HeinOnline 55 Stan L Rev 2292 20022003 atheoristI 552273manynotanaberrationorexceptionalbutitisalsoimportantthatsheisJudithPinczovskyJaegermannandimportantthatsheisaJew56Itisdifficultto ID: 492275
Download Pdf The PPT/PDF document "HeinOnline -- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 2273 2002..." is the property of its rightful owner. Permission is granted to download and print the materials on this web site for personal, non-commercial use only, and to display it on your personal computer provided you do not modify the materials and that you retain all copyright notices contained in the materials. By downloading content from our website, you accept the terms of this agreement.
HeinOnline -- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 2273 2002-2003DevelopingaTasteforNotBeingDiscriminatedAgainstMaryAnneCase*PERVASIVEPREJUDICE?UNCONVENTIONALEVIDENCEOFRACEANDGENDERDISCRIMINATION.ByIanAyres.**Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2001.433pp.+xi.CROSSROADS,DIRECTIONS,ANDANEWCRITICALRACETHEORY.EditedbyFranciscoValdes,tJeromeMcCristalCulpt&AngelaP.Harris.§Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2002.414pp.+xxi.LetmebeginthesereflectionspromptedbyIanAyres'sPervasivePrejudice?UnconventionalEvidenceofRaceandGenderDiscriminationandCrossroads,Directions,andaNewCriticalRaceTheory,editedbyFranciscoValdes,JeromeMcCristalCulp,andAngelaP.Harris,1intheclassicstyleof'"Arnold1.ShureProfessorofLaw,UniversityofChicagoLawSchool.Iamgratefultotheothersymposiumparticipantsfortheirencouragementandpatience;toorganizerClarkFreshmanforputtingitalltogether;totheSquareTableofBigelowfellows,DouglasBaird,GaryBecker,LaurenBerlant,RobynBorok,AdamCox,AdrienneDavis,MaryDuros,MargaretSchilt,RichardEpstein,EricHurst,JeniaIontcheva,FrancesKamm,SaulLevmore,MarthaMcCluskey,TraceyMeares,MarshaNagorsky,CarlNightingale,MaryPatillo-McCoy,DickPosner,EricPosner,ToddPreuss,GinaSanders,CassSunstein,DavidWeisbach,andIrisYoungforbrainstormingandbibliographichelp;andtoVirginiaKimforvaluableresearchassistance.ResearchsupportforthisprojectcamefromtheArnoldandFriedaShureResearchFundoftheUniversityofChicago.**TownsendProfessor,YaleLawSchool.tProfessorofLaw,UniversityofMiamiSchoolofLaw.tProfessorofLaw,DukeUniversitySchoolofLaw.§ProfessorofLaw,UniversityofCalifornia-BerkeleySchoolofLaw.I.AlthougheverythingIhavetosayinthispiecewassparkedbyReviewSymposiumorganizerClarkFreshman'smissionofreadingthetwobooksinconjunctionwithoneanother,thispieceisnotinanyconventionalsenseabookreview,butratheranexplorationofwhat,asIseeit,liesattheintersectionofthetwobooksandthesignificanceIseeinthecontrastsbetweenthem.LetmeattheoutsetstressthatthetaskofconsideringthesetwoworksinrelationshiptooneanotherwillinevitablymeanthatIcannotconsidereitheroneinallitsrichnessandwillbeforcedtoomitmentionofthosevaluableportionsofbothbooksthatdonotfallattheintersectionofthetwoasIhaveconstruedthatintersectionforthepurposesofthisReview.TheonlyconsolationIcanofferforthisisthattheothersymposiumparticipants,havingeachfocusedonadifferentintersection,highlightsomeoftheportionsofbothworksIoverlook.Additionally,Ihavenotattemptedtosummarizethe2273 HeinOnline -- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 2292 2002-2003*** atheorist,I 