Technical & scientific translation - PowerPoint Presentation

1. Technical & scientific translation

2. General IntroductionScientific translation is not like other translations, it goes beyond just rendering words from one language into another. It is rather considered a tool that helps people around the world develop and progress in the field of science. Thus a translator needs to ensure an accurate delivery of information and shows faithfulness and commitment to the source and the target language, so that the translated information can be used easily and help in developing other countries.

3. One of the main problems that translation trainees may face is how to deal with translating scientific terms from English into Arabic, and in choosing the best method to achieve a high- quality translation of those terms which may enrich the Arabic language.

4. Scientific RegisterDefinition of ScienceMany definitions have been given to the word science. Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines science as:1. (Knowledge obtained from), the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical world, especially by observing, measuring and experimenting, and the development of the theories to describe the results of these activities.2. A particular subject that is studied using scientific methods. 

5. Generally speaking, science is a word that refers to the organized approach of attaining knowledge, using a scientific method that helps to organize thought, procedures and then come into clear, faithful and reliable results, free of subjectivity and personal involvements.

6. Definition of Scientific TranslationScientific translation is mainly about translating terms in the fields of science and technology of all kinds, medicine, physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer sciences...etc from one language into another (Ghazzala 1995).Scientific translations do not involve literary texts; they only deal with texts from the world of electronics, medicine, law, economics, engineering, chemistry, computer science, automotive engineering, geology, etc. The number of technical fields is infinitely large, and terminology is expanding and changing daily.

7. The scientific translation is considered as one of the most important issues, as the world develops, new technology appears, and along with them emerge new terms to which finding an equivalent may pose a problem. As Nida (1964) said in this point; it is not easy at all to translate scientific terms that emerged in western developed countries languages into a language of third world countries which are still having financial and social problems.

8. Definitions of Technical TranslationDefined by Wright & Wright (1993), “[t]echnical translation encompasses the translation of special language texts, i.e., texts written using Languages for Special Purposes (LSP). As such, technical translation (and “technical terminology” as well) includes not only the translation of texts in engineering or medicine, but also such disciplines as economics, psychology and law”(p. 1).

9. In the broader sense, technical translation is synonymous to specialized translation. In the narrower sense, “technical translation is one part of specialized translation” (Newmark, 1988, p. 151).

10. Despite the obvious connection between technical and scientific translation, Newmark (1988) notes, “in science, the language is concept-centered; in technology, it is object-centered” (p. 155). Likewise, Byrne (2006) argues that, “scientific translation relates to pure science in all of its theoretical, esoteric and cerebral glory while technical translation relates to how scientific knowledge is actually put to practical use”(p. 8).

11. It is true that scientific and technical translations differ in terms of subject matter, language and purpose, as Newmark and Byrne maintain, yet, it seems that both types are very much alike in terms of the techniques of translation involved. That is perhaps why Olohan(2015) uses the expression scientific and technical, not as a reference to the same type of translation, but as an indication that “they share some features, challenges or approaches”(p. 7) and that any discussion of technical translation can equally hold for scientific translation.

12. The Aim of Scientific Translation Byrne (2006) claims that, scientific translation primary goal is to deliver scientific information; it aims at presenting well expressed information, that may be used easily, properly and effectively. He referred to scientific translation as a communicative service, which offers new information for new audience, since scientific translation is regarded as communicative service; it certainly involves three main people, which are the author, the translator and the reader.

13. He added also, that it is much more than just rendering source text language and style. Its main concern is to ensure delivering information accurately and correctly, in that it insures that the reader may use this information easily.

14. Requirements of a Scientific TranslatorScientific translators are not like other ordinary translators. There are certain qualifications that they should have in order to accomplish a good translation of scientific texts as well as to deliver the exact information. This is because scientific translation is not just to transfer ideas or information, but rather to transfer technology and new invention that may help other countries. According to the biomedical writer Bethany Thivierge (2002:188) “The work of scientific translators is to achieve one primary goal: to write information in a clear, concise, and accurate manner”.

