CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012255 - PDF document

CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012255 2012byTheWenner-GrenFoundationforAnthropologicalResearch.Allrightsreserved.0011-3204/2012/5303-0001$10.00.DOI:“AwakeningtoaNightmare”AbjectivityandIllegalityintheLivesofUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrantsintheUnitedStatesbyRobertoG.GonzalesandLeoR.Chavez Doestheundocumentedstatusof1.5-generationLatinos(thosewhomigratedatayoungage)intheUnitedStatesaffecttheirpolitical,civic,andpublicselves?Ourapproachtothisquestionbeginswithatheoreticalframeworkbasedontheconceptofabjectivity,whichdrawstogetherabjectstatusandsubjectivity.Wearguethatthepracticesofthebiopoliticsofcitizenshipandgovernmentality—surveillance,immigrationdocuments,employmentforms,birthcerticates,taxforms,drivers’licenses,creditcardapplications,bankaccounts,medicalinsurance,carinsurance,randomdetentions,anddeportations—enclose,penetrate,dene,limit,andfrustratethelivesofundocumented1.5-generationLatinoimmigrants.Weexaminedatafromarandom-sampletelephonesurveyof805Latinosand396whitesinOrangeCounty,California,toprovidegeneralpatternsthatdistinguish1.5-generationLatinoim-migrantsfromtheirrst-generationcounterpartsandtosuggestthecontoursoftheirlivesasundocumentedimmigrants.Wethenexaminein-depthinterviewswith80respondentsalsoinOrangeCountywhoprovideextensivequalitativeinformationandpersonalnarratives.Theanalysisshowshowabjectivityandillegalityconstraindailylife,createinternalizedfears,insomewaysimmobilizetheirvictims,andinotherwaysmotivatethemtoengagepoliticallytoresistthedireconditionsoftheirlives. The“abject”designatesthatwhichhasbeenexpelledfromthebody,dischargedasexcrement,literallyrendered“Other.”Thisappearsasanexpulsionofalienelements,butthealieniseffectivelyestablishedthroughthisexpul-sion.(JudithButler1999:5)From2003to2008,welistenedtothestoriesofundocu-mentedLatinoyoungadultswhohavelivedintheUnitedStatessincechildhood.Wecametoknowmanyoftheseyoungpeoplepersonallyandinteractedwiththemincommunitymeetings,onschoolcampuses,andattheirhomes.Theyspokeoftheirfrustrationsandstrugglestomakebetterlivesforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Esperanza,aparticularlybright27-year-oldwomanwhomigratedtotheUnitedStatesfromJalisco,Mexico,withherparentsandyoungersistersatage8andaspirestobeajournalist,toldusthateventhoughshehasaBAfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,herdreamsareonhold.Articulatingthefrustrationsofherpresentcircum-stances,shetoldus, RobertoG.GonzalesisAssistantProfessorintheSchoolofSocialServicesAdministrationoftheUniversityofChicago(969East60thStreet,Chicago,Illinois60637,U.S.A.[rggonzales@uchicago.edu]).LeoR.ChavezisProfessorintheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversityofCalifornia,Irvine(Irvine,California92617,U.S.A.[lchavez@uci.edu]).Thispaperwassubmitted2VIII10andaccepted1III11.I[don’t]wanttobreakthelaw,buteverythingyoudoisillegalbecauseyouareillegal.Everythingyoudowillbeillegal.Otherwiseyoucan’tlive.ButIamstillafraid.Idon’twanttojeopardizeanything.Imean,IguessIamjustashamed.Ilooked[forwork]andinmostrestaurantstheywouldbelike,“WhydoyouwanttoworkforusifyouhaveaBA?”Esperanza,likemanyotherswemetduringthecourseofeldwork,toldherstorywithanoutpouringofemotion,asmuchofheryounglifehadbeenspenttryingtounderstandtheconfusingandcontradictoryexperienceofgrowingupintheUnitedStatesbutnotbeingabletotakepartinimportantanddeningaspectsofbeingAmerican.Overthecourseofour3yearsintheeld,wecameacrossmorethan200youngpeoplewithsimilarstoriesoffrustrationandshattereddreams.WespoketotheOrangeCountyImmigrantStudentGroup,anorganizationmadeupofmainlyundocumentedcollege-agestudentsworkingtopressuretheUSCongresstopasslegislationtoprovideundocumentedstudentsapathtocitizenship(Development,Relief,andEducationforAlienMinors[DREAM]Act).Wealsointeractedwithlessfortunateundocumentedyouthwho,becauseofrun-inswiththepolice,troubleinschool,andeconomiccircumstanceshavenotbeenabletomoveontocollege.Theseyoungmenandwomenstruggletomakeendsmeetandndtheirplaceinsociety.WeheardundocumentedLatinoyouthspeakofthemselves CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012asunwantedbythelargersocietyeventhoughtheUnitedStatesistheonlycountrytheyreallyknow.Outoftheseexperiencescameourgeneralresearchques-tion:DoestheundocumentedstatusofyoungLatinomenandwomenwhocametotheUnitedStatesatayoungage(whomimmigrationscholarscallthe1.5generation)affecttheirpolitical,civic,andpublicselves?OurapproachtothisquestionisframedbywhatSarahS.Willenhascalled“ab-jectivity,”atermthatcombinesabjectwithsubjectivity(Wil-len2007).OurcontributiontothinkingaboutabjectivityistofurtherelaboratehowFoucault’snotionsofbiopoliticsandbiopower,andAgamben’s“statesofexception,”frameabjec-tivity’susefulnessforunderstanding(im)migrantandracial-izedpopulations.Wealsoarguethatundocumented1.5-gen-erationLatinos,despitethestructuralconstraintstheyface,areoftenactiveagentsworkingtomakethebestoftheirsituationandtochangethelawsthatconstraintheirlives.Atthecoreoftheconceptofabjectivityistheword“abject,”whichmeans“tocastaway”or“tothrowaway.”Abjecthasbeenusedtodescribethoseinthelowest,mostcontemptible,andmostwretchedsocialstatus.JuliaKristevarstpointedtotheimplicationsofaconditionofabjectionasanexclu-sionarypracticethatproduceddiscretesubjects,apointthathasinuencedsubsequentscholars(Kristeva1982;WillenAsJudithButler(1999:169)notesintheepigraphabove,“The‘abject’designatesthatwhichhasbeenexpelledfromthebody,dischargedasexcrement,literallyrendered‘Other.’Thisappearsasanexpulsionofalienelements,butthealieniseffectivelyestablishedthroughthisexpulsion.”Variousintersectionsofrace,gender,sexuality,nationality,migrancy,andanynumberofothercategoriescandemarcatetheabjectinsociety.Forexample,NicholasDeGenova(2008)examinedwhathecalled“Americanabjection,”aformofracializedidentityMexicanmigrantsprojectedontoUS-bornpeopleofcolor.AndLeoR.Chavez(2008)examinedhowtheoftenvitriolicdiscourseaboutthechildrenofundocu-mentedimmigrantsintheUnitedStates,includingtheUS-born(“anchorbabies”),characterizedthemasabject,asun-wantedanddiscardable.Forourpurposes,itisthebodyofthenationfromwhichundocumentedchildrenofimmigrants’areexpelledandthesourceoftheirabjectstatus.Theirsarecastaway(abject)lives,which,asJamesFergusonnoted,arelivesdisconnectedfromthelifetheyhadimaginedforthemselves(Ferguson2002:140–141).Theserejectedandabjectsubjectsinhabitaliminalspacewheretheboundarybetweentheireverydaylivesthenationandtheirlivesaspartofthenationismaintainedasawayofensuringtheircontrolandsocialregulation(Chavez1.SeeAmericanHeritageDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,4thed.(Boston:HoughtonMifin,2006),s.v.“abject.”2.ForexamplesofKristeva’sinuenceonscholarsexaminingabjec-tivity,seeButler(1999);Chavez(2008);Ferguson(2002);Inda(2002,2006);Willen(2007).2008:115–116).Butwhataboutthesubjectiveunderstandingoflivinganabjectlife?Willen’sresearchamongundocumentedmigrantsinIsraelemphasizedtheimportanceoflivedexperiences,thatis,sub-jectivity,withinabjectspaces.ItisinthissensethatabjectivityraisesaquestionsuchasthatposedbyPaulFarmer(2003:30):“Bywhatmechanisms,precisely,dosocialforcesrangingfrompovertytoracismbecomeembodiedasindividualexperience?”Suchaquestionleadstoamethodologicalapproachthatex-aminesexperiencesandpracticesthatshapeunderstandingsoftheworld.AsMarjorieO’LoughlinobservedinrelationtoMerleau-Ponty’s(1962,1968)theoreticalinsights,itiscrucialtoask,“Howembodiedsubjectivitiesareproducedthroughmaterialrelationswithotherembodiedsubjects”(O’LoughlinHumanbeings,asO’Loughlin(1998:280)furtherobserves,“aresimultaneouslytheirbodiesandembodiedasactorsintheworld.Itisthisdualsenseofbodiliness—thelivedexperienceofembodiment—whichenablessocialagency,thatis,theongoingcreationofcollectivelife.”ItisinthissensethatSarahWillen(2007:8)calledfora“criticalphenomonologyof‘illegality,’”onethatexaminesillegalityasajuridicalstatus,asasociopoliticalcondition,and,nally,asamodeofbeing-in-the-world.Weareinterestedintheexperiencesoflivinginabjection.Abjectivityspeakstohowthe“castingaway”ofindividualsandpopulationsshapes(orperhapsdelimits)theirsocial,economic,andbiologicallife.Webelievethatabjectivitydrawsattentiontotheforcescreatingtheconditionofabjectivity.Abjectivityistheeffectofsocialforces,butwemustalsoaskaboutthecausesofthatcondition.Wearguethatthepracticesofthebiopoliticsofcitizenshipandgovernmentality—sur-veillance,immigrationdocuments,employmentforms,birthcerticates,taxforms,drivers’licenses,creditcardapplica-tions,bankaccounts,medicalinsurance,andmandatorycarinsurance—mayfrustrateanyone,citizenandnoncitizenalike,becausetheyenclose,penetrate,dene,andlimitone’slifeandactions.Butforundocumented1.5-generationLatinoimmigrants(andothersinasimilarstatus),thesepracticesofgovernmentalcontactandsurveillancecancreateenor-mousdistress,detention,andevendeportation(Inda2006).These“ritesofinstitution,”asPierreBourdieu(1992)calledthem,arecentraltothepowerofnation-statestoconstructidentitiesandproduce,inaperverseway,the“sweetsorrow”ofasenseofbelonging(toborrowfromShakespeare).Thus,abjectivityunderscoresthelinkbetweenthemechanicsofbiopowerandthelivedexperiencesofthosemostvulnerabletotheexerciseofpower.OurconstructionofabjectivityclearlydrawsonMichelFou-cault’sbiopolitics,thedevelopmentoftechniquesthatworkonthebodytoproducedocilebodies(Foucault1977,1990[1976],3.SeeUliLinke’s(2006)argumentthatthestatealsohasacorporealgrounding. GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants2571997;Gordon1991).ThisledFoucault,asGiorgioAgamben(1998)pointsout,totworesearchdirectives.Therstfocusesonthewaypower“penetratessubjects’verybodiesandformsoflife.”Thestate,withits“politicaltechniques(suchasthescienceofthepolice)...assumesandintegratesthecareofthenaturallifeofindividualsintoitsverycenter”(Agamben1998:5).Second,Foucaultexamines“thetechnologiesoftheselfbywhichprocessesofsubjectivizationbringtheindividualtobindhimselftohisownidentityandconsciousnessand,atthesametime,toanexternalpower”(Agamben1998:5).JudithButler(1997)alsoarguedthatpowerandsubjectareinter-lockedinaparadoxofsubjectivization,ortheformationofaself-consciousidentityandthusagency.WearealsointerestedintheintersectionofFoucault’stworesearchdirectives,thatis,howthepracticestargetingun-documentedorunauthorizedimmigrantsshapethelivedex-perienceofundocumented1.5-generationLatinosandhowtheyrespondtosuchconstraints.Agambenspeaksof“barelife,”thenaturallifethatisdistinctfromthe“goodlife,”thepoliticallifeinclassicWesternthought.Inmodernpolitics,barelife,oncekeptatthemargins,isnowincreasinglyincludedinthepoliticalorder(Agamben1998:9).Butwhathappenstothoseobjectsofstateregulationwhosebarelifeiskeptatthemarginsofthepoliticalorder?Theybecomestatesofexception,theirlivesbracketedasinthenationbutnotpartofthenation,whichallowsthemtobecometheobjectoflawsandothertechniquesofregulation(Agamben2005).Thesecanincludeeverydayexperiencesofilltreatmentbythelargersociety,dis-crimination,andtargetedpoliceactions.Whentakentoitsextreme,thestatecantargetsuchexceptions,physicallyseparatethemfromsociety,isolatetheminto“zonesofsocialaban-donment,”andevenengageinpracticesofgenocide,exter-mination,orethniccleansing(Biehl2005).Butbeforesuchendpointsarereached,ifever,asetofprac-ticescanemergethatmarkofforbracketagroupasdifferent,lessthan,unworthy,illegitimate,undeserving(SargentandLar-´-Kim2006;Tormey2007;Willen2007;Zhang2001).Whatmarksthegroupas“Other”derivesfromparticularhis-toriesandcancoalescearoundanynumberoftraits:race,religion,sex,physicalormentaldisability,stigmatizeddisease,migrationhistory,orcitizenshipstatus,amongothers.Im-portantly,itisnotsomethinginherenttotheparticularbrack-etedgroupthatisimportanthere,butthepracticesthatmaketheirlivesmiserable,constrained,limited,invisibleordiffer-entlyvisible,stigmatized,feared,andevendangerous.Andyet,despitethesepracticesofexclusion,itissometimespos-siblethatasenseofinclusionemergesthrougheverydaylived4.PaulRabinowandNikolasRose(2006:197)provideasharperdef-initiontoFoucault’srathervagueconceptofbiopolitics:“Wecanusetheterm‘biopolitics’toembraceallthespecicstrategiesandcontes-tationsoverproblematizationsofcollectivehumanvitality,morbidityandmortality;overtheformsofknowledge,regimesofauthorityandpracticesofinterventionthataredesirable,legitimateandefcacious.”5.Agamben(1998)notesthatFoucaultdidnotapplyhisinsightstotwentieth-centurytotalitarianstatesandtheirconcentrationcamps.experiencessuchasworking,formingfamilies,makingfriends,payingtaxes,playingsports,engagingincommunityaffairs,andinteractingwithsocialinstitutions,particularlyschools(Agamben1998;Chavez1998;Yuval-Davis2006).These“zonesofindistinction,”asAgambencalledthem,areparadoxesinwhichthelawandsocialpracticeslegitimizethatwhichlawhasprohibited(Agamben1998;Coutin2007).Importantly,asNicholasDeGenova(2010:37)hasnoted,zonesofindistinction,andbarelife,areproducedbysovereign(state)power.Butwemustnotethat,aswewillshow,undoc-umented1.5generationcan,anddo,resisttotalexclusion.Theultimateexclusionaryacthereisdeportation,whichDeGenova(2010:34–35)hasobserved,iswhere“thewholetotalizingre-gimeofcitizenshipandalienage,belonginganddeportability,entitlementandrightlessness,isdeployedagainstparticularper-sonsinamannerthatis,intheimmediatepracticalapplication,irreduciblyifnotirreversiblyindividualizing.”Abjectivityleadsustoexaminethequotidianexperiencesofthosewhoaretheobjectofdisciplinarypracticesandthesubjectsofexclusionarydiscoursesofcitizenshipandbe-longing(Coutin2000;Reed-DanahayandBrettell2008;Yu-val-Davis2006).Howdotheabjectinasocietyinternalizetheirsubjectstatus?Whattypesofself-disciplinarypracticesdotheyengagein?Howdoeseverydayrealityinformasenseofidentity,belonging,andcitizenship?Atthesametime,byincludingbiopoliticsascentraltoourformulationofabjec-tivity,wearealsounderscoringthatpowernotonlyworkstocreatedocilebodiesbutthat,asFoucault(1990[1976]:95)sofamouslyputit,“Wherethereispower,thereisresistance.”Thus,asweexplorethesequestions,wearemindfulofhow,asLilianaSua´rez-Navaz(2004:13)observed,“peoplesituatedatthemarginsofthehegemonic‘either-or’notionofbe-longingresistedtheirdisplacement.”FocusingonthelivesofundocumentedLatinoyouthandthewaysinwhichtheyun-derstand,respondto,andcritiquetheircircumstancesdem-onstratesthesalienceofthisobservation.Locating1.5-GenerationLatinosinaConditionofIllegalityTheliteraturereferstothe1.5generationasthosewhomi-gratedatayoungage,inrecognitionofthefactthatmost6.AlthoughourfocusisontheUnitedStates,werecognizethatthelivesofthechildrenofimmigrantsvaryacrossnation-statesaccordingtolawsofcitizenshipandnationalphilosophiesandpracticesofinclusion.Forinformationonalargemulticountryprojectonthistopiccurrentlyunderway,seetheIntegrationoftheEuropeanSecondGeneration,avail-ableathttp://www.tiesproject.eu/component/option,com_frontpage/Itemid,1/lang,en/.SeealsoMauriceCrulandLiesbethHeering’s(2008)workamongsecond-generationTurksandMoroccansinAmsterdam,andtheresearchoftheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD2007)forEurope.SeealsoKamalSadiq’s(2005,2008)researchonIndia,Malaysia,Indonesia,andBangladesh.7.Thereisnoconsensusonthecutoffageforthe1.5generation.Weuseunder15yearsofageinouranalysis. CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012oralloftheirschoolingandmuchoftheirculturalandsocialdevelopmentoccurinthehostcountry(PortesandRumbaut2001;Rumbaut2004).Incontrast,oldermigrants(the1.0generation)whoexperiencetheirformativeyearsintheircountryoforigindeveloptheirworldviewfromexperiencesgrowingupthere.Inmanyrespects,the1.5generationismoresimilartothesecondgeneration,thoseborninthenewcoun-try,thantothoseoftherstgenerationwhomigratedat15yearsofageorolder.Also,becausethe1.5generationcometotheUnitedStatesasyoungchildren,itistypicallytheirparentswhomadethedecisiontomigrate.Thebiopoliticsassociatedwithgovernmentalityproduceillegality.“Illegal”referstounauthorizedresidentswhoen-teredthecountywithoutpermissionfromgovernmentau-thorities,ortheymayhaveenteredwithpermission—touristorstudentvisas—butthenoverstayedvisaenddates.Illegality,asSusanB.Coutin(2007:9)observed,hasmeantthat“in-dividualscanbephysicallypresentbutlegallyabsent,existinginaspaceoutsideofsociety,aspaceof‘nonexistence,’aspacethatisnotactually‘elsewhere’orbeyondbordersbutthatisratherahiddendimensionofsocialreality.”WewouldofferasaslightvariationonCoutin’srepresentation:tobeillegallypresentisnottobe“outsideofsociety”buttobeallowedtoparticipateinsomeaspectsofsociety(e.g.,schooling)butnotothers(e.g.,work)(Gonzales2011).Allchildren,regardlessofimmigrationstatus,haveaccesstoprimaryandsecondaryeducationasaresultoftheUSSupremeCourt’sdecisioninPlyerv.Doe.Accesstohighereducationhasfocusedonim-migrationstatusandin-stateversusnonresidenttuition.InCalifornia,AssemblyBill540,signedintolawin2001,allowedundocumentedstudentstoattendpubliclyfundedcollegesanduniversitiesandpayin-statetuition,buttheywerein-eligiblefornancialaid,whichtheCaliforniaDREAMActof2011nowallows.Asacondition,being“illegal”contributestosubjectiveunderstandingsoftheworldandtoidentity(Coutin2000;DeGenova2002;Menj´var2006;Sua´rez-Navaz2004;Willen2007).AsSarahWillen(2007:11)hasputit,“migrant‘illegality’[is]thecatalystforparticularformsof‘abjectivity.’”Abjectivity,bydrawingusbacktobiopolitics,suggeststhataddingtothedespairofabjectivityisnotjusttheconditionofillegalitybutthestate’sholdingoutofthepossibilityofanendtothatcondition.Movingfromanillegalstatustoalegalone—tolegalper-8.ProblemsalsoarisewhenchildrenraisedintheUnitedStatesreturn,eithervoluntarilyorinvoluntarily,backtotheircountryoforigin;seeBoehm(2008);Hamann,Zu˜iga,andSa´nchezGarc´a(2006).9.Weunderstandthatminorsalsomigrateunaccompaniedbyorotherfamilymembers.Forourdiscussionhere,wefocusonun-documentedyouthwhomigrateandlivewithparentsorotherfamilialguardians.10.Foradiscussionofthelegalconstructionofthe“illegal”andthe“Mexicanillegalalien,”seeMaeNgai’s(2004)bookImpossibleSubjects11.ForresearchonCaliforniaAssemblyBill540anditsimpactonundocumentedstudents’lives,seeAbrego(2006,2008);Gonzales(2007,2008,2008);Olivas(1995).manentresidence—hasbecomemuchmoredifcultasare-sultofchangesinUSimmigrationlaw,mostnotablythe1996IllegalImmigrationReformandImmigrationResponsibilityAct(IIRIRA;BunisandGarcia1997).IIRIRA’sprovisionsincludedthatapprehendedundocumentedimmigrantscannolongerdemandahearingandstayinthecountryuntiltheircaseisadjudicated;theycannowbesenthomeim-mediately,buttheycanappealadeportationorderbecauseofalaterlegaldecision(Stout1978).Undocumentedim-migrantsmustnowbeintheUnitedStatesfor10years,ratherthan7years,beforetheycanappealadeportationdecision,andtheymustprovegoodmoralcharacterandshowthatthatdeportationwouldcauseextremehardshiptoafamilymemberwhoisaUScitizen.Waiversofdeportationforag-gravatedfeloniesarenolongerpossible,andthisclassoffelonieshasbeengreatlyexpanded.Anindividualsponsorforanimmigrantmustsignanafdavitandprovethathisorherincome(notherhousehold’sincome)isatleast125%abovethenation’spovertylevel(Chavez2001).Becauseofsuchobstaclestomovingtolegalstatus,publicdebatesovercomprehensiveimmigrationreformincludethepossibilityofa“pathtocitizenship”forthelarge(11–12million)numberofunauthorizedresidents(PasselandCohn2009).Althoughsuchproposalshavegainedlittletractioninrecentyears,theUSCongresshasconsideredamorefocusedreformfortheundocumented1.5generation,knownastheDREAMAct.UndertheDREAMAct,moststudentsofgoodmoralcharacterwhocametotheUnitedStatesbeforetheywere16yearsoldandhadatleast5yearsofUSresidencebeforethedateofthebill’senactmentwouldqualifyforcon-ditionalpermanentresidentstatusiftheymetoneofthreecriteria:()graduatedfroma2-yearcollegeoravocationalcollege,orstudiedforatleast2yearstowardabachelor’sorhigherdegree;()servedintheUSarmedforcesforatleast2years;or()performedatleast910hoursofvolunteercommunityservice.Undocumentedyouthwouldnotqualifyforthisreliefiftheyhadcommittedcrimes,wereasecurityrisk,orwereinadmissibleorremovableoncertainothergrounds.However,theDREAMActhasbeeninCongress,insomeform,fornearly10yearswithoutpassage.Theconstantvacillationbetweenhopeanddespairengenderedbythepos-sibilityofimmigrationreformandtheDREAMActisamajordisciplinarypracticethatinformsthesubjectstatusoftheundocumentedyoungpeoplewhoselivesareexaminedbelow(Gonzales2008,2008;Negron-Gonzales2009;Olivas1995;Ramirez2008).12.DetailsofIIRIRAareavailableathttp://www.ows.doleta.gov/dmstree/pl/pl_104-208.pdf.13.AccordingtotheNationalImmigrationLawCenter(http://www.nilc.org/immlawpolicy/DREAM/Dream001.htm),theDevelopment,Re-lief,andEducationforAlienMinors(DREAM)Act(S.1545),introducedonJuly31,2003,wasreintroducedintheSenateonNovember18,2005.ItpassedtheSenateJudiciaryCommitteeonMarch27,2006.However,Congressfailedtopassimmigrationreform,andwithittheDREAMAct,ineither2006or2007. GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants259Abjectivityasexperiencedbythoseinaconditionofille-gality,therefore,issituationalandnotimmutable,withthestatehavingthepowertomaintainormitigatethatstatus(Bosniak1998,2000).Anillegalorundocumentedimmigrantcansometimes,thoughwithgreatdifculty,ndawaytomovetoalegalimmigrationstatus,whichoftenmeansgreatereconomic,physical,andpsychologicalstability.Theliminalandunstablenatureofabjectivityisbothasourceoflifestressandaconditionthatallowsforthepossibilityofchange,whichopensupaspaceforhumanactionandresistance.Thoughlackingpower,undocumentedimmigrantsarenotpowerless.Theyhave,asSaskiaSassen(2003:62)putit,apoliticalpres-.Thisbecomesevidentwhenweexaminethepoliticalactivism,whatIsinandNielsen(2008)call“actsofcitizen-ship,”oftheyoungpeopleexaminedhere(Getrich2008).Ratherthanfallingintocompletelyimmobilizingdespairandhopelessness,theyoftenengageinpersonalactsofresistance(Butler1997),whichrangefrommakingsmallstepstoim-provetheirlivesthrougheducationandtrainingtopoliticalactivismaimedatimmigrationreformstoprovideapathtocitizenshipforundocumentedimmigrants.ExploringtheLivesof1.5-GenerationLatinosWeexaminethelivesofyoungLatinoimmigrantswhocametotheUnitedStatesatayoungageandwerelivinginOrangeCounty,California.Ourapproachcombinessurveydataandin-depthethnographicinterviewsthatgrewoutofextensiveparticipantobservation.Surveydataprovidegeneralpatternsinthelivesof1.5-generationLatinosinOrangeCountyandindicatetheconstraintsofillegalityontheirlives.In-depthethnographicinterviewsandparticipantobservationprovideinsightsintothesubjectiveunderstandingsandpracticesoflivinginaconditionofillegalityforyoungLatinoimmigrants.Questionsinboththesurveyandin-depthinterviewsfocusedonresidence,family,education,work,discrimination,un-authorizedstatus,politicalengagement,anddaily,livedex-periences,withextensivefollow-upandprobinginthein-depthinterviews.OrangeCountycoversanareaof789squaremiles,islargelyurban,andcontains34citiesandnumerousunincorporatedcommunities(USCensusBureau2006).ItisthethirdmostpopulouscountyinCalifornia,withanestimated3,002,048inhabitantsin2006,ofwhom30.5%wereforeign-born.Withanunderstandingthatitisdifculttoestimatetheundoc-umentedimmigrantpopulation,theymayaccountforabout10.2%ofthecounty’soverallpopulationin2006(Fortunyetal.2007;Paral2006;USCensusBureau2006).Latinosac-countedfor32.5%ofthecounty’spopulationin2005.MostLatinosareofMexicanheritage,butLatinoimmigrantsarealsofromothernationsinLatinAmerica,particularlyCentralAmerica.OrangeCountyisanexcellentsiteforthisstudynotjustbecauseofthelargeproportionanddiversityofLatinos,butforotherreasonsaswell.Eventhoughithadamedianhouse-holdincomein2008of$74,862(almost$24,000abovetheCaliforniaaverage),itisaneconomicallydiversecounty,rang-ingfrommodestworkingclasscommunitiestowealthycom-munities(USCensusBureau2010).Thesouthernhalfofthecountyhasbeenanareaofrapidgrowthinnewmiddleclass,upper-middleclass,andexclusive(i.e.,mostlywhite)resi-dentialcommunities.Latinoimmigrantsoftenworkinsouthcountycommunitiesbutndlessexpensivehousinginthemanyworkingclasscommunitiesinthenorthernpartofthecounty(Chavezetal.1997).Finally,OrangeCountyhasalsobeenoneoftheareaswhereanti-immigrationmovementshavefoundsubstantialsupport.Intheearly1990s,RonaldPrince,oneofthecofoundersoftheSaveOurState(SOS)initiative,wasbasedinOrangeCounty.TheSOSinitiativewasthebasisforthe1994Cali-forniastateinitiativeknownasProposition187,theso-calledanti-illegalalieninitiativeandaforerunnerofArizona’s2009anti-immigrationlaw(McDonnell1994).JimGilchristlivesinOrangeCountyandstartedtheMinutemenProjecttoex-pressconcernwithwhatheperceivedasalackofenforcementofthenation’sborders(Delson2005;Kelly2005).Insum,thedemographicsofthecountyandthelocalconcernforpublicpolicyissuessurroundingimmigrationreformmakeOrangeCountyaparticularlyaptplacetoexamineissuesrelatedto1.5-generationLatinos.SurveydatawerecollectedbetweenJanuary4andJanuary30,2006,from805Latinosand396non-Latinowhites(here-aftersimply“whites”)inOrangeCounty.Latinoswereover-sampledtoaccountfordiversityingenerationandimmigra-tionstatus.TheOrangeCountySurveywasconductedundertheauspicesoftheCenterforResearchonLatinosinaGlobalSociety(CRLGS),UniversityofCalifornia,Irvine.There-searchprotocolwassuccessfullyreviewedbytheUniversityofCalifornia,IrvineOfceofResearchAdministrationIn-stitutionalReviewBoard.InterviewingServiceofAmericaconductedthetelephonesurvey,usingtrainedinterviewersinbothEnglishandSpanish.Interviewswereintheinterviewee’slanguageofchoice.Thesurveyusedrandom-digitdialingonasamplefromadatabasethatincludesallUSdirectory-pub-lishedhouseholdnumbers,bothlistedandunlisted,combinedwithasamplethathadidentiedHispanicmarkers,suchasuniquerstandlastnames.EligibleparticipantswereEn-glish-orSpanish-speakingmenandwomen,18yearsofageorolder,whowerenotinstitutionalizedandwhoidentied14.ConrmationfromtheUCIrvineOfceofResearchAdministra-tionInstitutionalReviewBoardwasreceivedDecember9,2005(HS#2005-4671).15.Bothlistedandunlistednumberswereincluded,avoidingpotentialbiasduetoexclusionofhouseholdswithunlistednumbers(SSI1990).Inaddition,telephonesurveyndingsmaynotbegeneralizabletofam-ilieswithouttelephones.InOrangeCounty,however,approximately94%ofLatinosand99%ofwhiteshavetelephones(CSCDC1995).Despitethesehighproportions,thereisstillalimitationbasedonsomemembersofthepopulationwithoutphones,e.g.,recentimmigrantsandtheun-employed. CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012themselvesaswhite(Anglo,Caucasian,non-Hispanicwhite)orLatino(HispanicormorespecicethnicidentierssuchasMexican,MexicanAmerican,andSalvadoran).Iftherewasmorethanone18yearoldinthehousehold,weaskedfortheonewiththeclosestbirthday.Theresponseratewas70%.Although“Latino”and“Hispanic”areoftenusedinter-changeably,theterm“Latino”isusedhereasapanethnicidentierofpeopleofLatinAmericandescentlivingintheUnitedStates.Forthepurposesofthisanalysis,respondentswhowereborninaLatinAmericancountryand/orself-identiedasLatino,Hispanic,oraspecicLatinAmericannationality(e.g.,Mexican,Salvadoran)wereclassiedasLa-tino.Surveyquestionsfocusedonresidence,family,education,work,income,discrimination,immigrationstatus,politicalengagement,varioussocialandeconomicexperiences,useofmedicalservices,andhealth.Questionsoflifestressorsweredrawnfromresearchonanarrayofhealthoutcomesandstress(Camposetal.2007;Dressler1996;Farleyetal.2005;WallaceandWallace2004).Notallquestionsinthesurveyareexaminedhere.Immigrationstatuswasassessedthroughtwoquestions.First,weaskediftherespondentwasalegalpermanentres-identoftheUnitedStates,anaturalizedUScitizen,orsome-thingelse(thedefaultcategory).Wethenaskedifanyofthefollowingappliedtotheirimmigrationstatus:awardedasy-lum,awardedTemporaryProtectedStatus,appliedforaworkpermit,appliedforpermanentresidence,appliedforpoliticalasylum.Thedefaultcategoryconsistedofthosewithoutau-thorizationtobeintheUnitedStates.Asthendingsbelowindicate,unauthorizedimmigrantsdifferedsignicantlyalongarangeofsocioeconomicvariablesfromlegalpermanentres-idents,naturalizedcitizens,andUS-borncitizens.Wealsoconducted80in-depthinterviews,themajority(72)ofwhichwerewithindividualsofMexicanorigin.Mostofthein-depthinterviews(76)wereconductedbytheleadauthor,therestbythesecondauthor.Gonzales’sresearchtookplaceinseveralsitesduringthreeperiodsofeldresearchinOrangeCounty.Therstincludedvolunteeringattwocom-munity-basedorganizationsinSantaAnaduringthe2002–2003academicyear,whereheonceortwiceaweekhelpedoutandobservedyoungadultsintheirnaturalenvironments.Theeldworkandtherelationshipsmadewithkeycom-munityintervieweeshelpedhimtoidentifyinitialrespondentsandusesnowballsamplingtoidentifysubsequentinterviewees(Chavez1998;Cornelius1982).Thesecondphaseofeldworktookplacefrom2004to2007,duringwhichheobservedrespondentsintheirworkplaces,schools,homes,andincom-munitysettings.In2009,hecollectedadditionaldataandfollowedupwithpastrespondents.Allin-depthinterviewswereconductedinEnglish.Intervieweesincluded1.5-generationyoungadultswhoen-teredtheUnitedStateswithoutauthorizationandremainunauthorized,1.5-generationyoungadultswhoenteredtheUnitedStateswithvisasandbecameunauthorizedduetooverstays,and1.5-generationyoungadultswhowereonceunauthorizedandhavesinceregularizedtheirstatus(areei-therlawfulpermanentresidentsornaturalizedcitizens).In-tervieweesrangedfrom20to34yearsofageandwereevenlydividedbygender.Interviewsrangedintimefrom1hourand40minutesto3hoursand20minutes.Interviewsweretranscribedandcoded.DescribingAbjectLivesWeexaminesurveydatarstasawayofprovidinggeneralpatternsthatdistinguish1.5-generationLatinoimmigrantsfromtheirrst-generationcounterpartsandtosuggestthecontoursoftheirabjectstatus.Ofthe805Latinossurveyed,most(84.7%)wereMexicanimmigrantsorofMexicanorigin.Therewere,however,SalvadoranandotherCentralAmericanimmigrants,someSouthAmericans,andafewimmigrantsfromtheCaribbean.OftheLatinossurveyed,573(71.2%)wererstgeneration,meaningthattheywereborninaforeigncountryandmigratedtotheUnitedStates.Ofthese,130respondents,or22.7%oftherst-generationLatinorespon-dents,wereinthe1.5generation.Most(105,82%)ofthe1.5intervieweeswereborninMexico,withtherestcominginsmallernumbersfromthesamecountriesmentionedabove.Surveyed1.5-generationrespondentsweregenerallyyoun-ger(medianage29)thanrst-generationadultmigrants(me-dianage39),buttheyhadmoreyearsofUSresidence(23yearsand16years,respectively).The1.5generationalsotendedtohavemoreyearsofschooling(median12years)thantheiroldermigratingcounterparts(median9years),butlessthansecond-generationLatinos(median13