherperson,measuredbyadministeringfoodwithunpleasantandunwelcomehotsaucedur-inganostensibletastetest.Inanother,thesamemanipulateddisbeliefcausedpersonsto738FreeWillBeliefs2012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x expresslesserwillingnesstohelpafellow(hypothetical)student,suchasbylettingthestudentuseapersonalcellphone.Inyetanotherstudy,dispositionalbeliefinfreewill,measuredbytheFAD,predictedwhetherpeoplewouldactuallyvolunteertimetohelpanotherstudentsufferingfrompersonalandÞnancialdifÞcultiesstemmingfromdeathofparentsandtherequirementsofsupportingsiblings.Thus,lessbeliefinfreewillledtomoreaggressionandlesshelpingtowardnon-acquaintedothers.ThethemethatdisbeliefinfreewillreducesprosocialbehaviorwasextendedbyStill-manandBaumeister(2010).Studentsintheirstudyheardamessagedesignedtoinduceguiltabouttheenvironmentaldegradationcausedbynon-recycledwasteproductsfromstudentactivities.Thosewhohadbeeninducedtodisbelieveinfreewillwerelesslikelythanotherstovolunteerforacampusrecyclingprogram.Studentswithpsychopathicten-dencieswereespeciallypronetoshowthiseffect.Thepatternthatfreewillmanipulationshaveespeciallyhighimpactonindividualswithpsychopathictendenciesseemsanintrigu-ingissueforfurtherstudy.Wenotedearlierthatpeopleassociatefreewillwithresistingexternal,socialpressuresandwithdeliberatelychoosingoneÕsactions.Consistentwiththosethemes,evidencesug-geststhatbeliefinfreewillreducesconformity.AlquistandBaumeister(2010)foundapositivecorrelationbetweenmeasuredbeliefinfreewillandaquestionnairemeasureoftendencytoconform.Theyalsoprovidedexperimentalevidencethatinducingdisbeliefinfreewillcausedparticipantstoconform.SpeciÞcally,participantsfurnishedratingsofartworkswhiletheycouldseewhatratingshadostensiblybeengivenbypreviouspartic-ipants.Disbeliefinfreewillmadeparticipantsfurnishratingsthatechoedthepriorratings,ascomparedtootherconditions,whoweremorelikelytoexpressnovel,independentjudgmentsdifferentfromthepriorones.TheseÞndingssuggestthatbelievinginfreewillcontributestowillingnesstoexertoneselftobeagoodcitizenandanupstandingparticipantinsociety.Moststudieshaveusedstudentsamples.Convergingevidence,usingaverydifferentpopulation,emergedfromaÞeldstudybyStillmanetal.(2010),whomeasuredvariationsinfreewillbeliefsamongmostlypoor,loweducated,non-whitedaylaborers.Individualswhobelievedmoreinfreewillperformedbetterintheseactualjobs,asindicatedbyratingsbytheirsupervisors.TheeffectsofbeliefinfreewillremainedsigniÞcantaftercontrollingforahostofothervariables,includingProtestantworkethic,vitality,andlifesatisfaction.Notonlydidrelativelyhighlevelsoffreewillbeliefpredictgoodjobperformance,buttheyalsopredictedhavingamorepositiveimpactonotherworkers,puttingmoreeffortintothejob,andevenjustshowingupforworkconsistently.Anotherstudyinthatinvestigationindicatedthatstudentswithhigherdispositionalbeliefinfreewillreportedgreaterexpectationsoffutureoccupationalsuccess,measuredwithitemssuchasÔÔIwillbeasuccessintheworkplaceÕÕand(reversescored)ÔÔWhoeverhiresmewillregretit.