The Basics of Philosophy - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

The Basics of Philosophy

Lecture 5Aristotle’s OntologyThe Structure of Reality

Part IICosmocentric Philosophy

Moscow State Institute

of International Relations (MGIMO-University

)

School of Government and International Affairs

& Alexander Shishkin

Department of Philosophy

Slide2

Aristotle’s Ontology

The Structure of Reality Criticism of Plato’s Theory of IdeasTerminological Shortcomings

Logical Shortcomings Philosophical Shortcomings Aristotle’s Main Ontological Doctrines

The Doctrine of Matter and Form: Hylomorphism

The Doctrine of Potentiality

and Actuality

The Doctrine of Causation: The Four Types of Causes

The Material Cause

The Formal Cause

The Efficient Cause

The Final Cause

The Being and Its Kinds:

The Ten Categories

Slide3

Aristotle

Miletus

Ephesus

Elea

Abdera

Athens

S

tagira

Croton

Samos

Slide4

Aristotle’s OntologyThe Structure of Reality

The MetaphysicsOn the SoulThe OrganonPhysics

The Nicomachean EthicsThe PoliticsThe PoeticsThe Rhetoric

Aristotle

(384

–

322

B.C.

)

Principal Writings

Slide5

Criticism of Plato’s Theory of Ideas

Terminological ShortcomingsUnsatisfactory terminologyThe confusing expression of

sharing inThe unclear notion of

pattern and the metaphor of imitation

(copy)

Logical Shortcomings

Inconsistencies in the application of the term

idea

Ideas of non-natural objects

(

e.g. objects created by art

)

Ideas of negations

Ideas of perishable things

Ideas of relations

Predication of ideas

The “third man” argument

Ideas of ideas

Philosophical Shortcomings

The duplication

/ multiplication

of reality

The separation of substances from thingsThe irrelevancy of unchanging ideas to the natural world of change

Slide6

Criticism of Plato’s Theory of Ideas

Terminological Shortcomings… all other things cannot come from the Forms in any of the usual senses of

“from”. And to say that they are patterns and the other things

share in them is

to use empty words and poetical metaphors. For what is it that works, looking to the Ideas? And anything can either be, or become, like another

without

being copied from it, so that whether Socrates or not a man Socrates like might come to be; and evidently this might be so even if Socrates were eternal.

Aristotle

.

The Metaphysics

.

Slide7

Logical Shortcomings

Ideas of Non-natural ObjectsAristotle

.The Metaphysics.

Further, of the ways in which we prove

that

the Forms exist, none is convincing; for from some no inference necessarily follows, and

from some arise Forms even of things of which we think there are no Forms.

For according to

the arguments from the existence of the sciences

there

will be Forms of

all

things of which there are

sciences…

Slide8

Logical Shortcomings

Ideas of NegationsAristotle

.The Metaphysics.

…

and according to

the

“one over many” argument

there

will be Forms even of

negations…

Slide9

Logical Shortcomings

Ideas of Perishable ThingsAristotle

.The Metaphysics.

…

and according to

the

argument that there is

an

object for thought

even

when the thing has perished,

there

will be Forms of

perishable things;

for

we have an image of these

.

Slide10

Logical Shortcomings

Ideas of RelationsAristotle

.The Metaphysics.

Further, of the more accurate arguments, some lead to Ideas of

relations,

of

which we say

there

is no independent class,

and

others introduce the

“third man

”.

Slide11

Logical Shortcomings

The “Third Man” ArgumentAristotle

.The Metaphysics.

… but

the same terms indicate substance in this and in the ideal world

(

or what will be the meaning of saying

that

there is something apart from

the

particulars – the one over many?).

And

if the Ideas and the particulars

that

share in them have the same form,

there will be something common to

these…

But

if they have not the same form, they must have only the name in common…

Slide12

is

is

isis

Socrates

a man

Plato

a man

a man

The

[Second]

Man

The

[Third]

Man

a man

Plato

Aristotle

Logical Shortcomings

The “Third Man” Argument

Slide13

Logical Shortcomings

Ideas of IdeasAristotle

.The Metaphysics.

…

the Forms are patterns

not

only of sensible things,

but

of Forms themselves also;

i.e

.

the genus,

as

genus

of

various species,

will be so;

therefore

the same thing

will be pattern and copy.

Slide14

Philosophical Shortcomings

The Duplication of Reality

Aristotle.The Metaphysics.