15. He claimed that there are nine requirements that a scientific translator should observe:1. Work appropriate for the intended audience.2. Respect for choices made by the author.3. Respect for references.4. Understanding of sciences.5. Understanding of languages.6. Constructive questions.7. Work suitable for publication.8. Familiarity with current practices.9. Timely exchange of work.

16. Following the same sense, Al-Hasnawi (2010) also discriminated six characteristics– taken from the London Institute of Linguistics- that the scientific translator should have:1. Broad knowledge of the subject-matter of the text to be translated;2. A well-developed imagination that enables the translator to visualize the equipment or process being described;3. Intelligence, to be able to fill in the missing links in the original text;4. A sense of discrimination, to be able to choose the most suitable equivalent term from the literature of the field or from dictionaries;5. The ability to use one's own language with clarity, conciseness and precision;6. Practical experience in translating from related fields.

17. Byrne (ibid) also claimed that scientific translator is communicating via the translated texts, in that he should look further than the source text only to get more information from different sources, to ensure an effective target text which serves the communicative purpose.Consequently, the translator becomes according to Göpferich (1993) and Amman & Vermeer (1990:27) “the intercultural or cross-cultural scientific writer”. Byrne (2006:17) goes further and claimed… The need for translators to conduct research so as to understand not just the text but also the subject while at the same time ensuring, by means of revisions and corrections, that the text conforms to target language norms and target audience expectations.

18. Out of the six requirements listed above, the first deserves special consideration because it bears on the early attempts to found a theory of translation advocating that the text whether literary or scientific should be dealt with according to the way language is used in them (Adams, 1967: 87).

19. Scientific versus Literary Contexts      By setting off scientific against the literary translation, their characteristics and the problems that are likely to be encountered in each, become more salient as illustrated below.

20. Scientific TextsLiterary Texts- Logicality.- Lack of argumentative progression.- Precision.- Vagueness.- Reason.- Emotion.- Truth to particular reality.- Truth to the ideal.- Generalization.- Concretion.- Referential meaning.- Emotive meaning.- Denotation.- Connotation.- Lexical affixation.- Grammatical affixation.- Idiomatic expressions are rare.- Idiomatic expressions are frequent.- Use of abbreviation, acronym, and registers.- Very few abbreviations, acronyms, and registers.- Standard expressions.- Almost all varieties.- Use of scientific terminology, specialized items, and formulae.- No use of scientific terminology, or formulae.- No use of elements of figurative language.- Expensive use of figurative language.

21. Scientific Register Generally speaking, the technical use of language manifests itself in several ways.  The most obvious one is non-deviation from ordinary grammar, logically and argumentative progression.  This may entail the adherence to items that are conventionally used.For the purpose of more vivid characterization of these texts, we shall mention some major ones of these features by referring to Bakr-Serex (1997: 54-7):

22. First, this register is characterized by the logical order of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence. Second, it flourishes the use of terms specific to each given branch of science; in modern science; however, there is a tendency to exchange terms between various branches of science. Third, another characteristic feature of this register is the frequent use of specific sentence-patterns, usually the Postulatory-“ A thing that is accepted as true or as certain to happen, without proof”, the Argumentative and the Formulative “express an idea in a concise or systematic way” patterns. The impersonality of this type of writing can be revealed in the frequent use of passive voice constructions with which scientific experiments are generally described.        

23. Fourth, one more observable feature of the scientific register is the use quotations, references, and foot-notes in accord with the main requirement of this register, i.e. the logical coherence of the ideas expressed. Finally, science does not have its own syntax only, but also its own terminology. And we have already hinted at the importance of the familiarity with this terminology resting on a solid foundation of previously acquired knowledge on behalf of the translator. Therefore, it is not the language itself which is special, but certain words or their symbols.

