Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Chapter 13

From page 451Slide2

Cognitive Development

Cognitive changes of early adulthood are supported

by further development of the cerebral cortex

Especially the frontal lobes

Pruning of synapses along with growth and

myelination

of stimulated neural fibers continue

Though at a slower pace than in adolescence

Cognitive advances are promoted by major life events

Attaining higher education, establishing a career, and grappling with the demands of marriage and child rearing

fMRI

evidence reveals that as young adults become increasingly proficient in a field of endeavor, cortical regions specialized for those activities undergo

further

experience-dependent brain growth

Structural changes may occur as skill refinement results in increased cortical tissue devoted to the task

And at times, the brain areas governing an activity may be reorganizedSlide3

Cognitive Development

How does cognition change in early adulthood?

This question has been examined from 3 vantage points

It has been proposed that transformations in the structure of thought occur

New, qualitatively distinct ways of thinking that extend the cognitive-developmental changes of childhood and adolescence

Adulthood is a time of attaining advanced knowledge in a particular area

This accomplishment has important implications for information processing and creativity

Researchers have been interested in the extent to which the diverse mental abilities assessed by intelligence tests remain stable or change during the adult yearsSlide4

Changes in the Structure of Thought

Piaget acknowledged the possibility that important advances in thinking follow the attainment of formal operational thinking

He observed that adolescents place excessive faith in abstract systems

They prefer a logical, internally consistent perspective on the world to one that is vague, contradictory, and adapted to particular circumstances

Postformal

thought

– cognitive development beyond Piaget’s formal operations

Researchers studying

postformal

thought have observed that cognitive development occurs beyond Piaget’s formal operations

As personal effort and social experiences spark increasingly rational, flexible, and practical ways of thinkingSlide5

Perry’s Theory: Epistemic Cognition

William Perry (1981, 1970/1998)

Epistemic cognition

– refers to our reflections on how we arrive at facts, beliefs, and ideas

When mature, rational thinkers reach conclusions that differ from those of others, they consider the justifiability of their conclusions

When they cannot justify their approach, they revise it, seeking a more balanced, adequate route to acquiring knowledgeSlide6

Development of Epistemic Cognition

Perry interviewed university students to discover why they respond in dramatically different ways to the diversity of ideas they encounter in college

At the end of each of their 4 years, he asked students “what stood out” during the previous year

Responses indicated that the students’ reflections on “

knowing

” changed as they experienced the complexities of university life and moved closer to adult roles Slide7

Development of Epistemic Cognition

Younger students regarded knowledge as made up of separate units (beliefs and prepositions)

They believed the truth of these separate units could be determined by comparing them to objective standards

Standards that exist apart from the thinking person and his/her current situation

As a result, they engaged in

dualistic thinking

– dividing information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they

Ex. College freshman: “When I went to my first lecture, what the man said was just like God’s word. I believed everything he said because he is a professor… and this is a respected position.”

Ex. Asked a college sophomore “If two people disagree on the interpretation of a poem, how would you decide who was right?”

Response: “You’d have to ask the poet, It’s his poem”Slide8

Development of Epistemic Cognition

Older students moved toward

relativistic thinking

– viewing all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought

Aware of a diversity of opinions on many topics, they gave up the possibility of absolute truth in favor of multiple truths, each relative to its context

As a result, their thinking becomes more flexible and tolerant

Ex. College senior: “Just seeing how [famous philosophers] fell short of an all-encompassing answer, [you realize] that ideas are really individualized. And you begin to have respect for how great their thought could be, without its being absolute.”

Relativistic thinking leads to the realization that one’s own beliefs are often subjective, since several frameworks satisfy the criterion of internal logical consistency

Thus, the relativistic thinker is acutely aware that each person, in arriving at a position, creates his/her own “truth”Slide9

Development of Epistemic Cognition

Eventually, the most mature individuals progress to

commitment within relativistic thinking

– instead of choosing between opposing views, they try to formulate a more satisfying perspective that synthesizes contradictions

When considering which of 2 theories studied in a college course is better, or which of several movies most deserves an Oscar

The individual moves beyond the stance that everything is a matter of opinion and generates rational criteria against which options can be evaluated

Few college students reach this extension of relativism

Adults who attain it generally display a more sophisticated approach to learning

In which they actively seek out differing perspectives to advance their knowledge and understandingSlide10