years)orwhites(median16years).Incomealsovariedbygeneration,withonly26%ofthosewhomigratedatage15orolder(1.0generation)havingfamilyincome(interviewee’sincomeplusspouse/partner’sincome,ifapplicable)of$35,000ormore,comparedto54%of1.5-generationLatinos(.01),bothofwhichwerelessthansecond-generationLatinos(71%)andwhites(79%)inthatupperincomecategory.YoungLatinoswhomigratedunderage15were,comparedtooldermigrants,morelikelytospeakallormostlyEnglishathome(17.8%and2.5%,respectively;.001),withfriends(31%and5.2%,respectively,.001),andatwork(43.4%and19%,re-spectively;.001).Examiningall1.5-generationLatinostogethermasksthematerialconditionsofillegality.Aboutathird(32%)oftheLatino1.5-generationintervieweeswereunauthorizedim-migrantsintheUnitedStatescomparedto46%oftherstgenerationwhomigratedatage15orolder,astatisticallysignicantdifference(.01).Illegalityhadsignicantram-icationsforallLatinoimmigrants,andforthe1.5-generationLatinosinparticular.Forexample,undocumented1.5-gen-erationLatinoswereablelegallytoattendacollegeoruni-16.Thepercentagescitedinthediscussionarebasedonthetotalof799Latinoswhoansweredthequestion. GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants261versityinCalifornia,buttheywerenoteligibleforgovern-ment-sponsorednancialaidandthusoftenfoundmeetingthecostsofhighereducationdifcult(Rinco´n2008).Notsurprisingly,giventhenancialobstacles,only30.3%oftheundocumented1.5generationhad13ormoreyearsofschool-ing,comparedto50%oftheirlegalresidentcounterparts.BeingundocumentedalsomeantthatthoseeducatedintheUnitedStatescouldnotworklegally.Consequently,amongLatinoswhomigratedatayoungagebutwerestillunauthorizedresidentsatthetimeoftheinterview,only23.5%hadafamilyincomeof$35,000orhigher,comparedtotwo-thirds(67.6%)oflegallyresident1.5-generationLa-tinos,astatisticallysignicantdifference(.001).LivinginaconditionofillegalityalsoresultsinbeliefsandexperiencesamongLatinoswhodiffersignicantlyfromLa-tinolegalimmigrants.Undocumented1.5-generationLatinoswerelesslikelythanlegal1.5-generationLatinostoowntheirhome(13%comparedto70%;.001),aswellassecond-generationLatinos(70%)andwhites(86%).Comparedtolegal1.5-generationLatinos,undocumented1.5-generationLatinosheldlesspositivebeliefsabouttheirqualityoflifeinOrangeCounty(13%comparedto35%;.05),werelesssatisedwiththeirneighborhoods(36%comparedto64%;.05),morelikelytohavelostsleeporworriedexcessivelybecauseofneighborhoodproblems(18%comparedto7%),weremoreoftenforcedtomovebecauseofmoneyproblems(15%comparedto2%;.01),andmoreoftendidnothaveenoughfoodtoeat(18%comparedto8%).Theywerelesslikelytoviewpoliceprotectionasexcellent(13%com-paredto26%;.05)andmorelikelytobelievetheyhadbeentreatedunfairlybythepolice(18%comparedto6%;.05).Theseviewsandexperiencesindicatethesocial,ma-terial,andpsychiccostsofillegalityandabjectivity.Illegalityplaceslimitsonwhatispossible,especiallyspatialmobilityandengagementintransnationalpractices(Baschetal.1994).AlthoughbothlegalandundocumentedLatinoim-migrants(60%and67%,respectively)remittedmoneytoarelativeorfriendinanothercountry,legal1.5Latinoim-migrantsweretwiceaslikelyastheundocumented1.5in-terviewees(84%comparedto42%;.001)tohavevisitedtheirparent’shomecountryintheyearbeforetheinterview.Theywerealsomuchmorelikely(13%comparedto3%)toparticipateinhometownorstate-of-originorganizationsas-sociatedwiththeircountryoforigin.Communicatingwithrelativesorfriendstransnationallywashamperedbyfewundocumented1.5-generationLatinos(39%)comparedtolegal1.5Latinos(73%,.001)owningacomputer.Amongthoseundocumented1.5generationwhodidhaveacom-puter,few(7%)comparedtoabouthalf(49%,.01)oflegal“1.5ers”usedthecomputertocommunicatewitharel-ativeorfriendinanothercountry.Illegalityalsohasphysicalorbodilycostsaswell.Fewoftheundocumented1.5Latinoshadprivateorgovernmentmedicalinsurancecomparedtotheirlegalcounterparts(42%and71%,respectively;.01),thesinequanonforaccesstomedicalcareintheUnitedStates.Asaconsequence,undoc-umented1.5-generationintervieweeswerelesslikely(51%comparedto78%;.01)thanlegal1.5Latinostohavesoughtmedicalcareinthe12monthspriortotheinterview.Moreover,theywerelesslikelytoexerciseregularlyoutsideofworkorinadditiontodailyactivities(49%comparedto.01),apatternill-suitedtomaintaininggoodhealth.Abjectivitydoesnotresultincompletesurrender,orsi-lencing,atleastintermsofcivicandpoliticalengagement.Indeed,perceivedthreatscan,anddid,leadtopoliticalactivityamongLatinossurveyed,eventhosewithoutlegalstatus.Thiscanbeshownmostclearlyintherelationbetweencivicen-gagementandperceiveddiscrimination.Thesurveyaskedaboutmembershipincommunity,sports,ethnic,andpoliticalorganizations,andaboutpoliticalactiv-itiesintheprevious12months,suchascontactingagovern-mentalofcetocomplainaboutaproblemorgethelp;at-tendingpoliticalrallies,meetings,ordinnersforapoliticalcandidate;takingpartinprotests;contributingmoneytopo-liticalcandidatesorcampaigns;orvolunteeringtimeforanorganization.Aboutthesameproportionof1.0(28.2%)and1.5(33.6%)generationLatinossurveyedansweredyestooneormoreoftheseexamplesofcivicengagementandpoliticalparticipation.However,31.8%ofthe1.5-generationLatinoswhowerecivicallyandpoliticallyengagedalsoperceivedis-crimination,comparedto19.2%ofthe1.0-generationLati-nos.The1.5-generationLatinosweresimilartotheirUS-borncounterparts,amongwhom30.5%ofthecivicandpoliticallyengagedalsoperceiveddiscrimination.Whenfacingperceiveddiscriminationandthreats,the1.5generationwillrespond,orresist.Thesurveywasundertakenbeforethelargemarchesanddemonstrationsbyimmigrantsandtheirsupportersinthespringof2006.However,thein-depthinterviewsbelowweredoneduringandafterthemarches,andaswewillnote,thefactthatmostofthein-tervieweesparticipatedinthemarchesreectsthesurvey’sndingsofcivicandpoliticalengagementwhenfacedwiththreats.Asthesesurveyndingssuggest,illegalitysignicantlyin-uencesthedailyexperiencesofthoselivinginthatcondition,raisinganumberofquestions.Inwhatwaysdo1.5-generationLatinosinternalizetheirexperiences?Howdotheymakesenseofthebiopoliticsthatconstitutetheirsubjectiveunderstand-ingsoftheworld?Whatpracticeshaveemergedtoconfront17.Whenaskediftheyfeltasifsomeonewasshowingprejudicetowardthemorwasdiscriminatingagainstthembecauseoftheirraceorethnicityinthepastyear,13.1%ofoldermigratingLatinos(the1.0generation)saidyes,comparedto21.7%ofthe1.5-generationLatinosand24.8%ofUS-bornLatinos.Forthe1.0-and1.5-generationLatinos,therewasnotasignicantdifferencebyimmigrationstatus,althoughthe1.5ers(andthesecondgeneration)weremorelikelytoperceivediscriminationinschool,whereasthe1.0generationweremorelikelytobelievetheyfaceddiscriminationintheworkplaceandwhentryingtondanapartmentorhouse. CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012andresistaconditionofabjectivity?Theethnographicaspectsofourstudyhelpustoanswerthesequestions.“AwakeningtoaNightmare”In-depthinterviewsindicatethatasundocumentedadoles-centsmoveintoadulthood,thetechnologiesofbiopoliticsandthepracticesofgovernmentalitybecomeachinglyap-parentintheirlives.Theycomeface-to-facewithillegality,aconditionthattheyhadbeenpartiallyprotectedfrombytheirageandbytheirparents.ButastheybegantoanticipatetheritesofpassagecommontoadolescentsandyoungadultsintheUnitedStates,realityquicklyentangledthem.Likeotheryouth,theydesiredtodriveacar,work,vote,andjoinfriendsinsocialactivitieswhereastate-issuedidenticationwasre-quired.However,eachoftheseactivitiesrequiressomeformofstate-issuedidentication,typicallyadriver’slicenseorSocialSecuritycard,whichareeasytogetifoneisalegalpermanentresidentorcitizenoftheUnitedStates.Forthoselivinginaconditionofillegality,however,attemptingtoac-quiresuchidenticationexposesthemtogovernmentprac-ticesofcontrol,surveillance,andpunishment.Thus,adolescenceisaperiodofgreatstressandanxietyforundocumentedyouth(Coutin2007,2008).Aschildren,mostofthemwerenotrequiredtoproduceidentication.ItisonlywhentheyattemptedtoasserttheirpositionintheAmericanmainstreamthattheimportanceofidenticationbecameessential.Thiswasadeningmoment,achallengetotheirtaken-for-grantedidentityandsenseofbelonging.Thisoftencameasasurprisetomanywhowereunawareoftheirunauthorizedimmigrationstatusoritssignicance.AsJu-lian,whohasbeenintheUnitedStatessinceage4,describedit,“Itwaslikeawakeningtoanightmare.”RespondentsgrewintoadolescenceandadulthoodsteepedinUSculture,and,becausetheirunauthorizedstatusdidnotposetoomanyrestrictionsastheygrewup,manygavelittlethoughttotheirlegalstatus.Infact,manybelievedthemselvestobejustliketheirUS-bornpeers.Sergiowas16yearsoldwhenhediscoveredhisunauthor-izedstatus.Hehadsavedupmoneyforover2yearsfromvarioussidejobs—apaperrouteandweekendjobhelpinghisfatherataconstructionsite—inordertobuyhisrstcar.But,ashesaid,“IwastoldattheDMVthatIneededaSocial[Securitynumber].SoIwenthomeandmymomtoldmeIdidn’thaveone.Icouldn’tbelieveit.WhatwasIgoingtotellmyfriends?Ihadbeenall‘I’mgonnagetmycarbeforeallofyou.’ButIcouldn’t.HowcouldItellthemnowIcan’tdrive?Ican’tgetmylicense.Itreallymessedmeup.”Asachild,SergiowasnotrequiredtoproducehisSocialSecuritynumberand,asaresult,hisearlylifewasnotdenedbyhislegalstatus.However,theattempttogetadriver’s18.Foramoreextensiveexaminationofthetensionbetweenaccul-turation,transitioningtolateadolescenceandearlyadulthood,andil-legality,orthetransitiontoillegality,seeGonzales(2008,2011).licenseforcedhimtoconfronttheimplicationsofnothavinglegalstatus.Thesuddenawarenessoftheirabjectsocialstatuswasoftenjarringandtraumatic.Cesar’scaseexemplies.HemigratedtotheUnitedStatesfromMexicoCityasachildwithhismotherandbrother,andhisfatherfollowedafewmonthslater.Hisfatherhadcompleted2yearsofcollegeinMexico,andhismotheruptothesixthgrade,butbothemphasizededucationforCesar.Cesarexcelledacademically,takinghon-orsandadvancedplacementclasses,andwasinvolvedinstu-dentgovernment,clubs,andsports.Hewantedtopursueacareerinpharmaceuticalsciences.Upongraduation,hewasacceptedtosevenuniversities.Butproblemssuddenlyarose:Onceyougettheacceptanceletter,thenyougetsentaletteraskingforresidency.Youknow,proofofresidency.Andso,that’swhenrealitystruck,andthatwasaroundthesecondsemester[senioryear]ofhighschool.Allmyfriendswereaccepted[tocollege],makingplans.That’swhenIwas,Igotalittlebitdepressed.Igotalittlebitfrustrated.AndevenmoresobecauseIlearnedthatIcouldn’tgotoanyoftheschoolsIhadgottenacceptedto.Ihadtogothejuniorcollegeroute.Atthattime,beforeAssemblyBill540,Cesarwouldhavehadtopaynonresidenttuition,at3–5timesthecostofin-statetuition,toattendapubliccollegeoruniversityinCal-ifornia.Withoutthepossibilityofstudentloans,hisfamilycouldnotaffordit.Cesar’sdepressionlastedquiteawhile.Hecouldnotunderstandhowthevalueofhardworkandhisaccomplishmentscouldsuddenlybesomeaningless.Hefeltasthoughhewasbeingpunished:“Iworkedsohard,juniorcollegewaswaybelowmystandards.”ProblemsofEverydayLivingAftergrowingupintheUnitedStates,undocumentedyoungadultsareforcedtoconfronttheconsequencesofilandmustlearntoliveasan“illegal.”Whethertherespon-dentsweretryingtomoveontocollege,ndjobs,travel,oropenbankaccounts,awarenessoftheirstatusmeanttheirplanshadtobeadjustedorevenabandoned.Thesuddenanddramaticchangesthataccompaniedtheawarenessoftheconditionofillegalityalteredthelivesofundocumentedyoungadultsinprofoundwaysastheybegantorecognizetheconstraintsontheirlives.Becomingawareoftheconditionofillegalityduringadolescenceandcon-frontingitschallengeswasnotasingularoruniformexpe-rience.Somerespondentsmitigatedtheconstraintsoftheirlackofcitizenshipstatusbycontinuingtheireducationwithprivatescholarshipstoattendcollege,afewwithfamily-nancialsupport.Others,however,becamedespondentastheir19.SeealsoChavez(1998,chap.9). GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants263livesbecamenarrowlycircumscribed.Ratherthangoingtocollege,theyhadtotrytheirluckinthelow-skilledlabormarket,alongsideadultmigrants,manyofwhomwerealsowithoutimmigrationdocuments.Someexperiencedtroublewiththelaw,othersearlychildbearing.Manyexperiencedasenseofhopelessnessastheylookedaheadtoanuncertainfuture.Miguelwas4yearsoldwhenhewasbroughttotheUnitedStatesfromJalisco,Mexico.Hebelievedduringmostofhighschoolthathehadhiswholefuturelaidout,butwhenhismotheralertedhimtotherealityofhisnonlegalstatus,everythingwas“turnedupsidedown.”Asaresult,hisschoolattendancefalteredandhisgradesfell.Othersalsorecountedhowtheirgradesdeclinedandtheiroptimismaboutthefuturefellduringtheirlastyearortwoofhighschool.Thosewhomanagedtoattendcollegewereabletoame-lioratethedailystressesofillegality.Italsoallowedthemtocontinuetheireducationandthehopethattheywouldndawaytobecomelegalresidents.Asstudents,theywouldalsoreducetheriskofrun-inswithpoliceorimmigrationofcials.Asaresult,manyrespondentsfeltlessstresswhileoncollegecampuses.However,drivingtoandfromcollegeincreasedthatrisk.Irene,a22-year-oldwhocamefromGuerreroatage6,wasreturningfromclassesataCaliforniastateuni-versitywhenshewaspulledoverbyapoliceofcerlessthansixblocksfromherhouseandhadtocallherfathertopickherup.Thiswasanawakeningforherbecauseshefeltafalsesenseofsafetywhileinschool,butawayfromcollegeshewas,inherwords,“justanotherMexican.”For1.5-generationundocumentedLatinos,likeIrene,workingandgoingtocollegemeanttheyhadtondawaytogetthere,andinSouthernCalifornia,publictransportationisoftendifcultandslow.ManywhochosetotakethebusdescribedexcruciatinglylongcommutesfromOrangeCountytoLosAngeles.Thosewhodrovetoworkrantheriskofbeingstoppedbythepoliceforsomeminorinfraction.Luis,a26-year-oldfromJaliscowhoisnowenrolledingraduatestudies,notedthatdrivingmeantthathehadto“tryhisluckinthegauntleteveryday.”Thedangersassociatedwithdrivingcausedmanytopaycloseattentiontotrafclaws.Theymadesuretoalwaysdriveunderthespeedlimitandtoavoidcertainareas,suchasthosewhereimmigrationofcialswereknowntohavesetupcheckpointstostopdriversandcheckforimmigrationdocuments.Intervieweesspokeofavoidingcer-taincitiesinLosAngeles,Orange,andSanBernardinocoun-tieswherelocalpolicehavebeendeputizedasimmigrationagents.Evenaminortrafcviolationoraccidentcanthrowtheirlivesintoperil.LuzcametotheUnitedStatesfromElSalvadorwhenshewas2yearsold.Whenthepolicestoppedherfor20.Foramorein-depthdiscussionofthewaysinwhichfamilial,institutional,andcommunitymediatorsdifferentlyshapedrespondents’trajectories,seeGonzales(2010,2011).aminorviolation,Luzandherchildrenwereleftonthestreetafterhercarwastowedaway.Iwascomingfromanappointment,andmysontookoffhisseatbeltinthetantrumthathewasthrowing.Andthecoppassedbyusandsawhimwithoutaseatbelt.AndIcouldn’tpullasidetoputhisseatbeltbackonbecauseitwastrafctime,andwewerelikeinthemiddleoftheroad,soitwaslike“ahhh.”Thecopstoppedme,andhegavemeaticketfornothavingalicenseandtheytookthecar.Formostpeople,drivingwithoutalicensewouldhaveresultedinatrafcticket,butLuzalsodidnothaveauto-mobileinsurance.Sheandherfourchildrenwereleftonthesidewalknearabusyintersection,withouttheircarandmilesawayfromhome.ThisincidenttriggeredafearinLuzfornotonlyherownsafety,butalsothatofherchildren.Italsoleftahugeimpressiononher,asshebecameacutelyawarethatatanymomentherlifecouldchange.Asaresult,Luzisfearfulofeverydaysituationsthatcouldresultincontactwiththeauthorities.Takingbusespresentedotherrisks.IntervieweessaidtheystoppedtakingthebusinSantaAnaafterreportsthatim-migrationagentswereseenatthedowntownbusstation.Sonny,whowas8whenhecamefromMichoacan,Mexico,andlefthighschoolintenthgrade,toldusabouthiscousinbeingstoppedatabusstopnearHuntingtonBeach.Thecousinwaswaitingwithhisgirlfriendatabusstopwhenlocalpolicestoppedhimandaskedforhispapers.Whenhewasunabletoproducethem,theydrovehimallthewaytoTijuanaanddroppedhimoff.AtthetimeoftheinterviewwithSonny,hiscousinhadbeeninMexicoforoverayear.HisfamilyhadbeenunabletocomeupwithsufcientfundstobringhimbacktotheUnitedStates.Withnomoneyonhim,andnofamiliaritywithTijuana,hehadadifculttime.Astherealityoftherespondents’authorizedimmigrationstatusbecameoppressivelyapparent,stories,newsreports,andrsthandexperiencesservedtosetaclimateoffear.Manyintervieweestoldofchangingtheirbehaviorpatterns.Acom-monexperienceamongmostwasthecontinuallookingovertheirshoulders.Especiallywhendriving,manyfearedbeingpulledoverbypolice.Theymadesuretoalwaysdriveunderthespeedlimitandobeytrafclaws,inanalmostexaggeratedmanner.Theyalsolearnedtoavoidcertainareaswithhighlevelsofpoliceactivity.Afteranimmigrationraidintheirapartmentcomplex,RamonandhisgirlfriendMaria,whowerebothundocumentedandwithouthighschooldiplomas,beganspendingmostoftheirnonworkingtimelockedupintheirapartment.Maria,age26,wasnotworkingatthetimeofourinterview,soastotakecareoftheirtwochildrenathome.Shesaidthatwhileshewasboredathome,“atleastIdon’thavetoworryaboutwhat’sgoingtohappentomeorthekids.”MariaandRamon,whowas27,worryaboutwhatwouldhappenifoneofthemweredeported,asMariasaid:“Mybiggestfearisourkids.Imean,what’sgoingtohappenifbothofusgetpickedupanddeported?What’s CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012goingtohappentothekids?Weworryalotaboutthat.Aboutwhat’sgoingtohappen.Ican’timaginewhatI’ddoifsome-thinghappened.It’sscary.It’sreallyscary.”RamonrelatedthatMariahadbeensickbecauseofstress.Neitherofthemhasmedicalinsurance,and,withonlyRamonworkingandnotmakingenoughsomemonthstocoveralloftheirexpenses,theyhaveavoidedgoingtothedoctortocheckonMaria’scondition.Othersinourstudydevelopedsimilarphysicalmanifestationsofstress.Misto,a22-year-oldwhocametotheUnitedStatesfromGuerrerowhenhewas5,wasforcedtobypasscollegeforwork.Hedevelopedanulcerasaresultofhisconstantworry.Andrea,acollegegrad-uatewhohadbeenintheUnitedStatessinceshewas8,hadtomissseveraldaysofworkandschoolafterexperiencingchronicfatigueandrecurrentheadachesthatsentheronreg-ulartripstothedoctor.Similarly,Grace,whowasenrolledattheUniversityofCaliforniaatthetimeofherinterview,hashadtomissschoolandworkbecause,“sometimesIcan’tevengetoutofbed.”LivingonHoldUndocumented1.5-generationLatinosthathavesucceededacademicallymaydesiregreaterlevelsofinclusionforthem-selvesbutarehamperedbytheirillegality.Esperanza,whosestorybeganthisarticle,excelledacademicallyinherAnaheimhighschoolandwasheavilyinvolvedinextracurricularac-tivities,includingtheschool’sband.Asshesaid,“Thewholebandexperienceandcommunityservice...makesyousoproudofyourschoolandyourepresentitnomatterwhat.Itmakesyoufeelsoproudofthem.”ShecompletedaBAfromaUniversityofCaliforniacampusandwouldsomedayliketopursueaPhDorlawdegree.Atthetimeofthein-terview,however,shewasworkingandtryingtosurviveasanundocumentedimmigrant.Esperanzaspokeofhowherlifeisconstrainedbecauseofherunauthorizedstatus:IknowIcandosomuchmore,butIcan’tbecauseIcan’tlivewherever.Ican’tchoosewhereIlive.Ican’tchoosewhereIwork.AndtheworstthingisthatIcan’tchoosemyfriends.InhighschoolIwasabletodothat.Ican’tanymore.Ican’tevenhangoutwithmyhighschoolfriendsanymoreandthathurtsalot.Yeah,theywanttodogrownupstuff.Ican’tdoanythingthatis18andover.Ican’tdoanything.Icanonlyhangoutwherelittlekidshangout.Ican’thangoutwiththem.Ican’ttravelwiththem.Ican’tgoouttodinnerwiththem.Ican’tgotoVegaswiththem.IfIwanttogotoabar,Idon’tevenhaveadrink.IftheywanttogotoSanDiego,iftheywanttogovisitsmuseumsdownthere,iftheywanttogotoSeaWorld,Ican’tgowiththem.Ican’tgotoLosAngeles.Ican’tgotoanyclubsinL.A.Ican’tgotoanyclubsinL.A.becauseafterthemarches[intheSpringof2006]theydon’tacceptmatr´culas[iden-ticationprovidedbytheMexicangovernment]anywhere.21.Formoreonmatr´culas,seeVarsanyi(2007).Esperanza’shighschoolfriendsaredoingwell.Somehavetheirownbandprograms,oneisacityplanner,othersaremovingaheadinbusiness-relatedjobsorareteachers.AsEsperanzanotes:“Theyhavetheirdegreesandtheyarework-ingatjobstheysawthemselvesworkingat....Theyarefollowingtheirdreams.”Esperanza,ontheotherhand,movesfromonelow-payingjobtoanother.Shetypicallyeitherndsworkwhereemployersdonotaskforidenticationorstaysuntilidenticationbecomesanissue.Shehasheldvariousjobs—minorofceworkasareceptionistandsecretary,fac-toryworkstufngenvelopes,andinfastfoodrestaurants—butsherunstheriskofnotgettingpaidwhentheissueofidenticationsurfaces,whichhaspreviouslyhappened.Some-timessheworksforcash.Esperanzalamentsthehumiliationsshehashadtoendureasapersonwhoiseducated,speaksEnglish,and,fromtheperspectiveoftherecentimmigrantssheworkswith,appearsto“haveiteasy”becauseshegrewupinUSculture.Alas,asastrategyforsurvival,onjobapplicationssheomitsheruniversitydegree,eventhoughsheviewsthedegreeashergreatestaccomplishment.SoItellthemthatIjustdroppedoutofhighschool.Buteventuallytheyaregoing,itisgoingtocomeout,Iknowit.Thepeople[working]atthoseplaces,likethecooksandthecashiers,theyareeitherreallyyoungpeople,andIfeelreallyold,likewhatamIdoingthereiftheyarealllike16,17yearsold,thosewhostartworkingwhentheyareveryyoung.Theothersarelike˜oraswhoare35andhavelittlekidsandtheyknowtheydroppedoutofschool,butbecausetheyhavelittlekidstheyarestillworkingattherestaurant.Thinkingaboutthat,itmakesmefeelsofuckingstupid.Andlikethefactories,too,becausetheyaskme,“Queestashaciendoaqu[Whatareyoudoinghere?]YoucanspeakEnglish.Yougraduatedfromhighschool.Youcanworkanywhere.”Theydon’tstopbuggingme.