MarihuanaReconsidered - PDF document

26G.B.Palermo 66.Grinspoon.L.(1994). MarihuanaReconsidered (2nded.).SanFrancisco:Quick AmericanArchives. 67.Palermo,G.B.(1997).TheBerserksyndrome:Areviewofmassmurder. Aggress ViolentBeh ,2(1),1…8. 68.Kelleher,M.D.&Kelleher,C.L.(1998). MurderMostRare:TheFemaleSerial Killer .Westport,CT:Praeger. 69.FederalBureauofInvestigation(1990). CriminalInvestigativeAnalysis:Sexual Homicide .Quantico,Virginia:NationalCenterfortheAnalysisofViolentCrime. 70.Harbort ,S&Mokros,A.(2001).SerialmurderersinGermanyfrom1945to1995: Adescriptivestudy. HomicideStudies ,5(4),331…334. 71.Arrigo,B.A.&Shipley,S.L.(2001). TheFemaleHomicideOffender:Serial MurderandtheCaseonAileenWournos .UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Pearson/ PrenticeHall. 72.Walsh,A.(2005).AfricanAmericansandserialkillinginthemedia. Homicide Studies ,9(4),271…291. 73.Blair,J.,Sellars,C.,Strickland,I.&ClarkJ.(1996).Theoryofmindinthe psychopath. JForensicPsychiatry ,7(1),15…25. HomicidalSyndromes15 beunderpressure,poorlyorganized,andhuntingforhumans.Thekilleris inthegripofstrongemotionsandattackspeopleindiscriminately.Therefore, thereisnosimilarityamonghisvictims,whomaybeofdifferentsexes,ages, orraces.Thecrimesmaytakeplaceatdifferentlocations.Spreekillinghas somesimilaritiestorunningamok,aMalaywordthatmeansoutofcontrolŽ andoftenequateswithsuicide.Thepersonwhorunsamokisusuallyaman, desperateandwearyofhislife.ItcanbeopinedthattheWesternspreekiller isalsobasicallyadesperatesuicidalperson. TypicalspreekillerswereMarkJamesRobertEssexwho,in1972,kept thecityofNewOrleansundersiege,eventuallykillingeightpeople,and,more recently,AndrewCunananwho,in1997,killedtheItalianfashiondesigner GianniVersaceinFloridaafterakillingspreeacrosstheUnitedStatesthatleft fourotherpeopledead.Occasionally,itisdifficulttodifferentiatethespree killerfromthemassmurderer. AndrewPhillipCunananhadledaflamboyantlifestyleinSanDiego,CA. Hewassoft-spoken,unassuming,andfriendly.Openlyhomosexual,hecraved attention,especiallyfromolder,wealthygaymen.Atthetimeofhiskillings, heledauthoritiesonamassivemanhuntthroughouttheUnitedStates.His spreekillingwasprecededbyapersonalitychange,adepressedmooddisorder, afterheallegedlylostthefinancialsupportofhisolderfriends.Therejection apparentlycausedhimtosnap.Indeed,inMinneapolis,MN,hekilledtwo formerlovers,bashingintheheadofoneandshootingtheotherinthehead.In hisfranticdestructiverampage,hekilledanolderrealestatemaninChicago, IL,unknowntohimwithpruningshearsandasawblade.Later,heshotaNew Jerseycemeteryworkerand,afterstealingthevictimscar,drovetoMiami, FL.InMiami,heshotandkilledVersaceatthegateofhishomeashewas returningfrombuyingthemorningnewspaper.Afewdayslater,Cunananshot himselftodeathwhilehidingonahouseboatinMiami. Theabovecaseportrayswellthekillingspreeofayoungpersonwho wasunabletocontainhisangerandhisfeelingsofrejection,lashingoutatthe worldwithdestructiveforce,carelessoftheconsequences. M ASS M URDER Duringthelastfewdecades,peoplehaveincreasinglybecomedissat- isfiedwiththeirwayoflife.Interpersonalrelationshipsestablishedinahighly mobilesocietyareoftensuperficialandreflectaculturaltendencytoexcessive relativismandindividualism.Manypeopleareoverwhelmedbythechangesin anincreasinglytechnologicalworld.Asenseofinsecurityanddisenchantment withlifeisevidentamongthemembersofsocietyoftenleadingtofeelingsof HomicidalSyndromes25 46.Palermo,G.B.(2002).Murderousparents. IntJOffenderTherCompCriminol , 46(2),123…143. 47.DeMause,L.(1974). HistoryofChildhood .NewYork:PsychohistoryPress. 48.Gelles,R.J.&Cornell,C.P.(1990). IntimateViolenceinFamilies (2nded.). NewburyPark,CA:Sage. 49.Gauthier,D.K.,Chaudoir,N.J.&Forsyth,C.J.(2003).Asociologicalanalysis ofmaternalinfanticideintheUnitedStates,1984…1996. DeviantBehav ,24(4), 393…404. 50.BureauofJusticeStatistics.HomicideTrendsintheUnitedStates.Infan- ticide.Availableathttp://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/homicide/children.htm,accessed onJanuary27,2006. 51.Resnick.P.(1969).Childmurderbyparents:Apsychiatricreviewoffilicide. Am JPsychiatry ,126(3),73…82. 52.dOrban,P.T.(1979).Womenwhokilltheirchildren. BrJPsychiatry ,134, 560…571. 53.Weisheit,R.A.(1986).Whenmotherskilltheirchildren. SocSciJ ,23(4),439…448. 54.Lewis,C.F.,Baranoski,M.V.,Buchanan,J.A.&Benedek,E.P.(1998).Factors associatedwithweaponuseinmaternalfilicide. JForensicSci ,43(3),613…618. 55.Goetting,A.(1990).Childvictimsofhomicide:aportraitoftheirkillersandthe circumstancesoftheirdeaths. ViolenceVict ,5(4),287…295. 56.Marleau,J.D.,Poulin,B.,Webanck,T.,Roy,R.&Laporte,L.(1999).Paternal filicide:Astudyof10men. CanJPsychiatr ,44(2),57…63. 57.Bourget,D.&Gagné,P.(2005).PaternalfilicideinQuebec. JAmAcadPsychiatry Law ,33(3),354…360. 58.Heide,K.M.(1992). WhyKidsKillParents .Columbus,OH:OhioStateUniversity Press. 59.LeBihan,P.&Benézéch,M.(2004).Degreeoforganizationofpathological parricide: Modusoperandi andcriminologicalprofileof42cases(Originaltitle: Degrédorganisationducrimedeparricidepathologique:Modeopératoire,profil criminologique.Àproposde42observations). AnnMédPsychol(Paris) ,162(8), 615…625. 60.Johnson-Smith,R.(2005).Situationalfactorsthatcontributetoparricide. Disser- tationAbstractsInternational:SectionB:TheSciencesandEngineering ,66(1-B), 557. 61.Chawkins,S.&Muskal,M.(2005).PostalKillersRampageBeganWith Ex-NeighborsSlaying.Availableathttp://www.iansa.org/regions/namerica/ workplace-shooting-rampage.htm. 62.Levin,J.&Fox,J.A.(1991). MassMurder .NewYork:BerkeleyBooks. 63.Dietz,P.(1986).Mass,serialandsensationalhomicides. BullNYAcadMed ,62, 477…491. 64.Hickey,E.W.(1991). SerialMurderersandTheirVictims .PacificGrove,CA: Brooks/ColePublishing. 65.Macdonald,J.M.(1961). TheMurdererandhisVictim .Springfield,IL:Charles C.ThomasPublisher. 14G.B.Palermo feelingsofrivalryfortheaffectionofthefather.Thedaughter,aswellasthe son,mayalsobesufferingfromapsychoticbreakwithrealityorachronic delusionaldisorder. P ATRICIDE Inkillingafather,asonordaughter,usuallyadolescent,maybepreyto mixedfeelingstowardhim.Thefatherisoftenperceivedaspunitive,restrictive, andunloving.Attimes,thesechildrenaresufferingfrompsychosis,either depressiveorschizophrenicintype,orfromaparanoiddelusionalreaction. However,inmostcases,thereisnoevidenceofmentalillnessbutsimplya passive-aggressivepersonalitydisorderwithantisocialbehavior.Itshouldbe notedthatinrarecasesofmatricideandpatricide,motivesmaybeadesirefor financialbenefits. Althoughthenumberofintimateandintrafamilialviolencecasesis relativelyhigh,themajorityofsinglehomicidestakeplaceoutsidethefamily, frequentlyonthestreetorinbars,theresultofargumentsorfightsorasan unintendedactduringthecourseofanotherfelony,suchasburglaryorrape. Drive-byshootingisoftenaformofimmaturejuvenilebravado,attimesa partofganginitiationrites.Theselastmurderersdonotusuallyhaveaserious psychiatricdisturbancebutsufferfromachronicmaladaptivelifestyleandan antisocialpersonalitydisorder.Theybelongtothesubcultureofviolence. M ULTIPLE H OMICIDE Multiplehomicidesare,asisevidentfromtheterm,thoseinwhichthere ismorethanonevictim.Theyaresubdividedintospreekilling,masskilling, andserialkilling.Attimes,thespreeandmasskillersmaycommitsuicide,the masskiller inloco (attheplaceofthehomicide),whereasthespreekilleris morelikelytodosolater.Thevarioustypesofmultiplekillingdifferfromone anotheronthebasisofthefollowing: 1.Thepersonalityandpsychopathologyofthekiller. 