ÕÕThissigniÞcantpredictionwasspeciÞctofreewillandremainedintactaftercontrollingforintelligence(SATscore),BigFivepersonalitytraits,andlocusofcontrol(Stillmanetal.,2011).Thereisevensomeevidencethatdisbeliefinfreewillcontributestopassiveinac-tion.Rigoni,Kuhn,Sartori,andBrass(2011)induceddisbeliefinfreewillwiththeessaymanipulationandthenobtainedbrainscanswhileparticipantsperformedaLibetclocktaskinwhichtheymadeanarbitrarydecisiontomakeaÞngermovement.Dis-beliefinfreewillreducedtheso-calledreadinesspotentialeffect,inwhichthedecisiontomoveisprecededbyanincreaseinneuralactivity.TheimplicationisthatbrainactivitythatpreparestoinitiatemovementisreducedwhenpeopledisbelieveinfreeFreeWillBeliefs7392012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x JudgmentsofOthersThebehavioraleffectscoveredintheprevioussectionlinkbelievinginfreewilltosociallydesirable,prosocialactions.AttemptstoÞndundesirableorantisocialconse-quencesoffreewillbeliefshavefocusedmainlyonwhetherpeoplepunishorforgivethosewhomisbehave.Shariff,Karremans,Greene,Schooler,andVohs(2012)usedavar-iationoftheessayprocedurethatemphasizedeitherlinksbetweenfreewillandmoralresponsibilityorlinksbetweendeterminismandtheimproprietyofholdingpeopleresponsibleformisdeeds.Theyfoundthattheessayupholdingharddeterminism(andthusreducingresponsibility)causedparticipantstoassignlighterprisonsentencesaspun-ishmentforaretaliatoryviolentcrime,ascomparedtotheessayholdingpeopleresponsi-ble.Infurtherstudies,highbeliefinfreewillledtorelativelylowforgivenessbothoftransgressorsinhypotheticalvignettes(i.e.,assigninglighterprisonsentencesforÞctionalmurderers)andactualtransgressionsinincidentsrecalledfromtheparticipantÕsownlife.SimilarresultsemergedfromstudiesmeasuringfreewillbeliefswiththeFAD+.CareyandPaulhus(2011)hadparticipantsreadavignetteaboutachildmolesterandrecom-mendedaprisonsentence.Latertheyweregivenadditionalinformationthatthemolesterhadhimselfbeenabusedasachildandsufferedfrompsychopathology,afterwhichpartic-ipantscouldrevisetheirprisonrecommendations.Thegreaterthebeliefinfreewill,thelongertheprisonsentencepeoplerecommendedonbothoccasions.ScientiÞcdetermin-ismandfatalismhadnoeffect.Alongthesamelines,Rakosetal.(2008)foundthatboththepersonalwillandgeneralwillsubscalesoftheFWDSwerepositivelycorrelatedwithdispositionaltendenciestowardretribution.ThemainexceptiontothispatternwasinstudiesbyCrescioni,Baumeister,Ent,Ainsworth,andLambert(2011),whofoundposi-tivecorrelationsbetweenfreewillbeliefsandself-reportedtendenciestoforgiverelation-shippartners.WhethertheseÞndingsreallyindicateakinder,gentlersideofdeterministicbeliefsisdebatable.Inourview,theysuggestthattheupshotofbelievinginfreewillisnotbestconceptualizedintermsofnicenessbutratherintermsofmoralresponsibility,whichisanimportantpreconditionforculture.Thatisconsistentwiththeviewthattheevolvedpurposeoffreewill(andbyextensionthesocialfunctionoftheverywidespreadbeliefinfreewill)istofacilitatehumansocietyintheformofculture.Culturecanonlyfunctiontotheextentthatpeoplerespectitsrulesandperformtheirrolesproperly,andsoculturestendtopunishandexcludeindividualswhofailtodothis(seeBaumeister,2008).Retri-butionratherthanforgivenessmayreßecttheattitudeofholdingwrongdoersresponsibleforviolatingthecultureÕsrules.ThecontraryÞnding(thatbeliefinfreewillpositivelycorrelateswithforgivingrelationshippartners)mayreßectdifferentgoals.Withinacloserelationship,oneÕsgoalmaybetomaintaintherelationship,andsoonemaywanttobelievethatthepartnerhassufÞcientfreewilltobeabletochangesoasnottorepeatthetransgression.Incontrast,withastrangerordistantacquaintance,thegoalispresum-ablytoupholdthemoralandlegalsystembypunishingwrongdoers.Directevidencelinkingfreewillbelieftomoralresponsibilitywasprovidedbyourownrecentinvestigations(Brewer&Baumeister,2010a).WereplicatedsomeoftheÞndingsofShariffetal.