Epistemic Cognition: Importance of Peer Interaction and Reflection

Advances in epistemic cognition depend on further gains in metacognition

Which are likely to occur in situations that challenge young peoples’ perspectives and induce them to consider the rationality of their thought processes

When students tackle challenging, ill-structured problems, interaction among individuals who are roughly equal in knowledge and authority is beneficial

Because it prevents acceptance of another’s reasoning simply because of greater power or expertise

Researchers acknowledge that movement from dualism to relativism is probably limited to people who are college educated

Because of the many viewpoints encountered in the course of college study

Also, the most advanced attainment – commitment within relativism – may require advanced graduate study Slide11

Labouvie-Vief’s Theory: Pragmatic Thought and Cognitive-Affective Complexity

Like Perry,

Labouvie

-

Vief

points out that whereas adolescents operate within a world of possibility, adulthood involves movement from hypothetical to

pragmatic thought

Pragmatic thought

– a structural advance in which logic becomes a tool for solving real-world problems

The need to specialize motivates this change

As adults select one path out of many alternatives, they become more aware of the constraints of everyday life

In the course of balancing various roles, they accept contradictions as part of existence and develop ways of thinking that thrive on imperfection and compromise

Young adults’ enhanced reflective capacities alter the dynamics of their emotional lives

They become more adept in integrating cognition with emotion which allows for making sense of discrepancies Slide12

Labouvie-Vief’s

Theory: Pragmatic Thought and Cognitive-Affective Complexity

Labovie-Vief

found that from adolescence through middle adulthood, people gain in

cognitive-affective complexity

– awareness of positive and negative feelings and coordination of them into a complex organized structure

Ex. A 34 year old combines roles, traits, and diverse emotions into this coherent self-description: “With the recent birth of our first child, I find myself more fulfilled than ever, yet struggling in some ways. My elation is tempered by my gnawing concern over meeting all my responsibilities in a satisfying way while remaining an individualized person with needs and desires”

Cognitive-affective complexity promotes greater awareness of one’s own and others’ perspectives and motivations

It is a vital aspect of adult emotional intelligence and is valuable in solving many pragmatic problems

It helps people regulate intense emotion and, therefore, think rationally about real-world dilemmas, even those that are full of negative informationSlide13

Expertise and Creativity

Expertise

– acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field or endeavor

Because it takes many years to master any complex domain, expertise is supported by the specialization that begins with selecting a college major or an occupation

Once attained,

expertise

has a profound impact on

information processing

Characteristics of experts

Compared with novices, experts remember and reason more quickly and effectively

Experts know more domain-specific concepts, and represent them at a deeper and more abstract level and as having more features that can be linked to other concepts

When faced with a complicated problem

Novices tend to use a trial and error approach

Experts tend to plan ahead, systematically analyzing and categorizing elements and selecting the best from many possibilitiesSlide14

Expertise and Creativity

Expertise is necessary for creativity , as well as problem solving

Besides just being original, the creative products of adults must be directed at a social or aesthetic need

Mature creativity requires the ability to formulate new, culturally meaningful problems and to ask significant questions that have not been posed before

This movement from problem solving to problem finding is a core feature of

postformal

thought evident in highly accomplished artists and scientists

Case studies support the 10-year rule in development of master-level creativity

A decade between initial exposure to a field and sufficient expertise to produce a creative work

Creative accomplishment rises in early adulthood, peaks in the late 30s or early 40s, and gradually declines

Those who get an early start in creativity tend to peak and drop off sooner, while “late bloomers” hit their stride at older ages

This suggests that creativity is more a function of “career age” than of chronological ageSlide15

Expertise and Creativity

The course of creativity also varies across disciplines

Artists and musicians typically show an early rise in creativity, maybe because they do not need extensive formal education before they begin to produce

Academic scholars and scientists, who must earn higher academic degrees and spend years doing research to make worthwhile contributions, usually display their achievements later and over a longer time

Creativity requires qualities other than being an expert

An innovative thinking style, tolerance of ambiguity, a special drive to succeed, and a willingness to experiment and try again after failure

Creativity is determined by multiple factors and, when promoted by personal situational factors, can continue many decades Slide16

The College Experience

About 2/3 of U.S. high school graduates enroll in an institution of higher education