2.The modusoperandi ofthekiller. 3.The locusdelicti. 4.Thetypeofvictim. S PREE K ILLING Thespreekillerisanindividualwhoembarksonamurderousrampage. Hiskillingtakesplacewithinagivenperiodoftime,generallyhoursordays, withaninterval,ortimebreak,betweenthekillings.Thekillerappearsto 24G.B.Palermo 28.CrimeintheUnitedStates2002.CrimeIndexOffensesCleared.Available athttp://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_02/html/web/offcleared/03-NC.html,accessedon January27,2006. 29.BureauofJusticeStatistics.HomicideTrendsintheUnitedStates.Availableat http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/homicide/race.htm#vrace,accessedonJanuary27, 2006. 30.NationalCenterforHealthStatistics.(2005).Assault/Homicide.Availableat http://www.ojp.usdog.gov/bjs/homicide/race.httm,accessedonJanuary29,2006. 31.Fox,J.&Levin,J.(2001). TheWilltoKill:MakingSenseofSenselessMurder . Boston:AllynandBacon. 32.CrimeintheUSA,2004.(2005).Washington,DC:DepartmentofJustice. Availableathttp://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/documents/CIUS2004.pdf,accessed February5,2006. 33.HarvardGazetteArchives.U.S.leadsworldinfemalehomicides.Available athttp://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/04.18/08-homicide.html,accessed January30,2006. 34.CouncilonScientificAffairs,AMA.(1992).Violenceagainstwomen:Relevance formedicalpractitioners. JAMA ,267,3184…3189. 35.Browne,A.&Williams,K.(1987).ResourceAvailabilityforWomenatRisk:Its RelationshiptoRatesofFemale-PerpetratedHomicide.PresentedattheAmerican SocietyofCriminology,Montreal,Quebec,November. 36.BureauofJusticeStatistics.(1996). FemaleVictimsofViolentCrimes .Washington, DC:DepartmentofJustice. 37.BureauofJusticeStatistics.(1997). SexDifferenceinViolentInvestigations,1994 . Washington,DC:DepartmentofJustice. 38.Maguire,K.&Pastore,A.L.(Eds.)(1999).Sourcebookofcriminaljusticestatistics 1998. U.S.DepartmentofJustice,BureauofJusticeStatistics .Washington,DC: U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice. 39.BureauofJusticeStatistics.(2003).IntimatePartnerViolence. U.S.Departmentof Justice,BureauofJusticeStatistics .Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrinting Office. 40.NationalCenterforHealthStatistics,p.1.Availableathttp://www.cdc.gov/ nchs/fastats/homicide.htm,accessedonJanuary29,2006. 41.BureauofJusticeStatistics.CrimeCharacteristics.Availableathttp:// www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/cvict_c.htm#relate,accessedonJanuary24,2006. 42.Frye,V.,Hosein,V.,Waltermaurer,E.,Blaney,S.&Wilt,S.(2005).Femicidein NewYorkCity,1990…1999. HomicideStudies ,9(3),204…228. 43.Weisheit,R.A.&Wells,E.(2005).DeadlyviolenceintheHeartland:Comparing homicidepatternsinnonmetropolitanandmetropolitancounties. HomicideStudies , 9(1),55…80. 44.Kaplan,H.I.,Sadock,B.J.&Grebb,J.A.(1994). SynopsisofPsychiatry (7thed.). Baltimore:WilliamsandWilkins. 45.vonKrafft-Ebing,R.(1944). PsychopathiaSexualis:AMedicoForensicStudy . NewYork:PioneerBooks. HomicidalSyndromes13 arrestrecord.Themethodsandweaponsusedweredrowningorasphyxiation forneonaticideandinfanticideandaknifeorgunforolderchildren.Mostof themotherswhousedknivesorgunswerefoundtobepsychotic.Themothers whocommittedneonaticideweregenerallyyoung,unmarried,dependenton theirfamily,wereattemptingtoconcealtheirpregnancy,or,insomecases, totallydeniedtheirpregnancy.Someweresociallyisolatedandwereunable toformagoodandstablerelationship.Womenwhokillolderchildrenare frequentlyaffectedbypsychoticdepressionoraschizodepressiveillness,asin thecaseofthewidelyreportedfilicidescommittedin2001byAndreaYates, whodrownedherfivechildreninabathtub. Marleauetal. (56) foundintheirstudythatolderchildrenaremoreat riskofbeingkilledbytheirfather,unemployedatthetimeoftheoffense,at timesseparatedfromhisspouse,psychotic,orintoxicatedbydrugs.However,a recentretrospectivestudybyBourgetandGagnéofpaternalfilicideinQuebec, fortheperiodfrom1991to2001,identified77childvictimsof60maleparent perpetrators (57) . P ARRICIDE Parricideincludesthekillingofoneorbothparentsorstepparents,grand- parents,orothercloserelatives.Amongthefactorsatthebasisofparricide, whetherthekillerisadolescentoradult,therearepersonalandfamilyconflicts, drugabuse,andsexualabuse.Heide (58) classifiedyoungparricideoffenders inthreetypes:severelyabusedchildren,severelymentallyillchildren,and dangerousantisocialchildren.LeBihanandBenézéch (59) ,inarecentanalysis of42parricidesinFrance,foundthatmostoffendersweresingleandlivingwith theirparents.Thirty-fiveweresufferingfromparanoidschizophrenia,sixfrom chronicdelusionaldisorder,persecutoryintype,withcommandauditoryhallu- cinations.Thevictimsweremothers(49.0%),fathers(40.8%),andgrandparents (10.2%).Inarecentanalysisofparricide,Johnson-Smith (60) foundthatthe 10youthsincludedinthestudysufferedfrompsychosocialandpsychological deprivation;however,onlyonewaspsychotic. M ATRICIDE Incasesofmatricide,anoffendingsonoftenhasasymbioticrelationship withhismother.Hemaywish,withhisdesperateact,tofreehimselffromhis stateofdependencyonher,adependencythathebelieveshasnotallowedhim togrowup.Attimes,thedependencyismixedwithstrongOedipalfeelings, forwhichhefeelsdeeplyguiltyandangry.Matricidebyadaughtermay bemotivatedbyfeelingsofambivalenceinthedaughterorbysubconscious HomicidalSyndromes23 6.Durkheim,E.(1966). Suicide:AStudyinSociology .NewYork:FreePress. 7.Merton,R.(1969).Socialstructureandanomie.InD.R.Cressey&D.A.Ward (Eds.), Delinquency,CrimeandSocialProcess (pp.254…284).NewYork:Harper andRow. 8.Reik,T.(1967). Limpulsoaconfessare ( TheImpulsetoConfess ).Milan,Italy: Feltrinelli. 9.Glueck,S.&Glueck,E.(1950). UnravelingJuvenileDelinquency .NewYork: TheCommonwealthFund. 10.Wolfgang,M.&Ferracuti,F.(1967). TheSubcultureofViolence .London:Social SciencePaperbacks. 11.Gottlieb,P.,Kramp,P.,Lindhardt,A.&Christensen,O.(1990).Socialbackground ofhomicide. IntJOffenderTherCompCriminol ,34(2),115…130. 12.Langevin,R.&HandyL.(1987).StrangerhomicideinCanada:anationalsample andapsychiatricsample. JCrimLawCriminol ,78,398…429. 13.Daly,M.&Wilson,M.(1988). Homicide .Hawthorne,NY:AldinedeGruyter. 14.Maslow,A.(1943).Atheoryofhumanmotivation. PsycholRev ,(50)4, 370…396. 15.Ardrey,R.(1970). TheSocialContract .NewYork:Athenum. 16.InstitutionalCorrections.Availableathttp://faculty.ncwc.edu/TOConnor/111/ 111lect12.htm,accessedonFebruary7,2006. 17.Messner,S.(1986).Economicinequalityandlevelsofurbanhomicide. Crimi- nology ,23,297…317. 18.Durkheim,E.(1997). TheDivisionofLaborinSociety .NewYork:FreePress. 19.Chamlin,M.B.&Cochrane,J.K.