55:2273many,notanaberrationorexceptional;butitisalsoimportantthatsheisJudithPinczovskyJaegermannandimportantthatsheisaJew.56Itisdifficulttoholdname,number,andidentitycategoryinyourheadatonce-thehorrorofparticularityandthehorrorofaggregationiseachinitsownwayoverwhelming.Totakealessfreightedimage,considerthetrickofmakingafaceoutofthephotosofseveralthousandfaces-whatyouseeinthismosaicisentirelyaquestionofhowfinegrainedisyourexaminationofwhatisbeforeyou.ReadingCrossroadsandPervasivePrejudice?togethercausedmetoreflectmoredeeplythanIhadpreviouslyontheoftencasuallyassertedpropositionthat"thepluralofanecdoteisnotdata."Differentproponentsofthisviewmeandifferentthingsbythecontrastbetweendataandanecdote.Somemayhaveinmindthedifferencebetweenacontrolledstudyandhappenstanceobservation,othersthedifferencebetweenalargeandasmallsamplesize,andstillothersthedifferencebetweenthatwhichcanbequantifiedandthatwhichcannot.Iampersonallybecomingmoreconvincedthattotheextentthatthepluralofanecdoteisindeednotdata(andundersomedefinitionsofbothitmaybe)thisonlyreinforcestheneedforbothanecdoteanddatatomakeacase.Ayreshimselfrepeatedly,bothexplicitlyandimplicitly,acknowledgestheusefulnessofanecdoteasasupplementtothesortofdatahegathers.57ButthefullextentofAyres'sownfaithindataofthesortgenerated existenceofthismotiveisstillmoreintherealmofhypothesisthandemonstrablefact.Whatisneededismoreresearchthatwouldseparatethevariousmotivestobuyamongthepoorandassesstheimportanceofeach.Howmuchoftheconsumerbehaviorofthepoorstemsfromtheirneeds,howmuchfromtheirvulnerabilitytounscrupulousmerchants,andhowmuchfromthemotiveofcompensatoryconsumptionremainstobedetermined."54Iwouldaddthatsuchresearchalsoremainstobedoneforgroupslikelytobediscriminatedagainstregardlessofincomelevel.Again,thevictim'sperspectivehasreceivedfarlessattentionthantheperpetrator's.WhatcriticalracetheoryandAyres'sstyleoflawandeconomicshaveincommonisaninterestinevidence,evenif,asAyres'ssubtitlemakesclear,thatevidenceissometimes"unconventional"-neitherassumesacanopener,eachisaboutcansandcanopenerstheyhavecometoknow.Butamethodologicaldivideremainsbetweenthosewhoaremostlikelytobelieveevidencewhenitcanbereducedtonumbersinagraphorchartandthosewhoaregraphandoverpricedautomobiles 55:2273Theexperienceofdiscriminationinthemarkets,inadditiontoshapingone'sshoppingbehaviors,mayalsoshapetheproductsforwhichoneshops.Becausethereissome,albeitcontradictory,evidencethatthiseffectmaybeparticularlystrongwithrespecttothepurchaseofcarsbyAfrican-AmericanmeninChicago,RachelMoranisrighttobecriticalofthefactthat"[w]henAyresdiscussesanimusintheretailcarmarket,hedoesnotrootitinthehistoryofsegregationanddiscriminationinChicago.Nordoesheexplorethespecialmeaningofcarsasamarkofstatusandfreedom."48Howmightthehistoryofdiscriminationandthesocialmeaningofcarsintersecttoaffectthepurchasingchoicesofablackconsumer?Inhisstudyofpatternsofblackconsumptionbefore1960,MarcusAlexisnotesthata"prominentblackcomedianhasquippedthatblackscanaffordtobuyexpensiveautomobilesbecauseofallthe