Most people view their college years as more influential than any other period of adulthood

College serves as a “developmental testing ground”

A time for devoting attention to exploring alternative values, roles, and behaviors

College exposes students to new ideas and beliefs, new freedoms and opportunities, and new academic and social demandsSlide17

Psychological Impact of Attending College

Research reveals that broad psychological changes occur from the freshman to the senior year of college

Students become better at reasoning about problems that have no clear solution, identifying the strengths and weaknesses of opposing sides of complex issues, and reflecting on the quality of their own thinking

College students’ attitudes and values also broaden

They show increased interest in literature, the performing arts, and philosophical and historical issues, and greater tolerance for ethnic and cultural diversity

Their moral reasoning advances as they develop a concern for individual rights and human welfare

They develop greater self-understanding, enhanced self-esteem, and a firmer sense of identity

The type of 4-year institution attended – public vs. private, highly selective vs. relatively open enrollment – makes little difference in psychological outcomes or even in ultimate career success and earnings

And, cognitive growth is just as great at 2-year community colleges as at 4-year institutions

Rather, the impact of college is jointly influenced by the person’s involvement in academic and nonacademic activities and the richness and diversity of the campus environment Slide18

Dropping Out

45% of U.S. students at 2-year institutions and 30% of those at 4-year institutions drop out, most within the 1

st

year or 1

st

6 months

Both personal and institutional factors play a role in dropout rates

Most entering freshman have high hopes for college life but find the transition difficult

Dropout rates are higher in colleges with less selective admission requirements

Ethnic minority students from low-SES families are at increased risk for dropping out

Colleges that do little to help high-risk students have a higher percentage of dropouts

Students who report experiencing “disrespect” on campus because of their ethnicity or religion are more likely to drop out

Beginning to prepare young people in early adolescence with the necessary educational aspirations and skills can do much to improve college successSlide19

Dropping Out

Reaching out to 1

st

year college students is crucial to prevent dropout

Programs that forge bonds between teachers and students and that provide academic support, part-time work opportunities, and meaningful extracurricular roles increase retention

Young people who feel that they have entered a college community that is concerned about them as individuals are far more likely to graduate Slide20

Vocational Choice

Young adults, college-bound or not, face a major life decision: the choice of a suitable work

role

Being a productive worker calls for many of the same qualities as being an active citizen and a nurturing family member

Good judgment, responsibility, dedication, and cooperationSlide21

Selecting a Vocation

In societies with an abundance of career possibilities, occupational choice is a gradual process that begins long before adolescence

Major theorists view the young person as moving through several periods of vocational development

The fantasy period

– in early and middle childhood, children gain insight into career options by fantasizing about them

Their preferences, guided largely by familiarity, glamour, and excitement, bear little relation to the decisions they will eventually make

The tentative period

– between ages 11-16, adolescents think about careers in more complex ways, at first in terms of their

interests

, and then in terms of their

abilities

and

values

The realistic period

– by the late teens and early 20s, young people start to narrow their options

They may engage in further

exploration

In the final phase,

crystallization

, they focus on a general vocational category and experiment for a time before settling on a single occupation Slide22

Factors Influencing Vocational Choice

A few young people follow a direct path to a career goal, some decide and later change their minds, while still others remain undecided for an extended

period

College students have additional time to explore various options, while many low-SES youths face a restricted range of

choices

Making an occupational choice is the result of dynamic interaction between person and environment

Affected by personality, family and teachers, and gender stereotypes Slide23

Factors Influencing Vocational Choice: Personality

People are attracted to occupations that complement their personalities

John Holland identified 6 personality types that affect vocational choice

The

investigative person

, who enjoys working with ideas, is likely to select a scientific occupation (ex. Anthropologist, physicist, or engineer)

The

social person

, who likes interacting with people, gravitates toward human services (ex. Counseling, social work, or teaching)

The

realistic person

, who prefers real-world problems and working with objects, tends to choose a mechanical occupation (ex. Construction, plumbing, or surveying)

The

artistic person

, who is emotional and high in need for individual expression, looks toward an artistic field (ex. Writing, music, or the visual arts)

The

conventional person

, who likes well-structured tasks and values material possessions and social status, has traits well-suited to certain business fields (ex. Accounting, banking, or quality control)