24. Definition of terminologyWebster’s new world college dictionary defines Terminology as follows:1. the terms or system of terms used in a specific science, art, etc.; nomenclature lexicographer's terminology2. the systematic study of terms”

25. On the other hand, Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines terminology as:“Special words or expressions used in relation to a particular subject or activity”. Terminology is viewed as a structured set of concepts and their labels in a particular subject field, it can be considered the infrastructure of specialized knowledge. Technical writing and scientific papers are thus impossible without properly using terminological resources. Terminology refers to all specific terms and expressions used in a specific register as the terms: endocrine system, cells, and hormones which are specific terms generally used in scientific texts.

26. Scientific TerminologyScientific terms are not simple words; they are special and complex ones. Scientific terms are the most significant feature in science, they discriminate it from other registers (literary). These terms make scientific texts incomprehensible for lay people; they are directed to experts of the science. Thus scientists use them to dignify their written works, in that William Zinasser (1976) explained that each jargon has its own list of terms which lay people would not understand easily. He (1976:15) wrote “Every profession has its growing arsenal of jargon to fire at the lay man and hurls him back from its walls.” Furthermore, Ilyas (1989:109) claimed that scientific terminology varies from the regular and literary words since ‘they do not accumulate emotional associations and implications’.

27. Terminology is the study of terms which refer deliberately to specific concepts within particular subject fields. In other words, terms are always studied in relation to the conceptual system to which they belong and in which they function as depositors of knowledge [3]. Neologisms can be defined as newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense [4], and although they cause a lot of trouble to translators, they are at the same time popular with both writers and readers. Moreover, finding equivalents in Arabic for technical English terms causes many problems owing to the different nature of both languages.

28. These problems are likely to be manifested in the continuous development in the field of science and technology as well as the effect of mass media on people who almost, everyday, receive new ideas and innovations. Some of these problems can be identified as follows:

29. First, English utilizes Latin or Greek compound morphemes to express some of these technical terms, e.g. television which is a term made up of two free morphemes telos, meaning remote and vision meaning sight or image. This compound term is used for a set that brings images from a distance, thus, denoting its function. English also encompasses terms which are built of Greek or Latin roots or combination of the two such as automobile, telephone. Experience has shown that apart from changes in orthography, scientific terms taken from Greek or Latin are admissible by the entire scientific world regardless of language. Arabic, in contrast, is not as flexible as English in either borrowing from other languages or in using compound morphemes. This could be attributable to its rigorous grammatical rules which were formulated in the medieval period.

30. Second, many of these technical terms are the products of the West, i.e. they stand for products invented in Europe or America which made it easier for the inventors to name them either after their own names, or resorting to European languages instead of Latin or Greek. For instance, Watt stands for the electric current unit which is named after the person who invented this unit of measurement and the term pasteurization which refers to a method of sterilizing, especially milk, devised by the French scientist Louis Pasteur.

31. Third, there is no agreement among the Arabs on the rendering of scientific and technical terms. For instance, the English term engine which is of a Latin origin has no agreed-upon Arabic term; in some parts of the Arab world it is transliterated as موتورand in other parts where people are reluctant to use foreign names they instead prefer to give it the Arabicized name محرك. However, the problem is that this term literally means a mover, a term that can be used vaguely for even a person moving something. Another example of this problem is the term mobile which has about eight Arabic equivalents: sililūr, mubāyl, burtāble, maHmūl, jawwāl, hātif mutaHarik, khilyawī and naqqāl the matter that give rise to the abundance of terms.

32. Fourth, most of the foreign terms are strange and new to the Arab environment and culture making it difficult if not possible to find equivalents for every term in Arabic. For example, the term satellite causes a lot of trouble for translators; some translators opted for keeping its original Latin name satalayit others translated it semantically as قمر صناعيand recently, it has been given an Arabic term ساتلby the Arabic Academy in Tangeer.

33. Strategies of Translating English Technical Terms into ArabicDealing with terminology requires specific skills in the form of some strategies that are likely to be fruitful and serve the target language. In this respect, numerous options are available for translators to translate scientific terms into Arabic. On the other hand, several Arabic agencies have devoted themselves officially or unofficially to produce new set of terminology for Arabic that may facilitate the translation process when it comes to introduce new terms from the source language.