…

as for those who posit the Ideas as causes, firstly, in seeking to grasp the causes of the things around us, they introduced others equal in number to these,

as if a man who wanted to count things thought he would not be able to do it while they were few, but tried to count them when he had added to their number.

For

the Forms are practically equal to – or not fewer than – the things,

in trying to explain which these thinkers proceeded from them to the Forms. For to each thing there answers an entity which has the same

name

and exists apart from the

substances...

Slide15

Philosophical Shortcomings

The Multiplication of Reality

Aristotle.The Metaphysics.

…

there will be

several

patterns of the same thing,

and

therefore several Forms;

e.g

. “animal” and “two-footed”

and

also “man himself”

will

be Forms of man.

Slide16

Philosophical Shortcomings

The Separation of Substances from ThingsAristotle

.The Metaphysics.

…

it would seem impossible that

the

substance and

that of

which it is the substance

should

exist apart;

how

, therefore, could the Ideas,

being

the substances of things,

exist

apart

?

Slide17

Philosophical Shortcomings

The Irrelevancy of Ideas to the World of ChangeAristotle

.The Metaphysics.

Above all one might discuss

the

question

what on earth the Forms

contribute

to sensible things,

either

to those that are eternal or

to

those that come into being

and

cease to be.

For

they cause neither movement

nor any change in them.

Slide18

Hylomorphism

(Gr. υλη, matter,

μορφή, form)

is a metaphysical doctrine according to which everything that exists

consists of two intrinsic principles,

one

potential,

namely,

matter,

and one

actual,

namely,

form.

The Doctrine of Matter and Form

Hylomorphism

Slide19

Plato

Aristotle

In Plato’s ontologyindividuals and

universals,

i.e. sensuous things

and intelligible

ideas,

exemplify

different

types of being

(

essentially different entities

),

the relations of which

to each other

remain

somewhat unclear

.

In Aristotle’s ontology individuals and

universals exemplify different

aspects of being,distinguished and abstracted by our thought

, but not actually existing

as separate different entities

;

Aristotle’s

forms

may be said

to more or less correspond to

Plato’s

ideas

likewise

representing

what is

universal

about things,

but opposed not, as by Plato,

to

actual

individual

things

,

but to

matter

as mere

potentiality

of

things.

The Doctrine of Matter and Form

Hylomorphism

Slide20

Bronze

is

matter,

cylinder

is the

form,

the

bronze cylinder

is a

substance.

Silver

is

matter,

cylinder is the

form, the

silver cylinder is a substance.

Bronze is

matter,

cube is the form,

the

bronze cube

is a

substance

.

Silver

is

matter

,

cube

is the

form,

the

silver cube

is a

substance

.

The Doctrine of Matter and Form

Hylomorphism

Slide21

The cylindrical form

is the common (shared) feature of both the bronze and the silver cylinders, just like the cubic form is the common (shared) feature of both the bronze and the silver cubes. However, it is “bronzeness” that seems to be the

common (shared) feature of the bronze cylinder and the bronze cube, just like “silverness” seems to be the common (shared) feature of the silver cylinder and the silver cube. Does this not mean that it is not only form

that represents what is universal about things, but matter

as well?

No, it does not, for both “bronzeness” and “silverness” are to be seen as different

forms

of metallic

matter.

“Metallicity” is, in its turn, one of the

forms

of earth; “earthness”, together with “waterness”, “airness”, and “fireness”, being the four basic

forms

of

primary matter.

This

primary matter is not something real,

for lacking form it lacks reality as well, and is mere abstraction or, to put it otherwise, abstract

possibility, i.e. possibility of anything.

When primary matter becomes earth, water, air, or fire by acquiring one of the respective forms, it becomes real, i.e. capable of becoming or producing something else, not just anything.

The Doctrine of Matter and Form

Hylomorphism

Slide22

Clay

is matter,parallelepiped

is the form,

a brick is a

substance.

Brick

is

matter,

house

(

“houseness”

)

is

the

form,

a

(particular

) house is a

substance.

A brick is made of clay

shapedin the form of a parallelepiped

;a house

is made of bricks

arranged in the form of a

“house”

.

The Doctrine of Matter and Form

Hylomorphism

Slide23

House

is matter,

town (

“townness”) is

the

form

,

a

(

particular

)

town

is a

substance.

The Doctrine of Matter and Form

Hylomorphism

Brick

is matter,

house (“houseness”

) is the form,

a (

particular

)

house

is

a

substance

.