(2005).Ascribedeconomicinequalityand homicideamongmodernsocieties.Towardthedevelopmentofacross-national theory. HomicideStud ,9(1),3…29. 20.Bergson,H.(1991).CitedinC.N.Degler.In SearchofHumanNature:The DeclineandRevivalofDarwinisminAmericanSocialThought .NewYork:Oxford UniversityPress. 21.Bollone,P.L.B.(1992). CesareLombroso:Ovveroilprincipiodellresponsibilità ( CesareLombroso:ThePrincipleofResponsibility ).Turin,Italy:SocietàEditrice Internazionale. 22.Menninger,K.(1963). TheVitalBalance .NewYork:VikingPress. 23.Weiger,W.A.&Bear,D.M.(1988).Anapproachtotheneurologyofaggression. JPsychiatrRes ,22(2),85…98. 24.James,W.(1950). ThePrinciplesofPsychology .NewYork:Dover. 25.Freud,S.(1961).J.Strachey(Trans.andEd.). CivilizationanditsDiscontents , NewYork:W.W.Norton. 26.Schamda,G.,Knecht,G.,Schreinzer,D.,Stompe,T.,Ortwein-Swoboda,G.& Waldhoer,T.(2004).Homicideandmajormentaldisorders:A25-yearstudy. Acta PsychiatrScand ,110,98…107. 27.CrimeintheUnitedStates2002.Murder.Availableathttp://www.fbi.gov/ ucr/cius_02/html/web/offreported/02-nmurder03.html,accessedonJanuary25, 2006. 12G.B.Palermo pregnancies,orpaternaldecision.Fathers,inmanyoftheabovecultures,held thepoweroflifeanddeathovertheirchildren. GellesandCornellinreferencetopresent-daydomesticviolence,wrote thatpeople[especiallychildren]aremorelikelytobekilled,physically assaulted,hit,beatenup,slappedorspankedintheirownhomebyotherfamily membersthananywhereelse,orbyanyoneelse,inoursocietyŽ (48,p.11) . Ananalysisofmaternalinfanticidesfortheperiod1982…1996byGauthier etal. (49) seemedtoconfirmthehypothesisthateconomicstresscontributes tosuchviolence,especiallyinthoseareaswhereextremepovertyexistsamid extremewealth.Itappearsthatatpresenttherehasbeenadeclineintherate ofinfanticideinBlackfamilies (50) .Thisisprobablybecauseofbettersocioe- conomicconditions,bettereducation,andmoreagenciesdevotedtohelping womenincriticalsituations,forexample,withfamilycounselingoradviceon familyplanning.Unfortunately,however,infanticideratesforWhitechildren andchildrenofotherracialgroupshaveremainedstable.Hopefully,addressing personalandsocialfactorswillhelpmakethistypeoffelonyararityamong allgroups. Thekillingofonesownchildrenisanunnaturalact,andtheinner motivesfordoingsoaremany.Theactofneonaticidemaybecausedby realisticreasons,suchasthefearofpublicopinioninanunwed,young,and immaturewomanortherefusalofapregnancythatistheconsequenceofa rapeorincest.Drugoralcoholintoxicationofeitherparentmayleadtoviolent acting-out.Itmaybetheresultofderangedmentalstatusofthemotheror fatheror,occasionally,ofadepressivereactionofamotherwhoisincapableof establishingaproperemotionalbondwiththeinfant.Inasemipsychoticstate ofmind,themotherseesthechildasanintruder,aparasitewhoisdisrupting herlife,and,inahighlyemotionalstate,shemaykillthechild.Attimes,the infantmaybekilledbythemotherasaretaliatoryactagainstthehusband. ThisisreferredtoastheMedeasyndrome. Considerableresearchhasbeendoneoninfanticide (51…53) .Various studieshaveindicatedthatwhenthemotheristhekiller,herimmaturityis themostimportantreasonforthecrime.Olderchildrenareusuallykilledbya psychoticparent.Onestudyfoundthatthemethodusedbypsychoticwomento killtheirchildrenwasmorelikelytobewithaknifeoragunbutthatyounger childrenwerelesslikelytobekilledwithaweapon (54) . ResearchhasshownthatthereareethnicdifferencesbetweenBlacksand Whitesincasesoffilicide;thisdependsontheracialandeconomiccomposition ofthecityfromwhichthestudysamplewastaken.Goetting (55) ,inastudy ofchildmurderinDetroit,foundthatthemajorityofoffenderswhokilled theirownchildrenwereBlack,young,uneducated,andoftenhadaprevious 22G.B.Palermo murderersarefrequentlyhighlycunningintheirentrapmentofthevictim.Their narcissismisfrequentlygratifiedbytheattentionthemassmediagivestothem atthetimeofcrimes.Thatmakesthemfeelsuperiorandcompensatesfortheir feelingsofdeepinferiorityandtheirdeep-seatedfearofrejection.Butthecrimes ofserialkillersarenotonlyfueledbysuchfactorsormotivatedbysadistic sexualdrives,as,forexample,inthepastcasesofGillesdeRais,Madame Barthely,andJacktheRipper,butbyuncontrolled,destructivehostility. C ONCLUSIONS Psychobiologicaltheoriesassertthatanindividualpredispositionmaybe presentinthemakeupofanindividualwhokills.Personswhokillanothermay besufferingfromapersonalitydisorder,borderlineorparanoid,oraninter- mittentexplosivedisorder.Attimes,beingnarcissistic,theylookfornotoriety. Theymayreactdestructivelytorealorfanciedmotives.Intherarecasesin whichamentallyillpersoncommitsahomicide,oneusuallyfindsdistortions andbizarrenessofperceptions,delusions,orhallucinatedcommandingvoices. Environmentalandsocialtheoriessupporttheideathatviolenceis primarilyalearnedbehaviorandthatitisthefrequentoutcomeofsocialneglect andeconomicdeprivation.Forexample,thelossofajobandunemployment maybeperceivedbytheindividualassocialhumiliationwithconsequent feelingsoflowself-esteem.Angeranddepressionoftenfollowthesefeelings. Angeranduncontrolleddestructivehostilityareatthebasisofhomicidal acting-outinallgroups.Itisdifficulttopredicthomicidaloutbursts.Changesin behavior,suchasirritability,suspiciousness,andvoicedanger,maybewarning signsandrequireclosescrutiny.Intheultimateanalysis,itisaninterplay ofbiological,social,andpsychologicalfactorsthatseemtoofferthebest understandingofthebehaviorofthesepeople.And,becausesocialfactorsare atplayinmanycasesofhomicide,society,asMaslowimplied,shouldbecome moreawareofthebasicneedsofitsmembersandhelptofulfillthem. R EFERENCES 1.Holmes,S.T.&Holmes,R.M.(2002). SexCrimes:PatternsandBehavior (2nd ed.).ThousandOaks,CA:Sage. 2. Merriam-WebstersCollegiateDictionary .(2001).Springfield,MS:Merriam- Webster,Inc. 3.Palermo,G.B.(2004). TheFacesofViolence .Springfield,IL:CharlesC.Thomas. 4.Lorenz,K.(1963). OnAggression .M.J.Wilson(Trans.).NewYork:Harcourt, Brace&World. 5.Sutherland,E.H.(1955). PrinciplesofCriminology (5thed.).Rev.byD.R.Cressey. NewYork:Lippincott. HomicidalSyndromes11 F ILICIDE Itisnotonlyspouseswhoarethevictimsofhomicidewithinthehome. Inthefamily,whereonewouldexpecttofindloveandnurturing,childrenmay becomevictimsoftheirparentsorstepparentsdestructivemoodsorparanoia. Insuchinstances,theyaresubjectedtoharshtreatment,attimesareinjured, andevenmurdered.Thekillingofachildmaybedescriptivelyandarbitrarily classifiedonthebasisofthechildsageatthetimeoftheoffense:neonaticide (within24hoursofthechildsbirth),infanticide(from24hoursto1yearof age),andfilicide(from1to18years).Filicideisfurtherdividedintoearly filicide(age1…12years)andlatefilicide(age12…18years).Thefrequencyof neonaticideandinfanticideismuchhigherthanthatoffilicide. Thebrutalkillingofchildren,ortheirexposuretotheelementswiththe intenttocausetheirdeath,hasancientroots,bothmythologicalandhistorical. Childrenhavebeenviewedasfuturecompetitors,theprivatepropertyof theirparents,sacrificiallambstothegods,or,moresimply,asjustabother. Hesiod(eighthcentury bce )describedthemannerinwhichGodKronos,who personifiedthesky,believingthathischildrenwoulddethronehimkilled,by swallowingthem,allthenewbornchildrenhehadfromGaia,thepersonification