34. There are several methods of translating scientific terms into Arabic; each method differs from the other in the use and the results it produces. Those techniques will be discussed and “ordered from the poorest to the best” .

35. Transcription/ArabicizationTranscription or Arabicization is one of the strategies widely used to translate scientific terms by introducing minor phonetic and morphological changes to the foreign term. It consists of writing the English scientific terms using the Arabic alphabet with no alteration to their pronunciation in the source language. Take the following examples:1. Microwave→ ,میكرویف2. Mega bite → میجابایت3. Tetra bite→ تیترابایت

36. The problem with Arabicization/ Transcription is that it does not give the meaning of the word in Arabic, besides the transcribed terms are not pure Arabic ones; they are just borrowed and shaped in Arabic letters. Using transcription neither serves the Arabic language nor enriches its vocabulary. In fact, it is just an offence to the Arabic language, because it implies that Arab translators are unable to invent new pure Arabic terms and prefer the easy way to translate scientific terms, thus, neglecting the significant statue of the Arabic language. Following this line of thought, Ghazzala (1995) argued that this method should be avoided except in the case where translators could not find equivalent for the term in Arabic language. For example:1. Sandwich→ ساندویتش

37. Yet, if the terms have equivalent in Arabic, translators have to use them instead of transcription, for example:1. Computer→ حاسب2. Virus→ جرثومةThis method will be considered as a critical problem opposed to translators, if they use it for ordinary terms that have equivalents in Arabic as shown by the word ‘email’ usually transcribed as الايمیل and for which the phrase الرسالة الاكترونیة can be used.

38. According to Baker (1987) transcription and naturalization have not received acceptance from the language purists because they threaten the identity of Arabic. Thus, translators are likely to come across a situation where they need to be more creative by following certain methods that may ensure the high quality and smoothness of translating scientific terms. In an attempt to get over this obstacle, Ghazzala (1995) suggested that coinage is the best method for translating scientific terms. As for Baker (1987); coining new terms is the only way that ensures the creation of new specialized glossaries for the Arabic language.

39. CoinageThis method aims at presenting new terms in the Arabic language via three main processes.1. DerivationBaker (1987) said that the Arabic language is usually referred to as the language of derivation. She explained that the Arabic language word root system is built up on three fundamental consonant roots; each one holds a given meaning. The roots are used for the production of nominal and verbal forms by adding prefixes, suffixes, infixes and vowels. For example:1. Data→ معطیات from أعطى to give2. Generator→ مولد from یولد to generate.3. Factory→ مصنع from صنع to manufacture4. Studio→ مرسم from . یرسم to paint

40. According to Ghazzala (1995) derivation is based on measurements; it aims at using certain measures found in the Arabic language to derive new terms. The most used ones are machine-names. For example:مفعل. 1a. Laboratory→ مخبرb. Anchorage→ مرسيمفعلة. 2a. Grease box→ مشحمةb. Butchery→ مجزرةمفعالة. 3a. Refrigerator→ ثلاجةb. Mixer→ خلاطهمفعال 4a. Drill→ مثقابb. Iron→ مكواة

41. Baker (1987) supported this method and claimed that it makes understanding of the meaning of terms easier for the readers since they are inherited from the root, which is already familiar, used to derive that term. In other words, the derived terms are not new to the vocabulary, they already exist but in different forms. Furthermore, it is favored by academics since it does not affect the identity of the Arabic language and the derivation process is based on pure Arabic vocabulary roots.On the other hand, Ghazzala (1995) argued that derivation is still a restricted way because it cannot be applied to all the terms as some of them would not accept measures.

42. 2. RevivalRevival attempts to put back into use old Arabic words that were used but fade away with the time and assigns them new meanings. Baker (1987) said that this method uses Arabic lexicon instead of trying to introduce new concepts that may take time to be adopted. For example:1. Train→ قطار originally used to mean a line of camels2. Car→ سیارة originally used to mean the night travelers3. Environment→ بیئة originally used to mean domicile4. Newspaper→ جریدة originally used to mean the small palm stick was used to write on

43. Revival has proved its efficiency, however, it is still not easy to look for old Arabic words; it consumes time and effort and cannot be applied to cover all new introduced terms in the field of science. Using this method is not always successful because some of the attempts to revive archaic words did not suit modern Arabic vocabulary; they were “a subject of much ridicule” (Baker, 1987:186).