(QuotedinGon-zales2011:615)Inhighschool,beforetherealityofherabjectstatussetin,Esperanzalookeddownonthetypesofjobsshenowtakes.Thenshereconciledtheworkastemporary,notcareerwork,untilshecouldndawaytobecomealegalresident.Shetoldherselfthereweresomejobsshewouldnotdo—cleaningtoilets,moppingoors—butherviewsareslowingchanging.“Ijustneedajob.It’sbecomeaboutsurvival.Ifitusedtobeachoice,itisnotachoiceanymore.Iamtothepointwhereyes,Iwillcleansomebody’shome.Iwilltakecareofthem.Iwillcleanupsomebody’ssaliva.MoreandmoreitisgettingtothepointwhereIdon’tcare.”AlthoughEsperanzandsitdifculttomakeplansforthefuture,shestillyearnsforlegalresidencyandtoholdajobwhereshecanputhereducationtouse.Althoughsherec-ognizesthedesperateconditionsunderwhichsheisliving,22.ThisdisdainforjobsheldbytheirimmigrantparentsiscommonamongUS-bornandraisedchildren,asKasinitzetal.(2008:173–204)foundamongthesecondgenerationintheirextensiveNewYorkstudy. GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants265shehasnotgivenupallhope.Shevolunteersforanorga-nizationpromotingpassageoftheDREAMAct,whichwouldprovide1.5-generationundocumentedimmigrantslikeherapathtocitizenship.Cesar,whowasintroducedearlier,hadsimilarfeelings.Af-terhisinitialdespair,hebecameinvolvedinstudentgovern-mentandonceagainexcelledacademically.HetransferredtoUCLA,whichwasmadepossiblebyhisparents,especiallyhismother,workingextrahoursandsavingspecicallyforCesar’stuition.Cesaralsoworkedtopaytuition.CesargraduatedfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,andnowdreamsofapplyingtomedicalschoolandopeninganonprotclinic.AsCesarsaid,“IdecidedaboutayearagothatIwasn’tgoingtoletmysituation[beingundocumented]handlemeanymore.WhenIusedtothinkaboutmysituation,itwaskindoflikeablock.Iwaslike“Oh,no.Ican’tapplytomedschool.Ican’tdothis.Ican’tdothat.”Becauseheisnotalegalresidentandcannotworklegally,Cesarworksasatutor,helpingyoungpeopleinthesciences.Hisstudentshaveincludedtwohighschoolvaledictorians.Cesarreectedonhisillegalstatus,whichhesaid“denedwhoweare.”Ratherthangiveup,Cesarsaidhe“pushedback”andcontinuedhiseducationandhopedforthedayhecanbecomealegalresidentandputhiseducationtouse.ForCesar,beingundocumentedforcedhimtoghtback,tode-velopself-condence,andmotivatedhimtoachieveeduca-tionally.Cesarisawareoftheself-discipliningcausedbyhisabjectstatus:“Youputapositivespinontothisnegativerealitythatyoulivein.It’skindoflike,youknow,whenyou’realittlekidandyougetscoldedandtheytellyoutogotoyourroom.It’slike,okay,I’velearnedmylessonnow.I’velearnedthatIhavetobehumble.Ilearnedthatyouhavetoworkhardforwhatyouneedtoworkhardfor.So,now,it’stimeforittogoaway.”Astheselastexamplessuggest,forsomeadolescentsandyoungadultundocumentedimmigrants,theconditionofil-legalitycanbeparalyzing,resultinginalackofmobilityalongmultipledimensions:educational,economic,andphysical.Indeed,suchfeelingsofparalysis,andthedangersassociatedwithundocumentedstatus,keptmanyrespondentsinastateoflimbo.Forexample,Dora,a26-year-oldfromZacatecaswhohaslivedinSantaAnasinceshemigratedwithherfamilyatage8,hasheldonlyonefull-timejobandoneapart-timejobinherentirelife.Atthetimeofherinterview,shewasnotworkingbecauseofafearofgettingcaught.However,shewaslivingathomewithherparentsandothersiblingswhowork.Whileshewantstocontributetohouseholdexpenses,sheisnotrequiredtodoso.Suchminimalexpectationsallowhertoavoidsituationsthatcouldputherface-to-facewiththelaw.However,theyalsoplacemanyaspectsofherlifeonhold.Formanyofourrespondents,waitingforthepossibilityofacquiringlegalpermanentresidencystatusisfullofun-certainty,andthusmanyrefrainfrommakinginvestmentsintheirfutures.Luzhasexperiencedunsuccessfulattemptsatsponsorshipbyhermotherandhusband.Herhopesforachangeinimmigrationstatushaveturnedintodisappoint-ment,assheisstuckinlimbo,tryingtomakethemostofherabjectsituation.At22whenwerstmet,Luzwasraisingthreechildrenbyherself.Herhusbandof8yearswasincar-ceratedandwasnotexpectedtobereleasedanytimesoon.Becausehewasconvictedofacrimeasanoncitizen,hislegalpermanentresidencywasrevoked,andhefaceddeportationchargesuponthecompletionofhisservedjailtime.AsLuzsaid,“Ifyougetdeportedorsomething,everythingthatyouworkedforisgoingtobegone.”WastedLivesManyyoungundocumentedimmigrantswhodidnotmoveontocollegehadtoworkinordertocontributetotheirfamiliesormeettheirownneeds.Afterhighschool,lifebe-camesaturatedbylegallimitationsandbarrierscausedbyalackoflegalresidency.Biopoliticspenetratedourinterviewees’behaviorsuchthattheyconstantlythoughtaboutwaystoavoidimmigrationofcials,police,andotherauthorities.Theyfoundthemselvesconstantlylookingovertheirshoul-ders,avoidingpotentiallydangeroussituationsandspendingmuchoftheirtimeworrying.Thestressofabjectivitywaspronouncedintheirlives.Thelongerthetimeintervieweeswereoutofschool,thegreatereffecttheconditionofillegalityhadontheiraspirationsandexpectations,themorebiopoliticsworkedontheirverybeing.TakePedro,forexample.HecametotheUnitedStatesfromGuatemalawhenhewas6yearsold.Already,at26,Pedro’saspirationshavebeenderailedbyhisunauthorizedstatusandapolicerecord.Aftercompletingaday-laborjob,theemployergavePedroacheckforhiswork.WhenPedrotriedtocashthecheck,thetelleratthelocalcurrencyex-changecalledPedro’semployertoverifythecheck’slegiti-macy.Theemployerdeniedwritingthecheck,andthepolicewerecalled.ThepolicefounddifferentsetsofidenticationonPedroandtookhimtojail.Heservedoveramonthinprisonandwasservinga3-yearprobationsentencewheninterviewed.Pedrocurrentlyliveswithhischildhoodfriendsinamobilehomeanddoesoddjobstopayrentforhisroom.Pedrohasfewaspirationsotherthanlivinginamobilehomeanddoesnotseehislifechangingformorethan10years.Pedro’soutlook,however,isnotunique.Otherintervieweesweresimilarlyhesitantwhenitcametothinkingabouttheirfutures.Theopaquenesswithwhichtheyviewedthefuturestemmedfromthecumulativeeffectsofillegalityandtheseem-inglyinsurmountablenumberofbarriersframingtheirlives.Fearofdetectionanddeportationsometimesrenderundoc-umentedyoungadultsimmobileandafraidtoinvesttime,money,orhopesintheirfuture.Livingtheirlivesinanarrowlycircumscribedpresent,severaloftheseyoungmenandwomenletgoofaspirationstohaveanythingmore.WhenSergioandhisbrotherwereinacaraccidentwithanotherdriver,thealreadyunfortunatesituationtookonamagnied CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012levelofstress.Althoughtheywerenotinthewrong,neitherofthemhadadriver’slicenseorinsurance.Becauseoftheirillegality,theywereleftvulnerableandhavingtopayforthedamagesoutoftheirownpockets.Aftertheaccident,Sergioboughtabeat-up1987ChevyCavalierforwhichhepaid$900because,hesaid,hecouldnotbuyagoodcaronhisown.Heguresthatifhegetscaughtandhasthecartowed,hewillloseonly$900.Sergiowas21yearsoldwheninterviewed.Heoccasionallyworkedontheweekends,takingjobsthathiredforthedayorweekend,butstayedawayfromanythingresemblingon-goingorpermanentemploymentanddidnotdrive.I’vebeenofferedjobs,butthethingisthatitmessesmeup.There’swaysarounditbutlet’ssay,okay,there’sajobI’vebeenoffered,ifIgetit,Ihavetobuyfakepapers.IfIgetcaughtwithfakepapers,that’safederaloffensesoI’llbescrewed,and,Imean,I’mcloserthanI’veeverbeentogettingmypapers.Idon’twanttomessitupwithsomethinglikethatsoIcan’tgetitlateron.Sergiochosetotakethesaferouteinhopesofsomedaybeingabletoworkfreelywithoutworry.Hedidnotwanttojeopardizehischancesbygettingcaughtwithillicitcitizenshippapers.Nevertheless,hisfrustrationgrewwiththeyearshehashadtowait.Atthetime,Sergioindicatedthathewasfrustratedandfeltstuckinoneplace.“Whenyoudon’thavepapersyou’renotreallymotivated...youcan’tgoanywhere.”Threeyearslaterhisgirlfriendwaspregnantwithhischild,andhefeltasthoughheneededtoprovidenancialsupporttohisnewfam-ily.Hetookafull-timejobatafactoryandcarpooledwithacoworker,aCaucasianmaleandformerskinhead.Oneeveningafterwork,localpolicepulledthemoverandsearchedhiscoworker’svehicle.Inadditiontondingasmallamountofdrugsinthecar,theyalsofoundahomemadeexplosivedevice.Sergiowaschargedasanaccomplicetoafederalcrimeandorderedtoserve3yearsinprison.Inad-ditiontoservingprisontime,Sergiowastobedeported.LikePedroandSergio,Luzdroppedoutofschoolatanearlyage.Now,withfewoptions,sheworksasacashierataGreek-ownedhamburgerrestaurantwhereshemakesmini-mumwageandissubjectedtoongoingverbalharassmentbyherracistemployer.Sheseesherstatusasthemostsalientbarriertosuccess.IfIhadthepapersIwouldn’tbeinthesituationthatIam,becauseIwouldghtforwhatIwant....Sometimesthere’speoplethatjustwantthepapers,youknow,andtheydon’tdoanything,andthey’rejustlikeathome,whatever.ButIwantmypaperstogetahead,andIthinkalotofpeopledo,too,soIcouldworkhere,soIcouldgetsomething.Theconditionofillegalitynotonlyconstrainsdailylife,butcanleaveanindelibleimprintonidentity.Catarina,21yearsold,cametotheUnitedStateswhenshewas8yearsold.HerfatherhadcometotheUnitedStatesbeforeCatarinaandacquiredlegalpermanentresidencythroughthelegalizationprogramofthe1986ImmigrationReformandControlAct.Catarina’smotherjoinedherhusband,whowasworkingasagardener,inSantaAna,California,wheremuchofhisfamilyhadprecededhimandfromwhomtheywereabletogetagreatdealofhelpandsupport.Catarina’smother,althoughundocumented,workedasahousekeeper.Whenshebecamepregnant,shereturnedtoMexicotodeliverCatarinabecausedeliverywascheaperthere,andshewasnotyetusedtolifeinSantaAna.Becauseofherfamily’sfatefuldecision,CatarinawasnotbornintheUnitedStatesandwasnotacitizenwhenshecamebacktotheUnitedStatesatage8.Catarina’sundoc-umentedstatushasplaguedherpursuitsateducationandhasinuencedhersenseofidentity.Catarinanishedhighschoolwitha4.0GPAbutknewshecouldnotattendtheUniversityofCaliforniabecause,atthattime,undocumentedstudentswouldhavetopaynonresidenttuition,thousandsofdollarsmorethanregulartuition.Con-sequently,shewenttocommunitycollegeandlatertransferredtoaUniversityofCaliforniacampus.Bythistime,CalifornialawhadchangedasaresultofAssemblyBill(AB)540sothatstudentslikeCatarinacouldattendtheuniversityandpayin-statetuition,withtheprovisothattheycouldnotreceivenancialaid.WhensheheardAB540passed,Catarinasaid,“Icried,Icried.Iwaswithmydadinmylivingroom.Mysisterfollowsalotofthelegalstuff,andwehadhelpedsignstufftosendtoGovernorDavis.Wewereinvolved,Iwasinvolvedinstudentgovernmentinmycommunitycollege,anditwaslikenallysomething,justice.”Atthetimeoftheinterview,Catarinawasnishinghersenioryearattheuniversity,hada3.9GPA,andintendedtoapplytograduateschool.HerfatherhadacquiredUSciti-zenshipandhadsponsoredhiswifeandchildrenforlegalresidence,whichCatarinawasnowintheprocessofobtaining.CatarinaidentiesherselfasMexican.ShedoessobecausesheisanimmigrantandnotaChicanaorMexicanAmerican,whichsheassociateswithbeingUS-born.Butshealsorec-ognizesthatsocietyhaspushedhertowardemphasizingMex-icanasanidentity.ForCatarina,herexperiencesasanundoc-umentedimmigranthaveinuencedheridentity.BecauseshehasnothadtherightsandprivilegesthatcomewithbeingUS-bornandbeingacitizen,Catarinasaysshedoesnot“thinklikeaMexican-American.”Asshesaid,HavingthebarriersthatIhad,ornothavingalltheop-portunitiesthatIseethatalotofthestudentshave,andtheymightnotbetakingadvantageofthemfordifferentreasons.IknowI’mnoonetocriticizetheirdecisions,butIthinkthat’swhatreallymakesmeconsidermyselfaMex-ican.Iamanimmigrant,immigrantMexican....Youknowyouarenot[American]becausesocietykeepstellingyouthatyou’renot.Youdon’thavetheopportunitiesthataMexicanAmericanhas,becauseyoudon’thavethesocialsecurity.Soyouhavetomakethedecision.Idon’ttin GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants267here.Theydon’twantmeinhere.ThenItthere,with....Ithinkifyouhaveobstaclestointegrating,one,theydon’twantyoutointegrate.Obviously,theyhavetheobstaclesforyounottointegrate,soyougettothepointwhereyouknowwhat,Idon’twanttointegrate,whetheryouwilleventuallywantmetointegrateforanyreason,Iamnolongerwillingtointegrate.Despiteherfrustrationwiththeobstaclesshehasfaced,CatarinadesiresUScitizenshipbecauseoftheopportunitiesandrightsitimparts.Assheputit,“Youneedit[citizenship]inordertomoveon.IfIamgoingtoworkhard,whynotgetthebenets?”CatarinaalsorealizesthateventhoughsheidentiesasMexican,sheisalsoAmericaninmanywaysandthatlivingintheUnitedStatesformostofherlifehasshapedhersenseofselfandmadeherlifedifferentfromifshehadstayedinMexico.ConcerningwhatitmeanstobeAmerican,shesaid,Itcanmeandifferentthings.ItcanmeanbeingacculturatedintoAmericanculture.ItcanmeanhavingloyaltyforAmer-ica,forexample,afterSeptember11,IfeltAmerican.Andit’samazingbecauseregardlessofpoliticalinequalities,IthinkofmylifeandwhatwouldithavebeenifIhadnotbeenhere.AndhereIam.Thereareobstacles,butit’sbetter.It’sbetterhereevenwiththeinequalities.Iguessit’shumannature.Wejustwantsomethingbetter.AbjectivityasaWayofLifeAsthecommentsofthe1.5-generationundocumentedLa-tinostestify,theyarenotlivingthelivestheyimaginedforthemselves.TheygrewupinUSsocietyandculture.ThesignicantpartoftheireducationwasintheUnitedStates,and,likeotheryouth,theywereforthemostpartinculcatedinthevalues,desires,drives,ethics,andculturalpracticesofUSyouth.Thisisnottosaythattheyabandoned,ordidnotcarryaroundwiththem,culturalbeliefsandpracticesoftheircountriesofbirth.Theydid,afterall,livewithinfamilieswheretheyandtheirparentswereimmigrants.ButthatdoesnotdiminishthefactofliveslivedintheUnitedStates,wheretheyalsolearnedabouteducationalexpectations,careergoals,andtheritesofpassagesoeagerlyawaitedbyadolescentsandyoungadults.However,evenwiththeinternalizationofmuchofthecultureofthelargersociety,theirlackofimmigrationstatusplacesthemclosertothestructuralpositionofundoc-umentedimmigrantswhocameasadults.Itwasalsointhiscontextthatillegalityandabjectstatuscametoframetheirlivesatacriticalstageintheirlives,themomentwhentheyaremakingplansfortheirfutureandtheirmovefromthesecurityofhometoincreasingengagementwiththelargersociety.Thesubjectiveexperienceofanabjectstatusasrelatedtoillegalityintersectsharshlywithissuesoftheeconomy,na-tionalpolicy,andpower.Duringtheearlyyearsoftheirlives,theybecameincorporatedintothenationthroughtheirsocialrelationshipsandpublicschoolexperiences.Then,astheybecameawareoftheirlackoflegalresidency,theyfeltcastout,forcedtoliveintheworldasillegalsubjects.Theyex-periencedatraumaofsorts,onethatdestabilizedtheirsenseofself.Theywereforcedtocometotermswithwhattheconditionofillegalitymeantfortheirlivesandtheirfutures.Theirbodiesarethetargetsofdisciplinarypractices—bio-politics—whicharedesignedtoconstricttheirmobilityandtoconstructsubjectiveunderstandingoftheirlivesasundoc-umentedimmigrants.Butbecausetheirpracticesandsub-jectiveexperienceswerealsooftensimilartothosewhichconstitutebelongingamongthosebornintheUnitedStates,ourintervieweesdesiredinclusion,tobeconsideredashavingqualiedlives,assubjectsinandofthenation.Thevoicesheardhereindicatebitterlessonslearned.Withtheawakeningrealityoftheirabjectstatusassociallyconsti-tutednoncitizens,theseyoungpeoplecametorealizetheywerenotliketheirpeers.EventhoughtheymayhavecometobelievetheciviclessonssoessentialtocitizenshipandtoholddearthevaluesdrivingtheAmericanDream,theillegalitythatdenedtheirabjectstatusleftthemwithaclearsenseoftheirdifference.Asnoncitizens,theywerefullofdiscardablepotential.Nomatterhowhardtheyworkedorhowtheyself-disciplined,appliedthemselves,andself-engineeredtheirverybeings,theyweretoremainonthesidelines,waiting,leadingabjectlivesonthemarginsofsociety,desiringgovernmentdocumentationoftheirpresence.Knowingtheyhavemoretooffersocietyandthemselves,theywaitforthepossibilitythatfuturechangestoimmigrationlawswouldsomedayame-lioratetheircondition.Somewiltedundersuchpressure,whileothersresisted,pursuededucationandtraining,strug-gledtosurviveeconomically,contributedtoorganizationsworkingtochangethenation’simmigrationlaws,andmain-tainedhopeinafuturewheretheywouldbeallowedfullparticipationinsociety.Forexample,ofthe76in-depthin-terviewsconductedduringoraftertheimmigrantmarchesof2006,65hadparticipatedinatleastonemarch.includesallbutoneoftheintervieweesquotedinthispaper.Another42ofthein-depthinterviewees,includingCatarina,Cesar,Misto,Grace,Esperanza,andMiguel,havecontributedtheirtimetoorganizationsworkingtopromotepassageoftheDREAMAct.Weinterprettheseactsofresistanceasactsofculturalcit-izenship,whichFloresandBenmayor(1997:15)deneasabroadrangeofactivitiesthatdisadvantagedgroupsusetoclaimspaceandrightsinsociety.However,theirlivesarenarrowlycircumscribedbyamultitudeofregulationsthatprotectcitizensandensurethepersistenceofanabjectpop-ulationagainstwhichcitizensaredened,suchaspoliciesregardingimmigration,detention,deportation,accesstoso-cialservices,medicalcare,driver’slicenses,SocialSecurity23.Foranexampleofsecond-generationMexicanAmericanyouthinSanDiego,California,andtheirparticipationinthemarchesof2006,seeGetrich(2008). CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012cards,bankaccounts,workauthorization,andmanyothermicropracticesofcontrol.Despite,orevenbecauseof,theseconstraintsontheirlives,manyoftheyoungpeopleexaminedhereasserttheirculturalcitizenshipthroughtheirpoliticalactivitiesandbycontinuingtheireducation.Theseactsblurtheboundariesbetweenobjectsandsubjectsofpoliticalpowerandareimportantformsofresistancetotheconditionofabjectivitythatinformsandframestheirlives.Finally,although1.5-generationundocumentedLatinosen-gageinbothself-discipliningandresistance,theirfullinte-grationintosocietyisonhold.Theirfates—whethertheywillcontinuelivinginastateofillegality,beallowedtobecomelegalpermanentresidents,orbedeported—areunknowntothem.Inthemeantime,thereisthesufferingthatgoesalongwiththecontradictionsofbeingraisedinasocietythatndsyoudiscardable.Focusingonabjectivityamongtheundoc-umented1.5generationdrawsourattentiontothepracticesofpowerthathelpconstructtheabject,suchaslawstargetingimmigrants.Butbynomeansisabjectivitylimitedinitsap-plicability.Thereismuchtobelearnedaboutthesubjectiveunderstandingoflivinginanabjectstatusamongvariousindividualsandgroupswhondthemselvesrelegatedtosuchastatus.Bywayofapostscript,youngundocumentedLatinoscon-tinuetohavetheirfatesandhopesraisedanddampenedbypublicpoliciesandpolarizedpoliticaldiscourse.UnderPres-identObama,thethreatofdeportationforundocumentedimmigrantsactuallyincreased.In2009,forexample,387,790peopleweredeported,a5%increaseover2008,thelastyearunderGeorgeW.Bush’sadministration(Medrano2010).Inaddition,thefederalSecureCommunitiesprogram,whichworksincooperationwithlocalpolicetolocateundoc-umentedimmigrants,receivedcriticismfordeportingim-migrantswithminoroffensesandforsplittingapartfamilies(Preston2011).Then,onJuly26,2011,RepresentativeLuisGutierrez(Illinois)wasarrestedforprotesting,outsidetheWhiteHouse,theonemillionthdeportationbytheObamaadministration,abouthalfthenumberdeportedover8yearsunderGeorgeW.Bush(DHS2011:95).However,inadra-maticchangeinpolicy,theObamaadministration,inAugust2011,beganreviewingalldeportationcasesinordertosep-aratecriminalsfromnoncriminals.Thosewhohavenotbeenconvictedofacrimewouldpossiblyreceiveasuspensionofdeportationandbeallowedstay,andwouldalsopossiblybeabletoapplyforworkpermits(Preston2011).Thispolicyhasraisedthehopesofmany.Asone21-year-oldundoc-umentedstudentwhowasbroughttotheUnitedStatesasaboyandwhosemotherisfacingdeportationputit:“Itmakesmehappyandhopeful.Ihopetheygothroughmymother’scase,stopherdeportationand,ifpossible,getheraworkpermit”(Goffardetal.2011).Whilepossiblyreducingthe24.Formoreonculturalandsocialcitizenship,seeDwyer(2004);Ong(1996);Rosaldo(1997);Sassen(2003);SchillerandCaglar(2008);Stephen(2003).riskofdeportationforsomeoftheundocumented1.5gen-eration,itdoesnotsolvetheproblemoftheirlackofciti-zenship—rather,itcreatesanothersubclassofindividualsliv-inginlimbo.Thenewdeportationpolicydoesnotprovideundocumentedimmigrantswithapathtocitizenship,whichissomethingonlyCongresscando.UntilCongressacts,theyoungpeopleexaminedherewillcontinuetolivewithun-certainfutures. DeborahA.BoehmAnthropologyandWomen’sStudies,Gender,Race,andIdentityProgram,1664NorthVirginiaStreet,UniversityofNevada,Reno,Nevada89557-0046,U.S.A.