Slide24

Thing

Thing

Thing

Thing

Genus

Thing

Thing

Thing

Thing

Species

Species

Species

Species

Genus

Earth

Water

Air

Fire

Primary matter

(

pure

potentiality

)

Matter

(

the potentiality

)

God

(

the form of all forms

)

Forms

SU

B

S

T

A

N

C

ES

The Doctrine of Matter and Form

Hylomorphism

Slide25

Matter

and form are distinguished and counterpoised by Aristotlenot just with respect to generality,

i.e. as particular versus universal;

but

also with respect to modality,

i.e. as

possible

versus

necessary;

thus establishing lasting semantic associations

:

material

a.k.a.

particular

a.k.a. possible

, formal a.k.a.

universal a.k.a.

necessary.Actuality (

a.k.a. the being) turns out to be and is understood as the

unity of abstract opposites: matter

and form,

on the one hand;

potentiality

and

necessity,

on the other hand.

The Doctrine of Potentiality

and Actuality

Slide26

The Doctrine of Potentiality

and Actuality… we

must not seek a definition of everything but be content to grasp

the analogy, that it is

as that which is building is to that

which

is capable of building,

and the waking

to

the sleeping

,

and

that which

is seeing to

that which has its eyes shut

but has sight

,

and that which has been shaped out of the matter to the matter,

and that which has been wrought up

to the unwrought. Let actuality be defined by one member of this antithesis, and the

potential by the other.

Aristotle

.The Metaphysics.

Slide27

Potentiality

(Gr. δύναμις,

Lat. potentia) is

(1) a power

to produce a change,

(

2

)

the capacity

to change itself,

to acquire

a different,

more completed form

.

Actuality

(

Gr.

ενέργεια,

Lat. actus) is (1) movement (Gr

. κίνησις) or

process as unconsummated activity, (2)

entelechy (Gr.

εντελέχεια

) as

the final realisation of the potential.

Actuality

is prior to

potentiality

(

1

)

in

logos

(in definition

),

(

2

)

in time

(

although in a specific way

),

3)

in substance

.

The Doctrine of Potentiality

and Actuality

Slide28

in

logos

(in definition),

in substance

in time

,

because we cannot

identify potentiality

without reference

to the corresponding

actuality

;

(1) as the final cause

,

(2) because anything

with the mere

potentiality to be

is perishable, and

the eternal is prior

to the perishable

.

because

the actual which is identical in species though not in number

with a potentially existing thing

is prior to it;

Actuality

is prior to

potentiality

The Doctrine of Potentiality

and Actuality

Slide29

How does

potentiality become actuality?This is done by giving a specific form to otherwise amorphous

matter.But how is this “union” of matter and

form achieved

?To answer this question Aristotle expands his twofold doctrine of matter

and

form

as the constituent principles of being to a fourfold doctrine of

causation

.

The Doctrine of Causation

Slide30

The Doctrine of Causation

The Four Types of CausesEvidently we have to acquire knowledge

of the original causes (for we say we

know each thing only when we think we recognize its first cause), and causes are spoken of in four senses.

In one of these we mean the substance, i.e. the essence

(for the “why” is reducible finally to the definition, and the ultimate “why” is a cause and principle); in

another

the matter

or substratum, in a

third

the source of the change,

and in a

fourth

the cause opposed to this,

the purpose

and the good (for this is the end of all generation and change).

Aristotle

.The Metaphysics.

Slide31

The vase’s

material

cause

is clay

The vase’s

formal

cause

is the idea (form)

The vase’s

efficient

cause

is the potter

The vase’s

final

cause

is the purpose

The Doctrine of Causation

The Four Types of Causes

Slide32

How does

potentiality become actuality?This is done by giving a specific form to otherwise amorphous

matter.But how is this “union” of matter and

form achieved

?To answer this question Aristotle expands his twofold doctrine of matter

and

form

as the constituent principles of being to a fourfold doctrine of

causation

.

It is knowledge

(

οἶδα

)

of causes (

principles) that distinguishes

science (ἐπιστήμη)

from the lower kinds of knowledge that precede it, viz. sense perception (

αἴσθησις), experience (ἐμπειρία)

and art

(τέχνη).The difference between philosophy

(φιλοσοφ

ία

),

or

wisdom

(

σοφ

ία

),

and other (particular) sciences is that philosophy studies

first causes

(

first principles

),

or

,

to put it otherwise

,

causes

(principles)

as such

.

In other words, philosophy deals not with particular

kinds

of being

,

but with

being as such

.