oftheearth.Inthewell-knownGreektale,Laius,KingofThebes,decreed thedeathofhisinfantsonOedipusbecauseofhisfearofaprophecythathe wouldeventuallybekilledbyhim.Jocasta,themotherofOedipus,withoutthe knowledgeofLaius,orderedtheinfanttobeexposed,butthebabywassaved byashepherd,raisedbyanotherking,andeventuallyunknowinglykilledhis fatherLaius,fulfillingpartoftheprophecy.InancientJericho(5000 bce ),as wellasinlaterMediterraneanculturessuchastheCarthaginianandEgyptian, andyetotherssuchastheGallicandScandinavian,childrenwerekilledby stoninginasacrificialofferingtothegods.Philo,aJewishphilosopherduring theearlyyearsoftheChristianera,reportedfrequentchildkillinginhissociety bystrangulationanddrowning.ItwasfrequentatthetimeoftheEmperor ConstantineinearlyRome,aswellasinEuropeancountriesduringthe18 th and19 th centuries (46) . Studiesshowthatinfanticideandfilicidehaveplaguedtheworldinthe pastandstillcontinue,althoughtoalesserdegree.Thefurtherbackinhistory onegoes,thelowerthelevelofchildcareandthemorelikelychildrenareto bekilled,abandoned,beaten,terrorizedandsexuallyabused,ŽwroteDeMause (47,p.1) .Infanticidecontinuedthroughoutthemiddleagesandbecamequite commoninEngland,wherestrangling,smothering,neckbreaking,andthroat cuttingwerefrequentwaysofdisposingofunwantedchildren.Thereasons forsuchinhumanbehaviorwerevariedbutoftenwerepoverty,unwanted HomicidalSyndromes21 responsibleforahighlydisproportionatenumberofhomicidesofallother typeshasgainedareputationfornotproducingserialkillers,oratleastfor producingadisproportionatelylownumberofthem.Ž (72,p.272) .Walsh,after researchingvarioussources,reportedthatofacombinedsampleof413serial killers(WhiteandBlack),between1945andthefirst6monthsof2004,323 wereWhiteand90wereBlack. Itisfrequentlyassertedthatserialkillerscomefromdysfunctionalhomes. However,lookingatthesociopsychologicaldevelopmentofserialkillers,one findsthatthisisnotnecessarilytrue.Forexample,JeffreyDahmerallegedly camefromahomethatwasfairlycohesiveduringtheformativeyearsofhis life,andTedBundyreportedlyhadafairlygoodrelationshipwithhisadoptive mother.Nevertheless,manyotherserialkillersclaimedtohavebeenneglected bytheirmothersduringchildhoodandcouldnotestablishthatemotional bondingnecessarytolearnwhatloveis. Becauseofthefailureofbonding,someindividualsarenotonlyunableto maintainaconsistentempathicrelationshipwithothersbutalsolackaproper mentalrepresentationoftheselfandothers.Thisabilityhasbeenreferred toasmentalizingortheoryofmind (73,p.16) .Itslackbringsaboutmoral disengagement,lackofself-awareness,personalirresponsibility,unawareness ofthepsychologicalimpactofbehaviorsonothers,thedehumanizationof others(victims),andtheirreification„treatingthemasobjects.Thisistypical ofsuchkillers. Serialkillersseemtohaveaparticularcognitivemap.Theyviewthe worldashostile;theyareincapableofproperlyinteractingwithothersandwith theoutsideworldingeneral.Theyaretrappedinatypeofcircuitousthinking, whichistoointrospective,dedicatedprimarilytostimulatingthemselveswitha veryactivesexualfantasylifetoreducetheirinnertension.Thisreinforcestheir isolation.Isolationandtheircontinuousfantasieschargetheirviolentacting- out,anexpressionofnarcissisticgrandiosity,whichtemporarilyre-establishes acertaindegreeofinnerpsychologicalhomeostasis.Theyholdafundamentally differentviewoftheworld.Theygoagainstthebasicgrainofsociety,almost likeasplitpersonality,andplacethemselvesabovesocietysmoraldictates. Someserialkillersseemtosufferfromthesyndromeofclinicalvampirism, orReinfieldssyndrome,abizarrediseaseofthemindinwhichanindividual feelstheneedforthebloodofavictim„sadisticanthropophagy. Oneofthereasonspeoplearefascinatedbythestoriestheyhearabout serialkillersisbecauseitissodifficulttobelievethatsuchmurdererscouldlive undetectedinthecommunityforsuchlongperiods.Thatisbecausetheyare shrewdmanipulators,andthefrequentlyreportedbeliefthatthevictimsofserial killersarepowerlesspeoplemaybepartiallysupportedbythefactthatthese 10G.B.Palermo apregnancy,andthekillersinsuchcasesaremostoftenthebiologicalfather ofthechildorthehusbandorboyfriendofthevictim. Thetypologyoftheperpetratorincasesofintimateviolence,maleor female,isthatofapassive…aggressive,youngadult,withpoorself-esteem, insecure,andsociallyinadequate,whooccasionallyusesdrugsandalcoholand exhibitspronenesstoexplosivebehavior.Thebackgroundfrequentlyincludes adysfunctionalfamily,includingsexualabuseasachild. H OMICIDE R ESULTING F ROM J EALOUS P ARANOIA DomesticviolenceasdescribedinthesectionSpousalHomicideŽ frequentlyreflectsthepsychopathologyoftheoffender.Incasesofjealous paranoia,oneofthespouses,usuallythehusband,suffersfromsuspicious feelings.Heexpectstobeharmedorexploited,isfearful,andbelievesthatother peopleregardhimasaninferior.Butmostly,hequestionshispartnersloyalty andespeciallysexualfidelity.Often,thesefeelingshavenobasisinrealitybut areareactionformationtobasicfeelingsofpersonalinadequacyorrepressed conflicts.Controlofthevictimbecomesparamount,andthevictimizermay usevariousformsofintimidationofthepartnerthoughttobeunfaithful. Themaincharacteristicofthepersonsufferingfromadelusionaldisorder ofthejealoustypeisthebeliefthathisorherspouseorloverisunfaithful. Thisbeliefisarrivedatwithoutduecauseandisbasedonincorrectinferences supportedbysmallbitsofevidenceŽ(e.g.,disarrayedclothingorspotsonthe sheets),whicharecollectedandusedtojustifythedelusion.Men,whoare mostlyaffectedbythedisorder,aresaidtosufferfromtheOthellosyndrome. Lessthan0.2%ofpsychiatricpatientsareaffectedbyit.Thedelusionsof jealousycanleadtosignificantverbalandphysicalabuse,andtheaggressive attitudeattimesdegeneratestothepointofphysicalinjuryoreventhemurder ofthesuspectedunfaithfulpartner (44) .Themurdereroccasionallycommits suicide,atthetimeofthemurderorlater.Theperpetratormaybeaddictedto alcoholordrugs.Theassociationbetweenthisdisorderandalcoholaddiction wasalreadyreportedbyvonKrafft-Ebing (45) attheendofthe19thcentury. Inhomicidesofthejealousparanoiatype,argumentsanddiscussions disruptamarginalhomeostasis,andtheaggressoractsoutofsuddenrage, committingtheultimatecrimeofpassion.Feelingsofshame,humiliation,and lossofself-esteemmayprecipitatethedestructiveacting-out,revivingpartially repressedrage.Insuchcases,thehomicidalactbythejealousparanoiacis oftenduetoatemporarypsychoticbreakwithrealitythatpromptsthesick partnertoactinahighlydestructivewayagainsttheother,oftenoneheorshe claimstogenuinelylove. 