(2012)andalsofoundthatbothmeasuredandmanipulatedbeliefsinfreewillwerelinkedtoholdingpeopleingeneralmoreresponsiblefortheiractions.Reducingbeliefinfreewillundercutsjudgmentsofmoralresponsibility,makingpeoplemorewillingtoforgiveothers.CareyandPaulhus(2009)foundthathighbeliefinfreewillwasassociatedwithaten-dencytobelievethattheworldwasgenerallyjustandfairÐbutonlyforotherpeople.740FreeWillBeliefs2012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x Beliefinjusticeforoneselfwasunrelatedtobeliefinfreewill,possiblybecausemanyothermotivationsandrationalizationsenterintoperceptionofwhetheroneselfhasbeentreatedfairlyinlife.TheseÞndingslikewisesuggestthattheprimaryimpactofbelievinginfreewillistosupportabidingbytherulesofculture,especiallyinregardtojudgingothersandholdingthemresponsible.Theideathatbeliefinfreewillfostersunfairness,intolerance,andoppressionwasassertedpassionatelybyMiles(forthcoming),buthisconclusionsappearbasedonmisin-terpretationofunpublishedsurveyÞndings.SystematicattemptstotestMilesÕshypothesesbyVonaschandBaumeister(forthcoming)foundthatmorebeliefinfreewillwaslinkedtogreaterbeliefinsocialmobilityandeventodesireforgreaterincomeequality,andithadnorelationtosympathyforpoorpeople,disadvantagedindividuals,andminoritygroupmembers.BeliefsandAttitudesBeliefinfreewillcorrelateswith(andinsomecaseshasbeenshowntocause)anassort-mentofotherbeliefsaboutselfandlife.AseriesofinvestigationsbyCrescionietal.(2011)foundhigherbeliefinfreewillwascorrelatedwithÞndinglifeasmoremeaning-ful,withhigherlifesatisfaction(seealsoStillmanetal.,2011),withgreaterrelationshipsatisfactionandrelationshipcommitment,withgreaterdispositionalwillingnesstoforgiverelationshippartners,withgreaterself-efÞcacy,andwithgreaterintrinsicreligiosity.Thesemaysuggestthatitsimplycorrelateswithmanythingsthatpeopleconsiderpositive,butfreewillbeliefswereuncorrelatedwithsomethingsoftenregardedasdesirable:senseofhumor(self-rated)personalattractiveness,empathy,andextrinsicreligiosity.Beliefinfreewillwasalsolinkedtoadispositionaltendencytobegratefultoothers,whichisofcon-ceptualinterestbecausegratitudemayimplyarecognitionthatoneÕsbenefactorcouldhavedoneotherwise.Beliefinfreewillwasnegativelycorrelatedwithlifestress,whichmightsimplyimplythatsufferingthroughmisfortunescallsattentiontothelimitsofoneÕsabilitytocontroloneÕslife.ItisdifÞculttoknowwhetherthebeliefinfreewillwascauseoreffect.Anexperimentalstudybythesameauthorsshowed,however,thatinducingdisbeliefinfreewillcausedpersonstoperceivetheirlivesaslessmeaningful.Apparently,Þndinglifeasmeaningfulispartlyamatterofbelievingoneselfisabletomakechoices.ThoughtsaboutSelfBeliefsaboutfreewillseemtoalterhowpeoplethinkaboutandprocessinformationaboutthemselves.SeveralstudiesbyAlquistetal.(2010)studiedcounterfactualthinking,suchasbyhavingparticipantsrecallanincidentfromtheirownlivesinwhichtheyhadhurtsomeoneandthenmakealistofthingstheymighthavedonedifferently.Partici-pantswhohadpreviouslybeeninducedtodisbelieveinfreewillgeneratedfewersuchcounterfactualpossibilities,ascomparedtothosewhosebeliefinfreewillhadbeenbol-steredbyhavingthemre-writestatementsafÞrmingfreewill.Oneinterpretationofthisisthatpeopleweresimplybeingconsistentwiththephilosophicalbeliefs.BydeÞnition,thosewhodisbelieveinfreewillandembracedeterminismthinktheycouldnotpossiblyhaveacteddifferentlythantheydid,giventhosecircumstances(sotherearenogenuinecounterfactualpossibilities).Morelikely,though,beliefinfreewillsimplypromotesthinkingofmultiplepossibilitiesandtakingresponsibilityforoneÕsactions,andhenceitpromotesconsiderationofalternativeandpotentiallymoredesirableactions.FreeWillBeliefs7412012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x