The Doctrine of Causation

Slide33

The subject of ontology

(“first philoso

phy”,

“metaphysics”)

is that which is or

the

being

(

ον

).

Granted, all sciences study

that which is;

what else is there to study

?

However, particular sciences study

the being in some specific aspects

(e.g. physics studies it as susceptible to change),

only ontology studies

the being as such,the being as being.

The Being and Its Kinds

Slide34

The being falls

under one science,

because all the various senses of the

word are related to and derived from

the one that is basic and common to all.

Just like

“healthy”

does not mean

exactly the same when applied

to

man, complexion

or

life

,

and yet is related to and derived

from one basic sense of

health,

this being a state characteristic of a healthy organism;

so there are many senses in which a thing may be said to

“be”, but all that “is” is related to one central and definite point,

viz. substance.

The Being and Its Kinds

Slide35

Substances

QuantitiesQualitiesRelativesPlacesTimesPositions

StatesDoingsUndergoings

The individual horse, the individual man

Two feet tall, six feet tall

White

,

literate

A double

,

a half

In the Lyceum, in the market-place

Yesterday, last year

Sitting, standing

Clad, armed

Cutting, carrying

Being cut, being carried

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide36

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten CategoriesCategory(Lat.

categoria, from Gr.

κατηγορία, predication,

from Gr.

κατηγορέιν

,

to accuse, affirm, predicate)

is any of several fundamental and distinct classes

to which entities or concepts belong

.

The

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary

(the 10

th

edition)

.

Slide37

The individual

horseThe individual

man

Substance

(Gr

.

ουσία

,

Lat

.

substantia

)

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Substance,

in the truest and primary

and most definite sense of the word,

is that which is neither predicable of a subject

nor present in a subject;

for instance, the individual

man or horse.

Slide38

Substance

(secondary)Animal

(genus)

But in

a secondary sense those

things are

called substances

within which

,

as

species

,

the

primary substances

are included;

also those

which,

as genera, include the species. For instance, the

individual man is included in the species “man”, and the genus to which

the species belongs is “animal”; these, therefore ...

are termed secondary substances.

Horse

(species)

Man

(species)

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide39

Substance

QuantityOne

Two

“Quantum”

means that which

is divisible into

two or

more

constituent

parts of which

each is

by nature a

“one”

and a

“this”. A quantum

is a

plurality

if it is

numerable

,

The Being and Its Kinds The Ten Categories

Slide40

Substance

QuantityTwo feet tall

Six feet tall

“Quantum” means that which is divisible into two or more

constituent parts of which each is by nature a “one” and a “this”. A quantum is a plurality

if it is

numerable,

a

magnitude

if it is a

measurable

.

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide41

Substance

QuantityQualityLiterate

White

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide42

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationLeft

Right

Bigger

Smaller

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Those things are called

relative,

which

, being either said

to be of

something else

or

related

to something

else,

are explained

by reference

to that

other thing

.

Slide43

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationPlace

In the Lyceum

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide44

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationPlace

In the market-place

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide45

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationPlaceTime

In 361 A.D.

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide46

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationPlaceTime

In

383 A

.D.

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide47

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationPlaceTimePosition

Sitting

Standing

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide48

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationPlaceTimePosition

State

CladArmed

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide49

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationPlaceTimePosition

StateAction

Carrying

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide50

Substance

QuantityQualityRelationPlaceTimePosition

StateActionAffection

Being carried

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide51

(

Primary

)

substances

are

subjects

of predication

;

qualities

and other kinds

of being

(

i.e.

categories other

than substances

),

a subject’s

predicables are

:

species

and genera

(i.e. the so calledsecondary

substances

)

,

that

are present

in a subject

;

that

are said

of a subject

.

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide52

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten CategoriesThus everything

except primary substances is either predicated

of primary substances,

or is present

in them,

and

if these

last did not exist,

it

would

be impossible

for

anything

else

to exist.

Aristotle

.

The Categories

.

Slide53

Predicable

is something that may be predicated, especially, as listed in Boethius’ Latin version of Porphyry’s Isagoge, one of the

five most general kinds of attribution: genus, species,

differentia,

property, accident.

It is based upon a similar classification set forth

by Aristotle in the

Topics

.

The

Encyclopaedia

Britannica

(the 2018 Version)

.

The Being and Its Kinds

The Ten Categories

Slide54

Questions

?