20G.B.Palermo enjoyfeelingthesenseofpowertheyexerciseovertheirvictims;andthe lust killer ,whokillsforsexualpleasure (69) . Lustkillersarefurthersubdividedintoorganized,non-socialserial murderers,disorganizedasocialserialmurderers,andmixedtype.Theperson- alityoftheorganized,non-socialserialkillerisusuallyamixedone, withaggressive,narcissistic,hedonistic,compulsive,paranoid,schizoid,and depressedfeatures.Thereisadisconnectbetweensexandaffectioninthe lusttypeofkillers.Thevictimsarereified.Thesmallergroupofdisorganized asocialserialkillersusuallyincludeindividualswhoarementallyill. Inregardtoserialmurders,therearecertainmisconceptionsthatneed comment,suchasthebeliefthattheyareusuallysexuallymotivated;thatthe killersareprimarilymaleandcomefromadysfunctionalfamily;thatthekillers haveadifferentŽtypeofthinking;thatthevictimsarepowerless;andthat African-Americanserialkillersareaminisculenumber. Thefrequentassumptionthatallserialkillingissexuallymotivateddoes notcorrespondtorealityaccordingtoHarbortandMokros.Inalongitudinal descriptivestudyof61serialmurdersinGermany(54malesand7females), theyfoundthatonly22oftheoffenderscouldbeidentifiedassexualmurderers becausetheirbehaviorbefore,during,oraftertheoffensedisplayedastrong sexualcomponentŽ (70,p.324) .Theserialkillersintheirstudywereofaverage intelligenceandshoweddeficitinconflictcompetency,andapassive,attimes hostile,basicemotionalstatepairedwithalackofempathyŽ (70,p.320) .Only three(5.2%)reportedhavingbeensexuallyabused. Itisthegeneralbeliefthatserialmurderersarealmostalwaysmale. Althoughthenumberofmaleserialkillersiscertainlylargerthanthenumberof femaleserialkillers,alargenumberoffemaleserialkillershavebeenidentified (68) .Maleandfemaleserialkillersdiffernotonlyinthemotivationsfortheir killingbutintheirmethodofkilling.Malesusemorebruteforceandaremore likelytostrangle/suffocate,stab,bludgeon,orshoottheirvictims,whoare usuallystrangers.Femalekillersaremorelikelytousepoisonasadestructive toolandtokillpeoplewithwhomtheyareacquainted(familymembersand husbands).Theso-calledaltruistichomicidesbynurses(bothfemalesand males)areoccasionallyreported.Althoughsomefemaleserialkillers,suchas EileenWournos,killoutofdestructivefeelingsofrevengeorcontrol,themost frequentmotivationforfemaleserialkillingisreportedlymoney (71) .Male serialkillerskillmostlyforsexbutalsoforcontrolandmoney. ThemediagenerallyreportscrimescommittedbyWhitemaleserial killers,givingtheimpressionthattherearenoAfrican-Americanserialkillers. Thisisinaccurate,andtothiseffectWalshrecentlywrote,Itisoneof themysteriesofmoderncriminologythatagroup[theAfricanAmericans] HomicidalSyndromes9 ThetotalnumberofUShomicidesdramaticallydecreasedfromthe23,040 levelofthemid-1980sto15,151of2004 (32) .However,thehomiciderate jumped2.1%duringthefirst6monthsof2005,anditispossiblethatthe annualnumberwillbeupaswellwhencomparedwith2004.The2.1%increase mostlyinvolved,butwasnotlimitedto,thesouthwesternstates. S POUSAL H OMICIDE Some4000Americanfemalesarereportedtobevictimsofhomicideeach year (33) .Manyofthemarevictimsofspousalhomicide,thetragicconclusion ofdomesticviolencethatinvolvesintimatepartnersorotherfamilymembers. Spousalhomicideusuallyfollowslong-standingverbal,psychological,and physicalabuse.Thehomicideismostoftenperpetratedbythemaleagainstthe femalespouseorco-habitant.Itistheepilogueoffrustratedself-realization, astrugglefordominanceanddespair.Paranoidtendenciesfuelingbehav- ioraldyscontrolprecipitatethekillinginmostcases.Theclosenessbetween thespousesseemstobeconducivenotonlytopositivefeelingsbutalsoto negativeones. Ithasbeenreportedthatwomenaremorelikelytobevictimizedthrough assault,battery,rape,orhomicidebyacurrentorformermalepartnerthanby allotherassailantscombined (34) .Onein-depthstudyofone-on-onemurder andnon-negligentmanslaughtercasesacrossa5-yearperiodfoundthatover halfofthefemalevictimsinthestudywerekilledbymalepartners (35) . In1996,theFederalBureauofCrimeStatisticsreportedthat1500American womenweremurderedbytheirhusbandorboyfriendeachyear (36) .Domestic violencestatisticsfrom1997reportthat430malesweremurderedbyintimate partners(wives,ex-wives,girlfriends,common-lawwives,andhomosexual partners)comparedwith1174femalesmurderedbyintimatepartners (37) .In 1998,almost2000personswerevictimsofintrafamilialviolenceresultingin homicideandnon-negligentmanslaughter (38) .In2000,1247womenand440 menwerereportedtohavebeenkilledbyanintimatepartner (39) ,andin 2002,intheUnitedStates,1817femalesweremurderedbymalesinsingle- victim,single-offenderincidents.Ofthatnumber,only142victimswerekilled bystrangers (40) .In2004,ofthoseoffendersvictimizingfemales,21%were describedasintimatesand34%asstrangers.Bycontrast,ofthoseoffenders victimizingmales,4%weredescribedasintimatesand50%asstrangers (41) . Fryeetal. (42) ,indiscussingfemicide,foundthatthedeathswerecaused byshooting(42%),stabbing(21.4%),strangulation(10.2%),bludgeoning (8%),burning/asphyxiation(6.1%),andothers(12.3%).Intimatehomicideis reportedlymorefrequentinruralareas (19 , 43) .Womenareoftenkilledduring HomicidalSyndromes19 S ERIAL H OMICIDE Thetermserialhomicideconveystheconceptanddynamicsoftheheinous behaviorofthekillers.Thesecriminalskillanumberofvictimsoveraperiod oftime,withacooling-offperiodbetweeneachcrime.Themajorityofthe killingsareintentional,wellorganized,andhighlyprogrammed.The modus operandi ofthekillersgenerallyfollowsatypicalpattern,andtheirso-called signatureisoftenfoundatthecrimescene.Methodsusedtokillthevictims vary,andincludestrangulation,asphyxiation,stabbing,poisoning,andrarelya firearmorabluntobject. Alreadyduringtheiradolescence,inadditiontoarecordofscholastic underachievement,someserialkillersexhibiteddaydreaming,lying,bed- wetting,andaggressivebehaviors,suchascrueltytoanimals,assaultson teachers,andfiresetting.Nevertheless,thesekillersareusuallyintelligent andmeticulous.Theyarehighlysadistic,drivenbyanintensefantasylife, andoftenofabizarresexualtype.Theirfantasiesplayanimportantrolein programmingtheirfuturedestructiveactions.Theyenticetheirvictimsusing crediblestrategiesandthenrenderthemdefenselesswiththeuseofphysical forceordrugs.Theyfrequentlyengageinsadisticactsandsexualactivitiesprior toandafterthekilling.Itcanbetheorizedthattheirsadisticbehaviorisdueto theirarrestedpsychosexualdevelopmentortoaregressiontoapregenitalstage ofdevelopment,andtoalackofself-control.Drivenbydestructivehostility, theyoftendismemberthevictimsbody,andthebodypartsaredisposedof invariousways.Attimes,thebodypartsarekeptasmementosorfetishes. Someserialkillersreporthavingsleptwiththecadavers,claimingdifficultyin separatingthemselvesfromthem. Serialkillersappeartobelawabidingandsociallyimpeccable.Theymay beoutgoing,asinthecaseofTheodoreBundy,butgenerally,theyareshy andsomewhatwithdrawn,asinthecaseofJeffreyDahmer.Inmostcases, theirvictimssharephysicalanddemographiccharacteristics,especiallyinthe caseoflustkillers.Bundy,forexample,killedmostlyyoungwomen,college co-eds,ofaverageheightwithshoulderlengthhairofsimilarcolor.Dahmer, instead,killedyoung,athletic-looking,mostly,African-Americanmales. Fromapsychologicalpointofview,almostallserialkillersarefree frompsychosis,althoughafewmaysufferfromapsychoticillness.Serial killersaresubdividedintothe visionary ,whoarefrequentlymentallyill,with delusionsandcommandauditoryhallucinations;the missionary ,whowantto ridsocietyofwhattheyseeasunacceptablepeople,forexample,thehomeless orprostitutes;the hedonistic type,whoenjoy,morethanthekillingitself,their sadisticcompulsiveactsagainsttheirvictims;the power-control type,who 8G.B.Palermo