Guiltislikewiseoftenassociatedwithbelievingoneshouldhaveacteddifferently.OnebeneÞtofguiltisthatitmotivatespeopletoreßectontheirmisdeeds,learnmorallessonsfromthem,andresolvetobehavedifferentlyinthefuture(Baumeister,Stillwell,&Heatherton,1994).StillmanandBaumeister(2010)hadparticipantsreßectonpastactionsaboutwhichtheyfeltguiltyandarticulateanylessonstheyhaddrawn.Judgesblindtoconditionandhypothesescodedthequalityoftheselessons.Participantswhobelievedinfreewill(andwhofeltsubstantiallyguilty)extractedhigherquality,morevaluablelessonsthanparticipantswithlesserbelief.TherewassomeevidencethatbeliefinfreewillevenhadsimilareffectsonlearninglessonsfromexperiencesmarkedbyemotionsotherthanAlthoughthestudiesonguiltandcounterfactualthinkingreliedonthinkingaboutpastevents,theyexploredimplicationsforthefuture.ThefuturewasmorecentrallystudiedinrecentworkbyCrescionietal.(2011),whomanipulatedfreewillbeliefsandthenaskedparticipantstolistthreethingstheywouldliketodo(andwhentheywouldliketodothem).Responseswerecodedbyjudgesblindtocondition.Beliefinfreewillledtosettinggoalsfartherintothefuturethandisbeliefinfreewill,aswellassettingmoregoalsandmoremeaningfulgoals.Thus,believinginfreewillwasconducivetopursuinglong-termgoals.RelationtoOtherTraitsThevariousmeasuresoffreewillhavebeencheckedagainstotherpersonalitytraits.Freewillbelief,asmeasuredbytheFAD+,hasbeenshowntocorrelatepositivelywithmea-suresofextraversion,agreeableness,andrightwingauthoritarianism(Paulhus&Carey,2011).Thesefurthertheviewthatbeliefinfreewillispartofageneralattitudeofwant-ingtoparticipateinsocietyandexpectingotherstobehaveinmorallyresponsiblefash-ion.Thecorrelationwithagreeablenessmayseemsurprising,becausefreewillbeliefsupportspunitiveattitudestowardwrongdoers(seeprevioussection)whereasagreeablepeoplearereputedlynice.ButrecentworkbyKammrathandScholar(2011)hasshownthatagreeablepeoplearepunitivetowardantisocialbehaviors,andsoagreeablenessmaybeunderstood,likefreewillbelief,asatraitthatisconducivetoculturalparticipationandgoodbehavior.Theauthoritarianismcorrelationmayalsoseemsurprising,insofarasauthoritariansmayreducethefreedomofindividuals.Possiblythistraitalsoreßectsanexpectationofmoralresponsibility.Somethinkersbelievethatliberalpoliticalviewsareinimicaltoindividualresponsibility,seeingpeopleinsteadasvictimsofsocialforcesandtheiractionsasexternallycaused.Inastudentsample,Stillmanetal.(2011)foundthatbeliefinfreewillwaspositivelycorrelatedwiththreeoftheBigFivetraits,namelyConscientiousness,EmotionalStabil-ity,andOpennesstoExperience.Thecorrelationswiththeothertwodimensionswerenearzero.Theyalsofoundamodestcorrelationwithinternallocusofcontrolbutnotwithintelligence.Intheirnon-student(daylaborer)sample,theyfoundfreewillbeliefstobeuncorrelatedwithvitalityandwithendorsementoftheProtestantWorkEthic.ConßictingÞndingshaveemergedregardingtherelationshiptointernallocusofcon-trol.PaulhusandCarey(2011)foundthatinternallocusofcontrolcorrelatedpositivelywithbeliefinfreewillontheFAD+,Stillmanetal.(2011)likewisefoundasmallposi-tivecorrelation.ButRakosetal.(2008)foundthatinternallocusofcontrolcorrelatednegativelywithboththepersonalwillandgeneralwillsubscalesoftheFWDS.Conceptually,self-controlisacloserelativetofreewill,andindeedBaumeisterÕs(2008)researchprogramonfreewillgrewoutofhisinitialstudiesonself-control.742FreeWillBeliefs2012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x Measuredbeliefinfreewillhasbeenshowntocorrelatebothwithtraitself-controlandwitharecentmeasureofdesireforself-control(Brewer&Baumeister,2010b).Thatis,believersinfreewillclaimtohavebetterself-controlandtobemoremotivatedtoexertandmaintaincontroloverthemselves,ascomparedtodisbelieversinfreewill.Thereisalsosomeevidencethathigherbeliefinfreewilliscorrelatedwithahighersenseofself-efÞcacy(Crescionietal.,2011).Alltheseresultsinvokeagency.BelievinginfreewillisapparentlytiedtoabroadsenseofwantingtoexertcontroloveroneÕslifeandbelievingthatonecan.Beliefinfreewillisbothastabledimensionofindividualdifferencesandaßexibleopin-ionsubjecttoinßuenceandßuctuation.Itdoesnothaveanystronglinkstoothertraits.ModestcorrelationswithsomeBigFivetraits(unfortunatelydifferingacrosssamplesandmeasures)havebeenfound.Freewillbeliefsarealsonotthesameaslocusofcontrol,self-efÞcacy,ProtestantEthicendorsement,vitality,andself-control,thoughagainmodestcorrelationshavebeenfound.Highbeliefinfreewillproduceseffectsthatcanmostlybedescribedasprosocial,butpro-culturalmaybeanevenmoreaptcharacterization.Beliefinfreewillseemstopro-motealessforgivingandmorepunitiveattitudetowardpeoplewhobreakrulesandthusunderminetheimplicitsocialcontractthatunderliesculture.Ingeneral,disbeliefinfreewillislinkedtodisregardforsocietalrulesandnorms,asindicatedbyincreasedpropensi-tiestoengageinaggression,cheating,stealing,andslackingoffatwork,aswellasreducedhelpfulness.Beliefinmoralresponsibilityappearstobecloselylinkedtobeliefinfreewill.Baumeister(2008)hasproposedthattheconceptoffreewillislinkedtoanewformofactioncontrolthatevolvedinconnectionwiththehumanpropensitytoreinventsociallifeasculture.Thatbeliefinfreewillsupportsculturalactivitiesisconducivetothatview,thoughitcannotbetakenasproofofanyevolutionaryargumentoroftherealityoffreewill.Asecondthemeispersonalagency.Highfreewillbeliefhasbeenlinkedtothinkingforoneselfinsteadofmindlesslyconformingtotheopinionsofothers,tocounterfactualthinkingandlearningfromoneÕsmistakes,toself-efÞcacyand(sometimes)internallocusofcontrol,aswellastobrainactivityassociatedwithinitiatingmovementandtoactualbehavior.Disbeliefinfreewillappearstofosteranattitudeofpassivity,indifference,andperhapswide-rangingdisregardformoralresponsibility.Thetwothemesmaybeinterrelated.Personalagencymaybeusefulforculture,aslongasitistemperedbyrecognitionofthemoralandlegalrulesandothernormsthatspecifypropercoursesofaction.Severaldirectionsforfutureresearchemergedfromthisreview.Brießy,differencesbetweenmanipulatedversusmeasuredbeliefsinfreewillrequirefurthertheoryandelab-oration.(Amongotherdifferences,themanipulationsmaythreatencherishedbeliefs,whereasmeasurementaloneispresumablynon-threatening.)Thereisnotyetaclearcon-sensusonwhatexactlyistheconstructoffreewillthatpeoplebelieveintovaryingdegrees,thoughsomeworkhasmovedtheÞeldclosertothisunderstanding(Monroe&Malle,2010).Wenotedthatbelievinginfreewillseemedtoincreaseforgivenesstowardrelationshippartnersbutdecreaseforgivenessofstrangersandothers,andfurtherworkshouldresolveandexplainthisseeminginconsistency.Also,thisreviewisonlyonesteptowardintegratingthedimensionofbeliefinfreewillintothebroaderunderstandingofindividualdifferences.Furtherworkmayexaminewhyitdoesvs.doesnotcorrelatewithFreeWillBeliefs7432012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x