beingableableimposedonablackmale"walk[ing]intoadepartmentstore"-hecan"dress'respectable,'"rapidlypurchaseanexpensiveitem,ingratiatehimselfwith"awhitesalesassociate,"etc.44Incontrasttothisstrategyofconciliationdesignedtoproveoneisnotacriminalortoouppityordifficulttodealwith,CarolRosedescribesotherpotentialstrategiesdesignedtoproveoneisnotasucker.Shedemonstratesthatwomen,merelybecausetheyareperceivedtohaveagreatertasteforcooperationandlessofatasteforconfrontationandaggressivebargaining,may-becauseofthatperceptionalone-beofferedsystematicallyworsedeals.Havingconstantlytoproveoneselftobeatoughbargainer,justlikehavingconstantlytoproveoneselfnotasvulnerableasmightbeassumed,canbewearying-itmaytakesuchatollthat"evena...strongwoman...maygrowwearyoftheconstantchallengesandsimplystay'athome."45Ifshecontinuesthefight,asCarbadonotes,sherisksbeingdismissedas"moody,irritable,orbrusque"andcrossing"thelinebetweenbeingassertiveandaggressive."46Thus,ratherthanachievethebetterdealpotentiallyavailabletotough-bargainingwhitemales,shemayprovokearefusaltodeal.Regardlessoftheultimateoutcome,asbothCarbadoandAyresmakeclearintheirdifferentways,anychangeofbehaviorimposedonsomeonetoavoidhisorhersufferingotherformsofraceorsexdiscriminationisaharmfulcost.4742.AsAyresnotes,"havingabetterinklingabouttheexistenceofdiscriminationisdifferentthanknowing,first,whetheraparticularinstanceoftreatmentisinferiortothatofothercustomersand,second,whetherthatdisparl;ltetreatmentiscausedbyyourrace."AYRES,p.10.43.PATRICIAJ.WILLIAMS,THEALCHEMYOFRACEANDRIGHTS46(1991).44.CROSSROADS,p.231.45.SeeCarolM.Rose,WomenandProperty:GainingandLosingGround,78VA.L.REV.421,440(1992).WhileRose'schieffocusistheeffectofperceptionsofwomen'scomparativewillingnesstocooperateonthebargainsthey HeinOnline -- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 2286 2002-20032286STANFORDLAWREVIEW[Vol.55:2273Oneofthesubstantialcostsofbeingamemberofagrouplikelytobediscriminatedagainstisperpetuallywalkingthefinelinebetweenblithelynaiveobliviousnessofdiscriminatorytreatmentandtheparanoiaofsuspectingdiscriminationineverysituationandaroundeverycomer.ItisthecostoflivingatalltimeswiththequestionmarkAyressoeloquentlyappendstohistitlePervasivePrejudice?Letmeillustratethisdifficultywithavariantontheoft-toldtaleofanAfrican-Americanconsumerfindinglimitsplacedonheraccesstoaretailestablishmentandtheconsumergoodsitpurveys.ThevariantofthisscenariolikelymostfamiliartoreadersoflawjournalsisPatriciaWilliams'sBenettonstory,aboutbeinglockedoutofabranchoftheclothingstoreatmiddayintheChristmasseason.TheversionIshallexplicateisfictional,fromarecentepisodeofthenewtelevisionseriesMonk,whosetitlecharacter,anobsessive-compulsivedetective,isassistedindealingwithhisphobiasand,eventually,indealingwiththecaseshemustsolve,bythenurseassignedtohimafterhiswife'smurderoccasionedhisnervousbreakdown.Arunningthemeoftheshowarethethreatsofthenurse,Sharonna,awhitewoman,toquitandfindotheremploymentifsheisn'tpaidmoreregularly.Intherelevantepisode,Sharonnahasactualizedthisthreatbytakingajobinanupscalelampstore.ButjustassheistryingtothrowherselfintothisbrandnewjobandputMonkandhistroublesbehindher,shehasaflashofinsightintothecasehehadbeenworkingonwhenshequit.Sherealizesthatifshedoesn'tactonthisinsightimmediately,someonemightbekilled.Soshepreparestorushoutofthestoretoforestallthedanger.Preciselyatthismoment,sheisapproachedbyapolite,well-dressedAfrican-Americanfemaleconsumerseekingtopurchasealamp.41Theyhaveroughlythefollowingconversation:Sharonna(somewhatfrantically):"Excuseme,we'reclosing."Customer(incredulously):"Now?"Sharonna:"It'saholiday."Customer(moreincredulouslystill,butpolitely):"Whatholiday?"Sharonna:"LampDay."WhereuponSharonnarushesoutofthestore,nevertoreturn,andproceedstopreventamurderandsavethedayforMonk.Lookedatfromthecustomer'sperspective,whathashappenedtoherisjustwhathappenedtoPatriciaWilliamsandcountlessotherpeopleofcolorrebuffedwhentryingtoparticipateinaroutinewayinconsumertransactions.Preciselybecausethehistoryofsuchrebuffsissowell-knownandwidespread,itislikelytofactorintothisparticularcustomer'sunderstandingofwhathashappenedtoheronthisparticularoccasion.Ofcourse,we,theviewers,privilegedwithabroaderanddeeperangleofvisionintoSharonna'smotivations,knowthatthecustomer'sabruptexclusionfromthestorewasnotatalltheresultofpervasiveprejudice.GiventheurgencyofSharonna'smissionandherlackofattachmenttoherpositionassalesperson,nootheraliveandwellatyourlocalsupermarket,drugstore,anddepartmentstore,"andgivingexamples).41.Idonotknow,butIwonder,whethertheshow'sproducerscastanAfricanAmericanwomaninthispartadvisedly. gotoamovieifitsatisfiesthreebasicrequirements--one,ithastohaveatleasttwowomeninit... 55:2273whenthesemerchantspurveyed"low-qualitymerchandiseatexorbitantprices."34Inaverydifferentvariantofwillingnesstorewardmerchantswhowelcomeone'sbusiness,thegayandlesbiancommunityhasbeennotoriouslyloyaltothefirstbrandstoplacegay-themedadsandadvertisewidelyingaypublications,suchasAbsolutvodka.35Forsome,thetastefordealingwithanin-groupsalespersonorstoreownermightbeworthpayingforwithhigherprices.36Othersmayassume(oftenerroneously,ifAyres'sfindingsarerepresentative)37thatanin-groupmemberwillgivethemabetterpriceormorefavorableterms;theiruseofgroupstatusasaproxyisasimperfectasthatofvendors'.Stillothersmayhaveapreferenceforin-groupvendorsonlyallotherthingsbeingequal:Theymaybeunwillingtotravelanadditionalblockorpayanadditionaldimedimediscount")store.id.at92.AccordingtoCaplovitz,however,"consumersfromamoretraditionalsociety,"suchasrecentarrivalsfromtheSouthorPuertoRico,"unaccustomedtotheimpersonalityofthebureaucraticmarket"mayhavefoundmerchants'"read[iness]topersonalizetheirservices"valuable.id.at20.35.See,e.g.,DanBaker,AHistoryinAds:TheGrowthoftheGayandLesbianMarket,inHOMOECONOMICS:CAPITALISM,COMMUNITY,ANDLESBIANANDGAYLiFEII,12(AmyGluckman&BetsyReededs.,1997).Nothavingadvertiserstargetthemappropriatelyisyetanotherformofdiscriminationsomegroupscansuffer.Considertheresistanceofadvertisersofcertainluxurycarbrandstopurchasingairtimeon"radiostationsthatserveprimarilyBlackandHispanic"urbanconsumers,asdescribedinRobertMillar,RacismisintheAir:TheFCC'sMandatetoProtectMinoritiesfromGettingShortchangedbyAdvertisers,8COMMLAwCONSPECTUS311,3I5 sortofaccommodationtheworldwoulddemand...."Idon'tthinkthey'reservingyet,"mymotherwouldsay,turningfromtheentrywayofarestaurantshefearedmightbetooexpensiveorlessthanwelcoming."I'llgofindthemaitred',"wouldbemyfather'sresponse.Onspyinghim,myfatherwouldcalloutconfidently,"Tableforfive."Itwasmymotherwhonoticedthestaresthatmightaccompanyusononeofourforays.Myfatherwouldjustlaughandsay,"Well,whatcantheydo?"Therelaytheirdifferencesinanutshell:allmyfatherneededwasaccess,andtheresthewouldgetonhisown;mymotherhopedthat-theworldwouldwelcomeher,andwhenitdidn't,sheretractedherfeelingsbehindanimposingfal(adeof"proper"coloredreserve.PeopleinDurhamhadalwayssaidhowmuchstarethat 55:2273herhourlywage.But,justastherearebothdignitaryandpracticalcomponentstodiscriminatorypricing,soincreasedtransactiontimecostsmorethanjustlostwages.AsAyressaysafterreportinganauditstudyonAfricanAmericans'higherwaitingtimesforD.C.taxis,"whitereadersshouldtrytoimaginewhattheirlifewouldbelikeifevery(orevenjustmany)transactionstook27percentlonger."30Ofcourse,manyelementsofdiscriminationoneonesurethat'sallhe'scallin'me...."Now'courseSenatorSmithhedon'tknowthisotherin-div-id-ualisgivin'methetwentydollahseachtime.Well,now,thatevenin'mydaddy...hearsthisfellahcallin'methatandseesmerunnin'rightovertheretakin'goodcareofhim.Somydaddyhecallsmeoverandsays,"Thurgood,youarefired!Andyouareadisgracetothecoloredpeople!"