byovercomingthecontrolofthesuperegoandtheegoandallowingbasic negativeemotionstobeexpressedinalltheirfury. Themostcommonemotionbehindanyviolentcriminalact,andparticu- larlyincasesofhomicide,isanger.Angerpromotesaggressivefeelings,and thequalityandintensityoftheaggressionbringabouttheviolence.Many casesofhomicidalaggressionarereactivebecauseofimpulsivity.Frustration andfearandageneralbehavioralimmaturityareoftenfoundinthosewho kill.Thesearethecharacteristicsfoundinthemajorityofhomicidalpeople, peoplewhoarethoughttobenormalintheirdailybehaviorbut,becauseof theirinnerconflicts,areliketimebombs.Theysuddenlyexplode,andtheir destructivefurykillsboththoseknownandthoseunknowntothem„intimates andstrangers.Rarelydothementallyillkillothers,andwhentheyoccasionally doso,theyaregenerallyundertheinfluenceofdelusionsorhallucinations. Ina25-yearlongitudinalstudyofhomicideandoftherelationship betweenhomicideandmajormentaldisorders,Schandaandcolleagues (26) foundthatsuchdisorderswereassociatedwithanincreasedlikelihoodof homicide,especiallyinmalesandfemalessufferingfromschizophreniaandin malessufferingfromadelusionaldisorder.Theyalsofoundthattheincreased likelihoodofhomicideinpeoplesufferingfrommajormentaldisorderscannot befullyexplainedbycomorbidalcoholism. B RIEF S TATISTICS TheUnitedStateshasthehighestnumberofhomicidesamongdeveloped countries.However,statisticsrevealthatitisarareoccurrence:onlyone- tenthof1%oftheindexcrimesin2002and1.1%ofviolentcrimes (27) . Duringthesameperiod,14ofevery10,000arrestswereforhomicide,and theclearancerateforhomicidewas64% (28) .Thehomicideratiowas5.6 per100,000inhabitants.Victimsreportedlyknewtheirassailantin43%ofthe cases.ThevictimsofhomicidearealmostevenlydividedbetweenWhitesand non-Whites;77%aremaleand88%areadults.In2002,Blacksweresixtimes morelikelytobemurderedthanWhites (29) .Strangerhomicidesaremore likelytocrossraciallinesthanthosethatinvolvefriendsoracquaintances (30) . In2002,ananalysisofsinglehomicidesfoundthatBlackswereseven timesmorelikelythanWhitestocommithomicide.Tobemorespecific, 52.1%ofallhomicideswerecommittedbyBlacks,45.9%byWhites,and 2%byothers.Blackswereapproximately12%ofthepopulationatthetime. FoxandLevin (31) foundthathomicidescommittedbyBlacksaredrug relatedintwo-thirds(66.7%)ofthecasesandareworkplacerelatedinalmost one-third(27.2%). Chapter1 HomicidalSyndromes AClinicalPsychiatricPerspective GeorgeB.Palermo Summary Afterabriefreviewofpertinentsociological,neurological,andpsychologicaltheoriesof crime,anoverviewofthevarioustypesofsingleandmultiplehomicidesispresented.Anger anduncontrolleddestructivehostilityarethoughttobethebasisofhomicidalacting-outinall groups. I NTRODUCTION Homicide,thetakingofoneormorehumanlives,istheworstmanifes- tationofinterpersonalviolenceandoftenmirrorsthepersonalityoftheoffender. Greatpassionandemotionsarefrequentlybehindtheactofmurder.Holmes andHolmessummarizedwellthepersonalityoftheviolentoffenderasthe resultofaspecialcombinationoffactorsthatincludebiologicalinheritance, culture,andenvironmentaswellascommonanduniqueexperiences.Because ofthisuniquecombination,theviolentpersonaloffenderwillcommitcrimes asanoutgrowthofanexistingpathologicalconditionŽ (1,p.46) . Homicide,fromtheLatin homicidium ,isatermcomposedof homo, meaningman,Žand cidium derivedfromtheverb caedo ,meaningtocutŽor tokill.ŽFromalegalpointofview,thereisadifferencebetweenhomicide andmurder:homicideisdefinedasthekillingofonehumanbeingby another,Žwhereasmurderisthecrimeofunlawfullykillingaperson,especially From: CriminalPro“ling:InternationalTheory,Research,andPractice Editedby:R.N.Kocsis©HumanaPressInc.,Totowa,NJ 3 18G.B.Palermo Theyoungkillers,liketheiradultcounterparts,seemtobeunableto containtheirdestructivehostility.Theiractionsappeartobefueledbyfantasies and,asintheadults,theiremotionsarenotwellrationalized.Often,thejuveniles arereportedtobeshy,submissive,oraloof,withunconventionalbehavior,and tohaveresentedparentalandauthorityfigures.Theyarenotonlyangrybut inneedofself-assertion.Theiractionsareregardedasunconscionableandare certainlyinconsistentandincongruouswiththeirstatusasyoungadolescents. Theirkillingseemstohavehadstrongludiccharacteristics.Althoughthe characteristicsofbothadultandjuvenileoffendersmayshowsimilaritiesin thehomicidalactitself,thejuvenilesareobviouslyemotionallyimmature, althoughattimesapparentlybrightandcognitivelyintact.Theyarereported tohavebeenobsessedwiththeviolentpopculture,music,films,andvideo games.Theygaveamplewarningsignsathomeandatschoolnotonlywith theirbehaviorbutthroughtheirwritings,poems,and,inthecaseofatleast onejuvenilekiller,asimplelastwill (3) . Personality-wise,bothadolescentandadultkillersrangefromimmature toinadequate(asaremanyadolescents)withaplethoraofneuroticfeelings toafrankparanoidpersonality(usuallyintheadults,mixedwithdepressive states).Somemaysufferfromaborderlinetypeofpersonality,withsudden shiftsinmoodorpanicstatesandastrongandlong-standingantisocialpattern ofbehavior.Generally,theacting-outistheculminationofacontinuumof experiences,perceptions,beliefs,frustrations,disappointments,hostilefantasies and(perhaps)pathologyŽ (68,p.153) .Theabovemayhavebeenpresentfor sometimepriortotheoffense.Thereiscertainlyplanninginthepolitically motivatedpseudocommandotypeofmassmurder,andplanningisalsopresent infamilyaltruisticmassmurder. Sensationalismiscommontothepseudocommandotypeofmasskillers andtosomefamilyannihilators.However,thisdestructivesensationalism reachesitsworstinthemassmurdertypicalofterrorism.TheSeptember11, 2001terroristattackontheWorldTradeCenterComplexinNewYorkCity, andsuicidebombingstestifytothesadisticintentionsoftheperpetratorsofthis modernformofprogrammedpoliticalmassmurder. Insummary,despair,revenge,andnotorietyseemtobecommontoall massmurders.TheideaofpaybackŽtimeoccursinmanycases.Thesekillers, throughthevicissitudesoflife,oftencametoperceivesocietyand/orsome ofitsmembersasresponsiblefortheirpersonalsuffering.However,theirlife historypointsouttheirpersonalpsychopathology.Theyarereportedaspeople whoharboredintensedestructivehostilitywhich,atacertainmoment,they werenolongerabletocontain. HomicidalSyndromes7 biologyhaspointedouttheinvolvementofabovebrainareasinthehomicidal syndrome,includingalsothelimbicsystemandthemid-temporalregion,which arethesitesofemotionaltriggerzones.Thecontrollinginfluenceforemotional reactionresidesintheprefrontalcortex,whichexercisescognitivecontroland regulationofaffect.Earlydamagetothefronto-orbitalcortexisfrequently associatedwithbehavioralandaffectivechanges.Inaddition,thedysfunction ofseveralneurotransmitters,suchasacetylcholine,dopamine,andserotonin atbrainlevel,maypredisposeanindividualtouncontrolledviolence.Itis well-knownthattheabovedysfunctionsarecontemporaneoustoelectrical discharges,especiallyinthelimbicsystem.Theviolentindividualmayalso possessapersonalpredispositiontoadestructivetypeofbehaviorwhenexposed toorundertheeffectofnegativeenvironmentalnoxae. Prefrontallobedysfunctionisnotinfrequentinthehomicidalperson. Usually,theseoffendersshowimpulsivity,lackofcontrol,aninabilityto