otherconstructs(suchaslocusofcontrol,autonomy,andevenattributionalstyle)thathavesomeconceptualoverlap.ItseemsunlikelythatthedeÞnitiveanswertoage-oldquestionsofwhetherandinwhatsensepeoplehavefreewillislikelytoemergesoon.Inthemeantime,variationsandßuctuationsinsubjectivebeliefsaboutfreewillmaycontinuetoexertinßuenceonhowpeoplethink,feel,andbehave.WegratefullyacknowledgegrantsupportfromtheTempletonFoundation.ShortBiographiesRoyF.BaumeisteriscurrentlytheEppesEminentProfessorofPsychologyandheadofthesocialpsychologygraduateprogramatFloridaStateUniversity.HereceivedhisPh.D.insocialpsychologyfromPrincetonin1978anddidapostdoctoralfellowshipinsociologyattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.HespentovertwodecadesatCaseWesternReserveUniversity,whereheeventuallywastheÞrsttoholdtheElsieSmithprofessorship.HehasalsoworkedattheUniversityofTexas,theUniversityofVirginia,theMax-Planck-Institute,theVUFreeUniversityofAmsterdam,theUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBar-bara,andStanfordÕsCenterforAdvancedStudyintheBehavioralSciences.BaumeisterÕsresearchspansmultipletopics,includingselfandidentity,self-regulation,interpersonalrejectionandtheneedtobelong,sexualityandgender,aggression,self-esteem,meaning,andself-presentation.HehasreceivedresearchgrantsfromtheNationalInstitutesofHealthandfromtheTempletonFoundation.Hehasover470publications,andhis30booksEvil:InsideHumanViolenceandCrueltyTheCulturalAnimalMeaningsofLife,andtheNewYorkTimesbestsellerWillpower:RediscoveringtheGreatestHumanStrength.GoogleScholarcalculateshisHasover100,whichmeans100ofhispublicationshavebeencitedinotherworks100timeseach.HehasreceivedlifetimeachievementawardsfromtheSocietyforPersonalityandSocialPsychologyandfromtheInternationalSocietyforSelfandIdentity.HelivesbyasmalllakeinFloridawithhisbelovedfamily.Inhisraresparetime,heenjoyswindsurÞng,skiing,andjazzguitar.LaurenBrewerisagraduatestudentatFloridaStateUniversity.Herresearchinterestsincludefreewillbeliefandself-control.Inhersparetime,Laurenenjoystraveling,mod-erndancing,andplayingtrivia.*Correspondenceaddress:DepartmentofPsychology,FloridaStateUniversity,Tallahassee,FL32306-4301,USA.Email:baumeister@psy.fsu.eduorbrewer@psy.fsu.eduAlquist,J.L.,Ainsworth,S.,Baumeister,R.F.,Stillman,T.F.,&Daly,M.(2010).BeliefinDeterminismIncreasesCounterfactualThinking.Unpublishedmanuscript.Alquist,J.L.,&Baumeister,R.F.(2010).FreetobeDifferent:DisbeliefinFreewillIncreasesConformity.UnpublishedBaumeister,R.F.(2008).FreewillinscientiÞcpsychology.PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience,14Ð19.Baumeister,R.F.,Masicampo,E.J.,&DeWall,C.N.(2009).ProsocialbeneÞtsoffeelingfree:Disbeliefinfreewillincreasesaggressionandreduceshelpfulness.PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin,260Ð268.744FreeWillBeliefs2012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x Baumeister,R.F.,Stillwell,A.M.,&Heatherton,T.F.(1994).Guilt:Aninterpersonalapproach.PsychologicalBul-,243Ð267.Brewer,L.E.,&Baumeister,R.F.(2010a).ForgivingFreely:PerceptionsofMoralResponsibilityMediatetheRelationshipBetweenBeliefinFreeWillandWillingnesstoForgive.Manuscriptsubmittedforpublication.Brewer,L.E.,&Baumeister,R.F.(2010b).[RelationshipBetweenFreewillBeliefandSelf-Control].UnpublishedrawCarey,J.,&Paulhus,D.L.(2009,July).AreFreewillandDeterminismIncompatible?Posterpresentedatthe1stAnnualmeetingoftheAssociationforResearchinPersonality,Evanston,IL.Carey,J.,&Paulhus,D.L.