The

enterprising person

, who is adventurous, persuasive, and a strong leader, is drawn to sales and supervisory positions or politics

Research confirms a relationship between personality and vocational choice in diverse cultures, but it is only moderate

Many people are blends of several personality types and can do well at more than one kind of occupationSlide24

Factors Influencing Vocational Choice: Family

Young people’s vocational aspirations correlate strongly with their parents’ jobs

Those who grew up in higher SES homes are more likely to select high-status, white-collar occupations

Those with lower SES backgrounds tend to choose less prestigious, blue-collar careers

Parent-child vocational similarity is partly a function of similarity in personality, intellectual abilities, and especially educational attainment

More today than in past generations, number of years of schooling completed powerfully predicts occupational status

Higher SES parents are more likely to give their children important information about the world of work

They tend to use parenting practices that promote curiosity and self-direction, which are required for high-status careers

Parental pressure to do well in school and encouragement toward high-status occupations predict vocational attainment beyond SESSlide25

Factors Influencing Vocational Choice: Teachers

Young adults who choose careers requiring extensive education often report that teachers influenced their choice

High school students who say that most of their teachers are caring and accessible, interested in their future, and expect them to work hard, feel more confident about choosing a personally suitable career and succeeding at itSlide26

Factors Influencing Vocational Choice: Gender Stereotypes

Over the past three decades, young women have expressed increasing interest in occupations largely held by men

The percentage of women engineers, lawyers, doctors, and business executives increased between 1983-2007 in the U.S. but remains far from equal representation

Women are concentrated in less well-paid, traditionally feminine professions, such as writing, social work, education, and nursing

In virtually all fields, women’s achievements lag behind those of men

Ability cannot account for these dramatic sex differences

Gender-stereotyped messages play a key role in making girls in secondary school less confident of their abilities, even though girls’ grades are higher than boys’

In college, the career aspirations of many women decline further, as they question their capacity and opportunities to succeed in male-dominated fields and worry about combining a highly demanding career with family responsibilities Slide27

Factors Influencing Vocational Choice: Gender Stereotypes

Women remaining in the sciences are more likely that their male counterparts to select a health profession over engineering or math or physical science career

Young women who continue to achieve usually have four experiences in common

A college environment that values women’s accomplishments and attempts to enhance women’s experiences in its curriculum

Frequent interaction with faculty and professionals in their chosen fields

The opportunity to test their abilities in a supportive environment

Models of accomplished women who have successfully dealt with family-career role conflict

Men have changed little in their interest in nontraditional occupations

Those men who have chosen traditionally feminine occupations derive enjoyment and self-esteem from these careers

Ex. Teaching, nursing, and librarians Slide28

Vocational Preparation of Non-College-Bound Young Adults

Approximately 1/3 of American young people graduate from high school with no current plans to go to college

About 20% of recent high school graduates who do not continue their education are unemployed

When they do find work, most hold low-paid, unskilled jobs

American employers regard recent high school graduates as poorly prepared for skilled business and industrial occupations and manual trades

Unlike European nations, the U.S. has no widespread training systems for non-college-bound youths

As a result, most graduate without work-related skills and experience a “floundering period” that lasts for several yearsSlide29

Vocational Preparation of Non-College-Bound Young Adults

In Germany, young people who do not go attend a college-preparatory high school have access to a successful work-study apprenticeship system for entering business and industry

About 2/3 of German youths participate

After completing full-time schooling at age 15 or 16, they spend the remaining 2 years of compulsory education combining part-time vocational courses with an apprenticeship

Students train in work settings for more than 350 blue and white collar occupations

Apprentices who complete the program and pass a qualifying examination are certified as skilled workers and earn union-set wages

Businesses provide financial support because they know the program guarantees a competent, dedicated work force

Many apprentices are hired into well-paid jobs by the firms

that train themSlide30

Vocational Preparation of Non-College-Bound Young Adults

The success of the German system – and of similar systems elsewhere in Europe – suggests that a national apprenticeship program would improve the transition from high school to work for U.S. young people

The benefits of bringing together the worlds of schooling and work include helping non-college-bound young people establish productive lives right after graduation

Implementing an apprenticeship system poses major challenges

Such as ensuring cooperation between schools and business and preventing low-SES youths from being concentrated in the lowest-skilled apprenticeship placements