44. Neologisms aim at introducing new terms and concepts into the Arabic language by translating the meaning. This method according to Baker (1987) enjoys much acceptance. For example:1. Computer programming→ برمجة الكمبیوتر2. Software→ برمجیات3. Hardware→ أجھزة4. Phonetics→ علم الأصوات5. word processing→ معالجة الكلمات6. Psychoanalysis→ التحلیل النفسي

45. Finally, there have been great efforts to bring new technical terms into Arabic, by any means available, yet these methods should not threaten the Arabic identity. Translators should consider the linguistic differences between English and Arabic, for that they need to coin terms that linguistically conform with Arabic norms.

46. Circumlocution Circumlocution الاشتقاق بالترجمة is a method of introducing new terms into Arabic by giving the meaning of the foreign term. It is a universal phenomenon in natural languages covering all aspects of vocabulary [13]. This approach is also called in Arabic الاشتقاق المعنوي. (literally: derivation of meaning). This method which was one of the methods of producing numerous terms since the first Abbasid period has been formally recognized by Arab academies. This recognition comes as a result of the abundance of foreign terminology especially compound neologisms where conventional attempts to reduce them to one-word terms have failed,

47. for instance the word ideal is translated as المثل الأعلى. Sometimes an English word is translated into Arabic through a whole statement, for example the term burglar is rendered according to Oxford English-Arabic dictionary as لص يسطو على المنازل ليلًا (a thief breaks into houses during the night). Similarly the following examples are also approved by the academies: Cartoon رسوم متحركةVideo جهاز التسجيل المرئيMicrophone مكبرالصوت

48. Despite the fact that circumlocution is used to solve the problem of composite neologisms, it has also led to the problem of dualism of terminology in Arabic. This is because the translator or the neologizer is not bound by any rules while translating foreign terms. Many composite Arabic terms have variants or are not sufficiently current in their literary usage. For example: the phrase conditioned reflex is translated into Arabic sometimes as الانعكاس الشرطيand sometimes as الانعكاس الظرفي [9]

49. In summary, it has been observed from the discussion above that circumlocution, unlike other methods, seems to be less adequate and leads to the multiplicity of terms due to the following: ● It produces longer terms than the original. ●It is usually a phrase and not a word that presents syntactic problems. In addition, translation of these neologisms often deviates from their real functional meaning. ● Some translators invent their own arbitrary translation which does not go with the Arabic molds and rules.

50. ●Arab academies as well as some other prominent translators are influenced by different foreign cultures (English and French) which result in different translated terms. Therefore, the Arab academies should take into consideration the following factors in translating foreign terms: ● They should consider the social use of language because people usually prefer easily pronounceable terms to difficult ones. ● Compound terms with difficult structures should be avoided. Short terms are more preferable than long ones. Although there are Arabic equivalents to the English prepositions, on and off which are تشغيل and إيقافmany people are reluctant to use the Arabic versions and still prefer to use the English terms because they are shorter and easier to pronounce.

51. In medical sphere, people still prefer to use the transliterated English acronym AIDS rather than its Arabic counterpart مرض نقص المناعة المكتسب ● If the old Arabic term is suitable there is no need to be replaced with another new one as people are already familiar with the old term. For instance, the term car has an old term as سيارة which indeed, is more preferred than the new ones rakūbah and/or Markūb (vehicle).

52. Blending More often than not Arab as well as non-Arab writers use the term 'compounding' to refer to a word-formational process traditionally known in Arabic by the name of النحت[6]. Blending is a term widely used in descriptive linguistic studies to refer to a linguistic unit which is composed of elements that function independently in other circumstances [8]. It is the merger of two words into one to mean a new concept. For instance: electromagnetic kahrumaghnāTisī is coined from two words electric kahrabāī and magnetic maghnaTisī.