(2011,January).TheIndependenceofFreewillandDeterminisminJudgmentsofMoralResponsibility.Posterpresentedatthe12thAnnualmeetingoftheSocietyforPersonalityandSocialPsychology,SanAntonio,TX.Crescioni,A.W.,Baumeister,R.F.,Ent,M.,Ainsworth,S.,&Lambert,N.(2011).ThePositiveCorrelatesandEffectsofBelievinginFreeWill.Unpublishedmanuscript.Ebert,J.P.,&Wegner,D.M.(2011).Mistakingrandomnessforfreewill.ConsciousnessandCognition,965ÐEnt,M.,Baumeister,R.F.,&Lambert,N.(2011).FreeWillBeliefsandEmbodiedCognition.Unpublishedmanu-Kammrath,L.K.,&Scholar,A.A.(2011).ThePollyannamyth:Howhighlyagreeablepeoplejudgepositiveandnegativerelationalacts.PersonalistyandSocialPsychologyBulletin,1172Ð1184.Miles,J.B.(forthcoming).ÔÔIrresponsibleandadisservice:ÕÕTheintegrityofsocialpsychologyturnsonthefreewillBritishJournalofSocialPsychology,doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02077.x.Monroe,A.E.,&Malle,B.F.(2010).Fromuncausedwilltoconsciouschoice:Theneedtostudy,notspeculateaboutpeopleÕsfolkconceptoffreewill.ReviewofPhilosophyandPsychology,211Ð224.Nahmias,E.,Morris,S.,Nadelhoffer,T.,&Turner,J.(2005).Surveyingfreedom:Folkintuitionsaboutfreewillandmoralresponsibility.PhilosophicalPsychology,561Ð584.Paulhus,D.L.,&Carey,J.M.(2011).TheFAD-Plus:MeasuringlaybeliefsregardingFreeWillandrelatedJournalofPersonalityAssessment,96Ð104.Paulhus,D.L.,&Margesson,A.(1994).FreeWillandDeterminism(FAD)Scale.Unpublishedmanuscript.Pronin,E.,&Kugler,M.B.(2011).Peoplebelievetheyhavemorefreewillthanothers.PNAS:ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,22469Ð22474.Rakos,R.F.,Laurene,K.R.,Skala,S.,&Slane,S.(2008).Beliefinfreewill:MeasurementandconceptualizationBehaviorandSocialIssues,20Ð39.Rigoni,D.,Kuhn,S.,Sartori,G.,&Brass,M.(2011).Inducingdisbeliefinfreewillaltersbraincorrelatesofpre-consciousmotorpreparation:Thebrainmindswhetherwebelieveinfreewillornot.PsychologicalScienceSarkissian,H.,Chatterjee,A.,DeBrigard,F.,Knobe,J.,Nichols,S.,&Sirker,S.(2010).Isbeliefinfreewillaculturaluniversal?Mind&Language,346Ð358.Shariff,A.F.,Karremans,J.C.,Greene,J.D.,Schooler,J.W.,&Vohs,K.D.(2012).Diminishedbeliefinfreewillincreasesforgivenessandreducespunishment.Manuscriptsubmittedforpublication.Stillman,T.F.,&Baumeister,R.F.(2010).Guilty,free,andwise:Beliefinfreewillfacilitateslearningfromself-consciousemotions.JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology,951Ð960.Stillman,T.F.,Baumeister,R.F.,&Mele,A.R.(2011).Freewillineverydaylife:Autobiographicalaccountsoffreeandunfreeactions.PhilosophicalPsychology,381Ð394.Stillman,T.F.,Baumeister,R.F.,Vohs,K.D.,Lambert,N.,Fincham,F.,&Brewer,L.E.(2010).Personalphilosophyandpersonnelachievement:Beliefinfreewillpredictsbetterjobperformance.SocialPsychologicalandPersonalityScience,43Ð50.Vohs,K.D.,&Schooler,J.(2008).Thevalueofbelievinginfreewill:Encouragingabeliefindeterminismincreasescheating.PsychologicalScience,49Ð54.Vonasch,A.J.,&Baumeister,R.F.(2011).[Whatmakessomeonefree?Situationalanddispositionaldifferencesinfreewill.Unpublishedrawdata.Vonasch,A.J.,&Baumeister,R.F.(forthcoming).ImplicationsoffreewillbeliefsforbasictheoryandsocietalbeneÞt:Critiqueandimplicationsforsocialpsychology.BritishJournalofSocialPsychologyFreeWillBeliefs7452012BlackwellPublishingLtdSocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass6/10(2012):736–745,10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00458.x