...NaturallyIexplainedtomydaddywhatitwasallabout.JusticeMarshall onewouldanddry 55:2273componentpartsofthistastebelow.)Moregenerally,thetastefornotbeingdiscriminatedagainstisonlyasubsetofwhatisoftenreferredtoasatasteforfairness.Inadditiontothetastefornotbeingthevictimofdiscrimination,atasteforfairnessalsoencompassestastesfornotbeingthebeneficiaryofdiscrimination,theperpetratorofdiscrimination,oranobserveroforparticipantinasysteminwhichdiscriminationoccurs.Thestrengthofone'stasteforfairnessmaybestronglydependentonwhetheronewouldotherwise HeinOnline -- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 2279 2002-2003June2003]NOTBEINGDISCRIMINATEDAGAINST2279wellchoosetheInternet,however.21BecausetheInternetwillallowsuchacustomertoconcealraceandsexuntilapricehasbeenfullynegotiated,itcanreassuresuchacustomerthats/heisnotpayingadiscriminatoryraceorsexpremium.AndtheInternettendstoyieldlowerpricesoverallthanvisitstodealerships.22Butpreciselybyconcealingraceorsex,bymakingthetransactionmoreanonymousandimpersonal,theInternetdeprivessuchcustomersofwhatmaybeanimportantpartofsomepeople'stastefornotbeingdiscriminatedagainst-theopportunitytobetreatedfairly,respectfully,andasawelcomeandvaluedcustomerpreciselyasawomanoranAfricanAmerican,ratherthanasananonymous,raceless,sexless,facelessemailaddressonacomputerscreen.Ayresnotedanotheravailabletrade-otTintheChicagocarmarketintowhichhesenthistesters-dealershipsinthecityandinall-blackneighborhoodstendedtoofferlessdiscriminatory(moreequal)buthigherprices;atsuburbandealershipsandinall-whiteneighborhoodstheretendedtobemorediscriminatorypricing(Le.,greatervariancebetweenthepricesofferedtowhitemenandthoseofferedtoblacks)butoverallpriceswerelower.Afullyinformedblackconsumerwithastrongtastefornotbeingdiscriminatedagainstmightthereforepreferpurchasingfromacitydealership,buts/hemightpayforthattasteintheformofasomewhathigher,thoughslightlymoreequal,price.23Itthereforebecomesworthaskingasanempiricalmatter:Howexpensiveinaparticularcaseisatastefornotsufferingpricediscrimination,andhowstrongissuchataste?Howmuchmightsomeonehavetopay,andhowmuchwoulds/hebewillingtopaytosatisfysuchataste?Keepingthetaxonomyclearisimportant-whatIamcallingatastefornotsufferingpricediscriminationisonlyasubsetofthebroadertastefornotbeingdiscriminatedagainst.(Iwillhavemoretosayaboutotherpotential21.AYRES,p.157.Ayresworr[ies]thattheprimaryimpactoftheInternetwillbetoimprovethebargainingpowerofconsumerswhoarealreadyrelativelysophisticated....ThereisthusthedarkpossibilitythattheadventoftheInternetmayactuallyincreasethevarianceinpricespaidasnegotiatedpriceswouldincreasinglytendtoexhibitabimodaldistribution-withthesavvyInternetshoppersgettinglowpricesandthelesssophisticated,non-Internetshopperscontinuingtopaysubstantialmarkups.AYRES,p.157.But,while"[t]heInternet,byitself,doesnotseemtobeaninnovationdirectedtowardprotectingthoseconsumerswhohavebeenmostlikelytopayahighmarkup,"AYRES,p.157,itmaywellbejusttheinnovationneededbythoseforwhomonlyraceorsexstandsinthewayofgettingthebestpossibledealbyhagglinginperson.These"savvy,""sophisticated"purchasersarejustthesortofwomenandminoritiesaclassicmerit-basedviewoftheharmsofdisparatetreatmentseesasthemostinnocentvictimsandtheonesmostworthyofprotection.TheInternetprevents"irrelevant"characteristicsfromgettinginthewayofsuchcustomers'profitingfrom"relevant"meritssuchascomputersophisticationandbargainingskills.22.See,e.g.,AYRES,p.156n.103.23.SeeAYRES,p.90.IamgratefultoAyresforremindingmeofthesefindingsatthesymposiuminVancouver.Insettingforththesedisparateresultsinhisbook,Ayrescautionsthattheyarenotallstatisticallysignificant. HeinOnline -- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 2278 2002-20032278STANFORDLAWREVIEW[Vol.55:2273consumertransactionswhatJeromeCulpsaidinresponsetomewhenthissymposiumwasfirstpresentedatLawandSocietyinVancouver-"wewantitall."Thatistosay,whenweenterconsumermarkets,wewantalowpricethatisalsoafairpriceongoodsstructuredtosuitourneedsandpreferencespurveyedtousbysellersthatwelcomeusandtreatuswell.Butjustas,likeAyres,Ithinkthat"acknowledg[ing]thepossibilityofmultiplecauses"18isanimportantpartofproscribingdiscrimination,Ithinkthatacknowledgingthepossibilityofmultipleeffectsisimportantindevisingeffectivetransitionalremediesforit.Onceagainemphasizingtheperpetrator'sperspective,Ayresstressesthat:[D]ifferentcausaltheories[ofdisparatetreatment]canmilitatetowardtheuseofdramaticallydifferentremedialmeasures.Forexample,mandatingnondiscriminatorycarpricing(theso-calledno-dickersticker)ismorelikelytobringaboutrefusalstodealifcost-basedstatisticalinferencesarecausingthediscriminationthanifrevenue-baseddiscriminationorconsequentialanimusisdrivingthediscrimination.Thatis,dealerswhobelievethatitcostsmoretoselltoAfricanAmericansaremorelikelytoreacttoamandatednodickerstickerbyrefusingtodealthanaredealerswhoinitiallyofferhigherpricesbecausetheythinkAfricanAmericanshaveahigherwillingnesstopay.19Similarly,Iwouldargue,differentpreferencesonthepartofconsumerscanalso"militatetowardtheuseofdramaticallydifferentremedialmeasures."ConsiderthreerecentpotentialmarketameliorationsoftheproblemofraceandsexdiscriminationinthecarmarketsdiscussedbyAyres,eachofwhichrespondsbesttoanimportantlydifferentcomponentofthetastefornotbeingdiscriminatedagainst.Alegallymandatedno-dickerstickermayassureacustomerofpricingunaffectedbyraceorsex,butoflittleelse-neitherofalowpricenoroffriendlyservice.Ablackorfemalecustomerinterested,notonlyinmakingsuretheprices/hepaysisnohigherthanthatofferedawhiteman,butalsothats/heisdoingbusinesswithawelcomingdealer,mayprefersomethingliketheSaturndealerships,wherenotonlyisno-hagglepricingvoluntarilychosen,butthecompanyhasengagedinanextensiveadvertisingcampaigndesignedtomarketitselfasvaluingthepatronageofwomenandAfricanAmericansandcommittingtotreatthemwel1.2oAblackorfemalecustomerprimarilyinterestedinnegotiatingthelowestpossibleprice,especiallyonewhois"alreadyrelativelysophisticated,"may18.AYRES,pp.415-16.19.AYRES,p.415.20.See,e.g.,AYRES,p.153(describingadcampaigninwhichanAfrican-AmericanSaturnsalesmandescribeshisfather'sbadexperiencesinpurchasingcarselsewhereasinfluencinghisdecisiontojoinSaturn).Idonotmeantosuggestthatadvertisingsuggestingfairorgoodtreatmentisnecessarilyinherentlytrustworthy.But,asIshalldiscussbelowwithreferencetomarketingtargetedtogaysandlesbians,themeresignalofwelcometoanunderservedorvictimizedgroupmaybevaluabletoitsmembers. HeinOnline -- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 2277 2002-2003June2003]NOTBEINGDISCRIMINATEDAGAINST2277perpetrator's.14Tobesure,acarefulreaderofAyres'sworkwillobservethathementionsmostofthemajorcomponentssuchataxonomywouldcontain.Forexample,henotesthatnotonlypriceandproductquality,butalso"discretionaryaspectsofservice"mayvarydependingonacustomer'sraceorgender.Thesediscretionaryaspects,Ayresnotes,canincludequantifiableandlessquantifiabletransactioncostssuchaslongerwaitingtime,lessfriendlyoraccommodatingservice,andlesswillingnesstoaccedetospecialrequests.ISAsIshallexplainbelow,amoresystematicenumerationofthesecomponents,includingtheirmonetaryandlesstangiblecosts,aswellassurveyandotherresearchontherelativeimportanceandvalueofeachtoconsumers,would,inmyview,beausefulpartof"planningthejourney"Valdescallsfor.16IrealizethatthesortofthingIamhereadvocatingmaynotbethekindofpostsubordinationvisionValdesismostinterestedin.Itmaybetoolimitedinitshorizon:Itisavisionofthesecondbest,notoftheworldaftertherevolution.AccordingtoAyres,"[s]omecivilrightsadvocatesseemtoworrythatevenacknowledgingthepossibilitythatdiscriminationmayhaveavarietyofcausesunderminesthemoralclaimsthatdiscriminationiswrong."17Similarly,someofthoserepresentedinCrossroadsmayworrythatmycallforanincreasingemphasisondistinguishingamongthevarietyofeffectsofdiscriminationmaynotonlyunderminethemoralclaimthatalleffectsofdiscriminationareharmful,butalsogiveafalselyconciliatoryimpressionthatvictimsarepreparedtotoleratesomeformsofdiscriminationinreturnforbeingexemptedfromothers.OfcoursetheantisubordinationcommunitiesrepresentedinCrossroadswouldsayoftheirpostsubordinationvisionof14.Idonotmeantosuggestthatnoworkatallhasbeendoneonthisquestion.MuchofwhatIhavebeenabletofindineitherlegaloreconomicliteraturecentersonvariationsoftheso-calledUltimatumGame,inwhichProposerisgivenasumofmoneytodividewithanotherplayer,Responder,whomusteitheracceptorrejecttheoffereddivision.IntheeventofResponder'srejectionofProposer'soffer,thesumofmoneyisreturnedtotheexperimenterandbothplayersgetnothing.ThefactthatProposersmostoftenoffersomethingclosetoa50-50splitandRespondersmostoftenrejectoffersoflessthan20%ofthetotalsumisseentoprovideinsightintoatasteforfairness.See,e.g.,WernerGOth,RolfSchmittberger&BerndSchwarze,AnExperimentalAnalysisofUltimatumBargaining,3J.ECON.BEHAV.&ORG.367(1982);ChristineJolls,CassR.Sunstein&RichardThaler,ABehavioralApproachtoLawandEconomics,50STAN.L.REV.1471,1491(1998);cfRichardA.Posner,RationalChoice,BehavioralEconomics,andtheLaw,50STAN.L.REV.1551,1565(1998)("Iwouldliketoseeaseriesofultimatum-gameexperimentsinwhichtheproposersmakethesameofferstorespondentswhodifferbothamongthemselvesandfromtheproposersinage,sex,income,andeducation,viewedasproxiesfororsourcesofdifferencesinstatus,self-esteem,orotherplausiblecorrelatesofthesenseofpridethatcausesrespondentsinthegametorejectchintzyoffers.").IS.AYRES,p.7.16.Ofcourse,anytaxonomyofatastefornotbeingdiscriminatedagainstwouldnotbesymmetricaltoataxonomyofdiscrimination.Amongthereasonsforthisispreciselythatthoseatriskofbeingdiscriminatedagainstarenotinapositiontofulfillalltheirowntastesandpreferencesbutareforcedtoreacttotheactualizedpreferencesofthosewhochoosetodiscriminateagainstthem.17.AYRES,p.415. HeinOnline -- 55 Stan. L. Rev. 2276 2002-20032276STANFORDLAWREVIEW[Vol.55:2273withcriticalracetheoristsmoregenerallythatlisteningtothevoicesfromthebottomisnecessary,letmeurgeaswellthatmoresystematicdatagathering,testing,surveying,analysis,andtheorizingshouldalsobedonefromtheperspectiveofthevictimsofdiscriminationintheretailmarkets.WhatIhaveinmindisthis:Forsometime,themotivesofonewhodiscriminates,includingtheso-calledtastefordiscrimination,havebeenthesubjectofawell-developedtaxonomy.11Wenowunderstand,forexample,thatsomesellersmayhaveapersonalaversiontocontactwithblacks;12theymayprefertodiscourageblackcustomersaltogetherandpayapriceinlostsalestodoso.Othersmaynotmindthecontactsolongasitleavesblacksinaone-downposition;theymayactuallyprefertohavesomeblackcustomers,solongastheycanhavethesatisfactionofoverchargingthemortreatingthemshabbily.Stillothersmayhavenopersonalaversiontoblacks,butbelievetheircoreclientelehassuchanaversion;theymaydiscourageblackcustomerstocurryfavorwithwhitecustomersortoretainwhatforthemisahigh-class,lily-whiteimagefromwhichtheyhopetoprofitmonetarily.Andthereareotherswhooverchargeorunderserveblackcustomers,notoutofanimus,butbecausetheybelievethemtobesuckersmorelikelypreparedtopayinflatedpricesortoputupwithshoddytreatment.Additionalformsofstatisticaldiscriminationincludemerchantsactingonthebeliefthatblacksaremorelikelytorob(andthereforeneedtobefollowedaround),lesslikelytobuy(andthereforeneedlesssalesattention),morelikelytodefaultoncredit(andthereforeshouldbeextendedworsetermsornocredit),andlesslikelytotipwellorberepeatcustomers(andthereforeneednotbetreatedascourteously).Inadditiontospellingouttheseimportantvarietiesofdiscriminatoryintent,economistshavemodeledthecostsandthepriceofdiscriminationinanelaborateliterature.AsIshalldiscussbelowwithreferencetoAyres'swork,itiswellunderstoodthattheeffectiveremedyfordiscriminationmaydependonwhereinthetaxonomyofdiscriminationaparticularactorfalls.13Ihavebeensurprisednottofindintheliteratureacomparablywellworked-outtaxonomyonthetastefornotbeingdiscriminatedagainst,ataxonomythatfocusesonthevictim'sperspectiveratherthantheII.Mycolleague,GaryBecker,wasoneofthoseinstrumentalinbeginningtodevelopthistaxonomy.See.e.g.,GARYS.BECKER,THEECONOMICSOFDISCRIMINATION(2ded.1971).12.IuseblackshereonlybywayofexampleandbecausemostofAyres'sresearchfocusesonthem.Icouldsubstituteanyothergrouplikelytobethetargetsofdiscrimination,forexamplewomen,sexualminorities,Latinos,Asians,aboriginals,orimmigrants,tonamejustafewofthegroupsincludedintheCrossroadsreader'sbigtentof"coalitionaltheorizing."13.AyresdevotesasubstantialportionofPervasivePrejudice?tousingtheevidencehehasgatheredtoteaseoutdistinctionsamongthemotivesofthosediscriminatinginthetransactionshestudies.See,e.g.,AYRES,pp.45-87(includingagame-theoreticalmodelofanimusandstatisticaldiscriminationinbargaininginachapterentitledTowardCausalExplanation). begincoalitionalcoalitionalshouldmoresystematicallytestfordisparatetreatmentacrossawidevarietyofmarkets."loIagreewithAyresthatobtaininganddisseminatingsuchinformationwouldbequitevaluable.ButbecauseIalsoagreewithValdesinparticularthatspellingoutwhatweareforisuseful,and5.ThisdifferenceCarbadocarefullyenumeratesthe 55:2273outsiderjurisprudence,withastoryofmyownexperience.2IanAyres'sFairDriving3changedmylifemoredirectlythananyotherpieceoflegalscholarshiphasbeforeorsince.At