modifyorcontroltheirtendencytoantisocialbehavior,poorobjectivity,poor discriminativecapacity,andalackofappreciationoftheconsequencesoftheir actionsoraninabilitytoproperlyassessthesituationwithwhichtheyare confronted.Attimes,likegoodŽpsychopaths,theyplacethemselvesabovethe law.Alcohol,cocaine,ecstasy(recently),andthelargegroupofopioidsmayact asco-factorsinprecipitatingtheiroften-destructiveviolencebydisinhibiting self-control. P SYCHOLOGICAL T HEORIESOF C RIME Violentpeopleshowtypicalpersonalitytraits.Thosetraitsaremore markedinpersonsatriskforhomicidalviolence.Theyincludeegocen- trism,impulsivity,narcissism,obsessivecompulsion,paranoia,sadism,aggres- siveness,ambivalence,andemotionallability.Thesetraitsfrequentlyform patternsofpersonalitydisordersfoundinhomicidaloffenders.Theyarefrequent contributorstohomicidalaggressionandareprobablydeterminantinmany casesofsuchaggressionbecause,inthelastanalysis,peopleareassumedtobe freetoexercisetheirwilland,unlesspsychologicallyderanged,areresponsible fortheirdecisions. James (24) ,morethanacenturyago,wrotethathumanbehaviorcan beexplainedbyunderstandinghumankindsinstinctivetendencies.Freud (25) elaboratedontherolethatemotionsandfeelingsplayinthegenesisofhostility inhumandestructiveaggression.Herecognizedthatalibidinalforceispresent inallhumanbeings,andjustasthatforcemaydriveonetoachievegood goals,itmayequallydirectonetodestructiveaggression,includinghomicide, HomicidalSyndromes17 MassmurderersaremostlyWhitemaleswhoseagerangeiswiderthan thatofserialkillers.Withanaverageagerangethatvariesfrom15to60, almostallmassmurderersaremaleswitharacialcompositionthatclosely approximatesthatofthegeneralpopulation (67) .Theyareimpulsiveintheir killingandunconcernedaboutbeingcapturedorkilledduringtheiroffense. Thekillerisnotconcernedwithleavingevidencethatmayleadtohisarrest. Occasionally,themassmurdererhasperiodsofobsessiveruminationabout anundefineddestructiveact.Thatgivestheimpressionthatthecrimeis somewhatpremeditated.However,althoughtheideaofwantingtokillpeople, massacrethem,mayberuminativeincharacter,theplacewheretheact willtakeplaceisnotusuallypreestablished.Frequently,thekillerpossesses anarsenalofguns„handguns,rifles,and/orsemiautomaticweapons.The killerhasattimesdisplayedmoody,antagonistic,rebellious,frustrated,and violentbehaviorandhasoccasionallybeenunderthecareofmentalhealth personnel. Notes,whenfound,andstatements,whengiven,bespeakdeepfrustration withperceivedwrongsbyemployers,authorityfigures,and/orthesocialsystem atlarge.Theoffenseisusuallylocallylimitedandnon-repetitive.Alcohol useortheuseofillicitdrugsmaybepresentinthelifehistoryofthemass murderer.Becauseofhissuddenacting-out,peopleatlargethinkofhim ashavingcommittedacrazyŽactoratleasttohavebeenanindividual withashakyinnerself,unabletowithstandstressandpronetoexplosive behavior.Themassmurderoftenendsinsuicide,butthedynamicsinthese casesarenotlikethoseintheordinarymurder…suicideorintheextended suicide,suchasincasesofjealousy,whichmaybetheexpressionofextreme possessivenessorofmisguidedaltruismas,forexample,whenparentskilltheir childrentoprotectŽthemfromrealofimagineddangersbutarereminiscent ofSamsonsdeathwhenhekilledhimselfwhilekillingthePhilistines,his enemies.Itassumestheroleofasocialprotestforperceivedsocialinequitiesor injustices (67) . Intherecentpast,youngerWhitemales,aged11…17,achievedsudden notorietyasmasskillersinandaroundschoolsintheUnitedStates.The twogroups,adultsandadolescents,differnotonlyinagebutintheapparent motivationaldynamicsoftheircrimesandinthefinaleoftheiractions.The adultsfrequentlycommitsuicideatthesiteofthemasshomicideorarekilled ortakenintocustodybythelaw-enforcementofficials.Fewoftheyoungerage grouphassofarbeenreportedtohavecommittedsuicideatthesceneofthe crime.Thusfar,nostudy,however,hasattemptedtoanalyzeanydifference inthepropensityofadultandjuvenilemassmurdererstocommitsuicideafter theact. 6G.B.Palermo ofeconomicfrustration,and/ortheunequaldistributionofeconomicpossibil- itiesandtheirrestrictiverealization.Onlyrarelyexpressedsocially,thistype ofhomicidalviolenceisfrequentlyactedoutinthedomesticityofapersons home,andthevictimsarewellknowntohimorher.Exceptionstothisare foundinthoseadolescentviolentcrimesinwhichthevictimsarestrangers„in somemassmurders,insexualkillings,andevenmoresoinserialkilling. Messner (17) subscribedtothepossibilitythateconomicinequalityis positivelyrelatedtothesocietallevelofhomicide.Durkheim (18) assertedthat asasocietybecomeslarger,itbecomesprogressivelymoreheterogenousand differentiated,andinsteadofbenefitingfromcompetitiveindividualsorgroup contributions,thismayleadtoanapatheticstanceandanomie.Itissuchastate ofanomiethatbreedshomicide. ChamlinandCochrane,subscribingtotheideasofMessner,areofthe opinionthatascribedeconomicinequalityunderminesthelegitimacyofthe socialorderƒ[andsociety]simultaneouslylosesitsmoralauthorityandthereby thecapacitytoregulatethebehaviorof[its]membersƒ[and]willbepositively relatedtohomicideratesƒŽ (19,p.22) .Althoughitshouldberecognizedthat ascribed/illegitimateeconomicinequalitymayunderminethemoralauthority ofaconventionalsociety,asproposedbyChamlinandCochrane,thisauthor believesthatitisonlypartiallyandindirectlyresponsibleforthefluctuationin theratesofhomicide. Bothsocialandpsychologicalfactorscontributetohomicidalaggression. Bergsonrecognizedthiswhenstatingthatsocietymayexertaconstrainton violentpeople,herightlyadded,Forsocietytoexistatall,theindividual mustbringwithitawholegroupofinborntendencies;society,therefore,isnot selfexplanatory,sowemustsearchbelowthesocialaccretionŽ (20,p.270) . Belowthatsocialaccretion,therearepeoplewiththeirindividualitywhoremain unknownintheirtotalitybecauseofthecomplexityoftheirnature. FromLombrososlong-outdatedtheoryoftheborncriminaltothemore recentdyscontroltheoryofMenninger,theactofmurder,shortofthosecasesin whichthereispremeditation,organization,andclearplanning,isviewedtoday astheoutcomeofanindividualsdisorganizationandhisorherincapacityto controlbasicdangerousimpulses,internalorexternal (21 , 22) . N EUROBIOLOGICAL T HEORIESOF V IOLENT C RIME Neurobiologicaltheoriesattempttoexplainhomicidalviolenceasthe resultofneurohumoraldysfunctionatthelevelofthebrain,withthe involvementoftheamygdalae,thehippocampus,thehypothalamicnuclei, especiallythepreopticarea,andalsotheprefrontallobes (23) .Investigative HomicidalSyndromes5 oralcohol.Mertonsstraintheoryofviolentaggressioncanwellexplainsuch behaviors (7) . Homicideispresentatalllevelsofsociety.Itseems,however,thatthere isaninverserapportbetweensocialstatusandhomicidaltendencies.Scholars havefoundthatindividualsatriskofcommitting,orwhohavecommitted, homicidearelikelytobemembersofsociallydysfunctionalfamilies,livein substandardeconomicconditions,andtendtousedrugsandalcoholandto behaveantisocially.Thesepersonsaresociallydysfunctionalandaresubject tosocialemargination (3 , 