53. There is some disagreement between Arab linguists as to the exact meaning of blending. For some, it must involve contraction and is therefore analogous to the English term blending whereas others use it to refer to straight forward compounding. In fact, blending is not a phenomenon peculiar to Arabic only but also to other languages such as English from which we extract the following: compound noun such as walking stick, keyhole, teatime, bedroom, rainfall and washing machine as well as compound verbs as come in, check out and so on. Furthermore, The term compounding or compound may be accurately applied to blending or mixed compounding which in Arabic is referred to as almurakkab al-majzī.. Jesperson gives some examples in English:

54. blunt blind + stunt origin unknown glaze glare + gaze (coined by Shakespeare) from glass slide slip + glide from Anglo-Saxon slidan We may add: brunch from (breakfast + lunch), smog from (smoke + fog), and motel from (motor + hotel). On the other hand, blending is seen as only the emergence of two words to form a word with a new meaning, for instance, biology bayuluji which comes from two Greek words bios meaning life and logos meaning science. Another word geography jughrafiyā derives from the Greek words ge meaning the earth and graphei meaning to write. Moreover, the Arab scholar useful words which are created by blending such as the famous Arabic term برمائي (amphibious) which is coined from barr (land) and ma' (water)., we may not benefit from this linguistic phenomenon in Arabic.

55. The Applicability of Blending in Creating Arabic Terms With regard to the possibilities of blending in the present state of the language it can be applicable in the sphere of modern terminology. Some Arab scholars see blending as a useful device that should be employed not only in the field of science and technology but also for the language in general.

56. Conclusion As it transpires, the problem of terminology is compounded in Arabic due to the lack of standardization which springs from the different varieties of Arabic (classical Arabic, modern standard Arabic, Arabic vernacular) because such varieties have made the phonological connection between the foreign term and its Arabic equivalent confused in newly-coined Arabic term. As a result, the semantic connection is sometimes also lost as the relationship between the foreign term to which Arabic speakers are already exposed to and the newly-coined equivalent is not readily obvious.

57. It is obvious that derivation has played its role in dealing with the creation of Arabic terms. This method is the most natural and practical one in Arabic because the applicability of derivation comes as a result of the recent technological developments which have taken place in the Arab World. A need has arisen for the transfer of technical concepts into Arabic in many fields. However, derivation might be seen a less attractive option owing to the lack of coordination among Arab neologizers and academicians which has led to the abundance synonymous terms.

58. Arabicization has also has served Arabic as one of the most practical method of creating Arabic neologisms and terminology since the beginning of the nineteenth century when the role of Arabic as a transmitter language began to decline. Arabicization is more effective in handling new technical and scientific terms than both derivation and blending. This is because it can deal with a mono-morphemic word by applying certain rules whereas in a compound morpheme it seems to be difficult to apply the same rules. For instance, we cannot derive an Arabic equivalent with a single word for the following terms: inter-dialogue, sociolinguistics, intercontinental, centrifuge and so forth. In addition, arabicization is more flexible and less obstructed by the Arabic morphological patterns and templates.

59. Blending can also play its role effectively in handling foreign affixation and as a useful device for abbreviating long-winded Arabic terms, but the Cairo based Arabic Academy have put forward some restrictions to be followed during the process of blending: firstly, it must be used only for scientific necessity lilDarūrah al-Cilmiyah and secondly it must be coined according to Arab taste al-dhawq al-Carabī.Nevertheless, the process of blending is less productive than the other two methods due to the fact that it has not been described by the Arab grammarians as a customary method of forming new terms. Furthermore, there has been no direct statement by Arab philologists as to the acceptability of blending as a productive method of enriching the language with new terms.

60. ReferencesMethods of Creating and Introducing New Terms in Arabic Contributions from English-Arabic Translation Aspects of Scientific Translation: English into ArabicScientific Translation and TerminologyNature of Scientific and Technical TextsTranslating technical terms into Arabic: Microsoft Terminology Collection (English-Arabic)as an example