11) . Otherfactorscontributingtohomicide,frequentlyfoundamongthe violent/antisocialgroup,arepoorschoolachievement,lackofspecificskills, andlackofsteadyemployment.LangevinandHandy (12) ,ina1987study, foundthatperpetratorsofhomicidearefrequentlyunmarried(50%lessthan thegeneralpopulation).DalyandWilson,analyzingtherelationshipbetween homicideandfamily(intimatehomicide),notedthatthehomicidaloffender usuallydoesnotkillconsanguineousfamilymembers,buttheirhomicidalfuryis morelikelytobedirectedatacquiredrelatives,suchasaspouseorin-laws (13) . Inthe1970s,AbrahamMaslow (14) proposedatheoryofbasicneeds„ whathebelievedtobefundamentalforeachindividualtoachievesocial maturity.Theyincludephysiologicalneeds(hunger,thirst,sleep,etc.),personal security,affection/loveandself-esteem,andachancetoachievethehighest levelofsocialmaturationpossiblefortheindividualinaprogressivefashion. Ifonebelievesthatthesatisfactionoftheaboveneedsisnecessaryforgood socialdevelopment,onecanarguethatfrustrationatanyofthoselevelsmay leadtoantisocialbehaviors,oneofwhichmaybehomicide.Inotherwords, Maslowstheorymayalsobeappliedtoexplaincasesofhomicidalviolence. Personalspaceisoftenequatedwithasenseofsecurity.Lorenz (4) andArdrey (15) foundthateventheprimatesubjectsoftheirexperiments cherishedtheirownshelterandtendedtofightawayunwelcomestrangers. Weallrecognizetheimportanceofadequatespacewheninanovercrowded situation.Thatspacemaybearoom,ahouse,orevenanation.Warshave beenfoughtclaimingthenecessityforspace.However,limitingthediscussion totheovercrowdingofahome,orevenajailcell,therecanbenodoubt thatitmaybeanincentiveforargumentsandphysicalstruggle,oftenwith deleteriousconsequences.Correctionalinstitutionmanagementisquiteawareof theso-calledvitalspace,andsomeUSfederaljudgeshaveruledthatprisoners need60squarefeetofcellspace (16) . Sociologicaltheorieshavetakenintoconsiderationeconomicandsocial opportunitieswhentryingtoexplaintheriseandfallofhomicidalviolence.In fact,microlevelinterpersonaldynamicsmaybeinfluencedbymacrolevelsocial dynamics.Thelatterfactormayincludeblockedopportunities,theconsequence 4G.B.Palermo withmaliceaforethought.Ž (2) Therearevarioustypesofhomicide,including intentionalhomicide,manslaughter,reckless/negligenthomicide,felonyand suspectedfelonyhomicide,argument-motivatedhomicide,andhomicidedue tounknownmotives.Homicidemaybefurtherdifferentiatedintosingle ormultiplehomicides.Examplesofsinglehomicidesareparricide,spousal homicide,jealousparanoiahomicide,filicide,matricide,patricide,anddrive-by shootings.Multiplemurdersareclassifiedasmassmurder,spreemurder,and serialmurder. Fromanepidemiologicalpointofview,weencountersocialperiodswith varyinglevelsofhomicide.Thesefluctuationsaretheresultofdifferentfactors. Onecansafelysay,however,thatthefrequencyofhomicidegenerallyreflects notonlythecharacterofthepersonwhocommitsthehomicidebutalsothe moralandsocioeconomicstatusofthesocietyinwhichheorshelives. Fromahistoricalpointofview,homicideispartofhumankind.Itis ubiquitousandhasbeenreportedsinceearliestrecordedhistory.Although initiallyitmayhavebeenameansofprotectingonespropertyorofproviding foodforonesfamily,overtimeithasbecomeapredatorymeansofcarrying outvengeanceatallsociallevels(e.g.,CainskillingofAbelorpresent-day kidnappingsandkillingsforpoliticalreasons).Greatwriters,suchasDante, Shakespeare,andDostoyevsky,haverenderedimmortalfamousandinfamous homicidalactsintheirworks (3) . Inanattempttoreachabetterunderstandingofsuchdestructivetypes ofbehavior,varioustheorieshavebeenproposedtoexaminefactorsthought tobeatthebasisofhomicidalviolenceandviolenceingeneral:sociological theories,neurobiologicaltheories,andpsychologicaltheories.Thus,ascanbe seen,theapproachisamultifactorialone. S OCIOLOGICAL T HEORIESOF C RIME Sociologicaltheoriesthathaveattemptedaninterpretationofhomicidal violencearemany,includingthoseofLorenz (4) ,Sutherland (5) ,Durkheim (6) , Merton (7) ,Reik (8) ,andGlueckandGlueck (9) .WolfgangandFerracuti (10) assertedthathomicidaltendenciesbelongedtotheso-calledsubcultureof violence.Theyclaimedthatthisbehavioristypicalofurbanghettos,amixture oflearnedviolenceandsocialrebellionagainstblockedopportunitiesandthe inabilitytoobtainoccupationscommensuratewiththeirskills.Others,suchas Foucault,Rousseau,andMarcuse,viewedviolenceastheconsequenceofa socialvacuum (3) . Homicideismorefrequentinlargeandmedium-sizedcities,where stressmay,attimes,causepeopletogiveventtoviolenthomicidalimpulses, especiallywhentheindividualisinastateofdisinhibitionbecauseofdrugs 16G.B.Palermo anger,hostility,andfrustration.Theaboveisbelievedtohavecontributedto theincreaseofviolenceintheUnitedStates,includingrecurrentepisodesof massmurder. Massmurderconsistsoftheintentionalkillingofagroupofpeople(twoor more).Exceptforthefamilyannihilators,itfrequentlyoccursinapublicplace, suchasarestaurant,postoffice,school,oranywherepeopleareassembled together.Acommonexpressionforsuchatypeofkillingisgoingpostal.Ž Arecentmassmurderthatconcludedwiththesuicideofthekillertookplace inapostalfacilityinGoleta,CA,in2005.Thecasewasmostunusual,inthat thekillerwasawoman (61) . Contrarytorandomkillings,drive-byshootings,andserialmurdersin whichthevictims,althoughnumerous,arekilled,usuallybyasingleindividual, oneatatime,massmurderinvolvesthekillingofseveralinnocentpeople atanunknown,unexpectedmomentandatoraboutthesametime.Mass murdersoccurmoreoftenincities,asdo,forthatmatter,homicidesingeneral,Ž assertedLevinandFox,addingthat,somemassacresƒapparentlyoccurwhen thekillerbreaksunderthestrainofurbanlifeŽ (62,p.53) .Thistypeofcrime attractspublicattentionbecauseofitssuddennessandtheusuallylargenumber ofvictims.Becausemasshomicidesevokeagreatdealofpublicity,itcanbe arguedthattheperpetratorofsuchcrimessuffersfromacelebritymania. Masskillerscanbedividedintothreemajortypes„familyannihilators, pseudocommandos,andhit-and-runkillers (63) .Motivationsvarybetween altruisticfeelings,anger,revenge,andpay-backŽtime.Massmurderers oftenhaveexperiencedimpairedchildattachmentsandtraumaticexperi- encesduringtheirdevelopment.Theyharbordistortedthoughtsandfantasies, becomeisolated,preoccupied,anddisregardsociallyacceptedconstraintson behavior (64) . Attimes,themassmurderersactionisviewedastheactionofonewho wentberserk.ŽSuchanexpressionwellportraysthefuryofthemasskilleratthe sceneofthecrime.ItderivesfromthewildNorsewarriorberserk  grandson ofthemythicaleight-handedStarkaddes,[who]neverfoughtinarmorbutin his bersark orbearskinŽ (65,p.174) .Eventually,thewordberserkcame toportrayapredatorygroupofbrawlersandkillerswhodisruptedthepeace oftheVikingcommunitybetween870and1030 ad Norwegianhistorians writeofBerserks,agianttypeofpeople,who,takenbyawildfury,became extremelystrong,insensibletopain,irrational,andwhobehavedlikewild animals (65) .Theirphysicalstrengthwasthoughttobeofasuperhuman nature.ItwaslatertheorizedthattheAmanitaMuscariamushroommayhave inducedtheirirrationalsenselessdestructivebehavior,similartotheeffect ofhashishonthemembersofAssassinSectinancientPersiaandEgypt (66) .