(dboehm@unr.edu).17X11Intheirtimelyandengagingpiece,RobertoG.GonzalesandLeoR.Chavezarguethatabjectivitymanifestsinparticularformsintoday’sglobalmilieu,increasinglyconvergingwiththeproductionof“illegality”asthestatelabelsandordersimmigrants.Theauthorsunderscoretheurgencyforethno-graphicperspectiveontheissueandaretobecommendedforprovidingaviewofimmigrantyouth’slivesthroughthelensofabjectivity.Iwasstruckbyhowthisimportantworkmightbeextendedtodiverseexperiencesofillegality,andsoIfocusmycommentsonthepotentialforsuchanendeavor.AsJudithButler(2004:151)asserts,thetaskofculturalcrit-icismis“toreturnustothehuman...initsfrailty”—GonzalesandChavezdopreciselythat,counteringstigma-tizingdiscourseonimmigrationthatcharacterizesthecurrentmoment.Byoutliningtheexperiencesof“1.5-generation”immi-grants—denedbytheauthorsasthosewhomigratebeforetheageof15—thisworkpointstowaystotheorizewithinbutalsobeyondthecategories.Therearelimitationstocat-egoriesofageandgeneration:forexample,howarewetoconceptualizemigrantswhocameat16,orasadults,andhavelivedherefordecades?Ihavegrappledwiththeseques-tionsinmyownwork.Whilethesituationsofyoungpeoplecanandshouldbedifferentiatedincertaincontexts,deline-atingthecategoriescanbedifcult,andsuchanalysismaydetractfromthewaysthatabjectivityisexperiencedbyallpeoplelivingintheUnitedStateswithoutauthorization,re-gardlessofageormigrationtrajectory.RecentlegislationinAlabama,withitsproposalforincreasedsurveillanceinschoolsandothercommunityspaces,illustrateshowabjec-tivitycanextendinbothdirections,affectingadultsandveryyoungchildren.Similarly,theauthorsmentionthatpeopleofcolorandso-calledanchorbabiesarealsocharacterizedasabject;theabjectivityoftheundocumented1.5generationmaynotbefundamentallydifferent.Indeed,UScitizensinmixed-statusfamiliesandrelationshipsarealso“livinginab- GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants269jection,”astheywitnessandendurethe“nightmare”ofpar-ents,siblings,andpartners.Suchabjectivityispervasive,andarguablyofakind.Theauthors’analysisaptlysituatestheproductionofab-jectivitywithinthenation-state,whilealsoraisingquestionsabouthowthisconditionisconstitutedtransnationally.Forthosecastoff,expelled,orthrownaside,anotherspaceisunderstood,beitgeographiclocale,nationalmembership,orimaginedhomeland.Althoughundocumentedyouthmayhavenorecollectionoftheircountryoforigin,theirexclusionisenactedspatiallyanddenedbyconnections,orperceivedconnections,totheotherplace(e.g.,Boehm2011;Coutin,2007;DeGenova2005;Zilberg2004).Presenceandabsence,belongingornot—theseexperiencesrelyonthecon-structofsomewhereelseandrevealhowsubjectivityandab-jectivityarecreatedacrossborders.Researchinboth(ormultiple)places,conceptuallyandthroughtransnationaleldwork,canfurtherelucidatetheworkingsandeffectsofabjectivity.Inparticular,thetransnationalityofabjectivitymightbestudiedthroughafocusondeportabilityanditsend,depor-tation—whatGonzalesandChavezrightlytermthe“ultimateexclusionaryact.”Amongunauthorizedimmigrants,depor-tationisthenalswingofabjectivity,ifnotitsdeningchar-acteristic,acastingoutwithirreversibleeffects.Tounderstandabjectivity’sreach,studiesofillegalitywithinnationscouldfruitfullylinktoresearchthattracesdeportationthrough“ananthropologyofremoval”(Peutz2006).ThefactthatUSImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement(ICE)sweepshaverecentlytargeteddeporteeswhohavereturnedandareagainlivingintheUnitedStates(USICE2011)highlightshow“deportee”isastatusitselfonthemarginsofabjectivity.Thosewhoareformallyexpelledfromthenationareimmutablymarked“alien,”apositionthatrevealsmuchaboutthein-escapabilityofabjectivitywhenactualizedthroughdeporta-tion.Whiletherearefewchancesforundocumentedimmigrantyouthtoescapetheircondition,theauthorsshowhowoneoutmaybethecontradictionthatdenesthelivesoftheseyoungpeople.Despiteliveslabeled“discardable,”undoc-umentedmigrantyouthareanythingbut.Thisisoneofthearticle’smostsignicantcontributions:fromdespaircomesunexpectedactivism.UsefulhereisPeterNyers’s(2003:1072–1073)conceptof“abjectcosmopolitanism”—theemergentpoliticalpracticesofimmigrantsthroughwhichtheydirectlychallengetheirexclusionfromthenation.IntheireffortstopasstheDREAMActandtocontest“illegality”astheyar-ticulateacivilrightsagendaforthetwenty-rstcentury,theyoungpeopledescribedbyGonzalesandChavezembody“thepossibilityofchange,”theprospectofanotherpath.Thecon-ditionofabjectivity,then,isneverabsolute.Spacesofpos-sibilityemergefromshiftingground(e.g.,Bhabha1994;Tsing2005).Asthiscompellingpieceremindsus,itmaybetheveryinstabilityandunpredictabilityofabjectivitythatis“thesalvationofabackre”(Derrida1993:31).Wecanonlyhopethatthisisindeedthecase. CarolineB.BrettellDepartmentofAnthropology,SouthernMethodistUniversity,Dal-las,Texas75275-0336,U.S.A.(cbrettel@smu.edu).9X11TheUnitedStatesisparalyzedinitseffortsatimmigrationreform.Aswithmanyotherproblemsthatthecountryfaces,thebattlelinesarestarklyandrigidlydrawn,particularlywithrespecttowhattodoaboutthelargenumber(roughly11million)ofundocumentedimmigrantswhoarelivingandworkingintheUnitedStates.OnedimensionofthestalemateistheinabilitytopasstheDREAMAct,apieceoflegislationrstintroducedin2001andagaininMay2011.TheDREAMActwouldprovidechildrenwhowerebroughttothiscountrybytheirparentswhentheywereveryyoung(theso-called1.5generation)andraisedintheUnitedStateswiththeoppor-tunitytoreceivetemporarypermanentresidencyaslongastheyareofgoodmoralcharacter,havelivedintheUnitedStatesforatleast5years,andhavesuccessfullycompletedhighschool.Thelegislationwouldputthemonapathtolegalstatusandcitizenship,predicatedoncompletingsomehighereducationand/ormilitaryservice.Whilesomepoli-ticiansaresympathetictothiscause,arguingthattheseyoungpeoplearejustwhatwewantasfuturecitizens,otherscannotgetbeyondtheirillegalstatusandthemantraof“nomoreamnesty.”TheyrefusetoconsiderthatcomingtotheUnitedStateswithoutpaperswasnotadecisionmadebytheseyoungpeopleandthatMexico(orElSalvador,Guatemala,orsomeotherLatinAmericancountry)isnottheirhome.Theseyoungpeopleare,GonzalesandChavezargue,abjected;thatis,castoff,degraded,renderedasother,anddeemedworthyonlyofexpulsionfromAmericansocietyandtheAmericanbodypol-itic.GonzalesandChavez,drawingonsurveyandinterviewdatawithLatinosinOrangeCounty,California,explorethesubjectiveexperienceofabjectstatus.Howdoyoungpeoplecopewiththedenialofanyrighttobelong?Howdoesillegalityconstrainthemintheirdailylives?Doesitimmobilizethem,oraretherewaysinwhichtheyacttoresistabjectivity?Themostdamagingdimensionofabjectstatusfor1.5-generationundocumentedimmigrantsisthattheyareren-deredtoapermanentunderclass.ThisismostapparentinthedifferencesthatGonzalesandChavezdrawbetweenLatinolegalandillegalimmigrants—inhomeownership,familyin-come,levelsofeducation,attitudestowardtheirneighbor-hoodandthepolice,participationinhometownorganiza-tions,andinmentalandphysicalhealth.“Illegality,”theseauthorswrite,“placeslimitsonwhatispossible.”Onecannotoveremphasizehowhypocriticalthisisinacountrythatcon-structsitselfasalandofendlesspossibilitiesandopportu-nities.Indeed,itisthesedimensionsofAmericathatdrawimmigrants,legalandundocumented.Andhowtragicthe CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012contradictionisforthoseofthe1.5generationinparticular;theygrowupwithlittleawarenessofthebrickwalltheywillconfrontastheymaturetoadulthood.TousethewordsofoneoftheresearchparticipantsinGonzalesandChavez’sstudy,they“awaketoanightmare.”Ateveryturn,theirlivesareregulatedandtheirfreedomsandchoicesarecurtailed.Theyliveinpermanentlimbowhilepolicymakersremainindecisiveaboutndingsolutionsintheformoftrueandhumaneimmigrationreform.Andyetinthissituationoflimboandabjectivity,GonzalesandChavezalsondsomeevidenceofresistance—inpublicactionsthatcancomewithhighrisk,orinpursuingopportunitiesthatwillsituatethemwellwhenthehoped-forreformsnallycome.Thisarticlemakesseveralimportantcontributions.First,itclariesandrenestheconceptofabjectivityasappliedtothestudyofimmigration.Second,buildingontheideasofFoucault,itadvancesourunderstandingofthemultiplewaysinwhichthenation-stateentersinto,surveils,disciplines,anddirectsthelivesofthosewhoresidewithinitsborders,citizensandnoncitizensalike.Third,itimplicatestheUnitedStatesitselfintheproductionof11million“illegals”aswellasofpeoplewhoidentifymorewithMexicothantheydowiththeUnitedStates—preciselybecausetheyareabjectiedandde-niedtherighttobelong.Fourth,asacontributiontopublicanthropology,itputsahumanfaceontheillegals.ThemorethatanthropologycandotointroducethestoriesoftheundocumentedintoAmericanpublicconsciousnessthebet-ter.Aswepublishinthepagesofourscholarlyjournals,wemustalsoengagethecivicsphereasinterlocutorsforthosewhoareabjectedandhencedeniedtheirownvoice. SusanBiblerCoutinDepartmentofCriminology,LawandSociety,UniversityofCali-fornia,Irvine,California92697-7080,U.S.A.(scoutin@uci.edu).13X11Inthispaper,RobertoGonzalesandLeoChavezdetailtheexperiencesofundocumented1.5-generationyouthwho,forreasonsthataredifcultforthemtofathom,are“discardablepotential.”Asschoolchildren,theseyouthundergotheinte-grativeeffectsofpublicinstitutionsonlytolaterndthem-selvesrejectedbythesocietyforwhichtheseinstitutionspre-paredthem.AsGonzalesandChavez’smaterialdemonstrates,suchrejectionisdeeplytraumatizing.Whentheyaredeniedaccesstojobs,education,andmobility,theseyouthbecomesomeonetheydidnotknowtheywereandhavetostruggletoremainconnectedtotheirformerselves.Accordingtotheauthors,somesucceedthroughactivismonbehalfofimmi-grants’rights,delayingtheirentryintothejobmarket,oracceptinglow-wageemploymentbutdeningitastemporary.Otherslosethisthread,oftenforreasonsbeyondtheircontrol.Insuchcases,abjectivitymaybecomeapermanentcondition,recordedincriminalconvictionsthatmaymakelegalizationimpossible.ThenotionofabjectivitydevelopedbyGonzalesandChavezcanbeextendedtoothergroupswhoawakentonight-mares.Onesuchgroupiscreatedbythe3-and10-yearbarsonlegalimmigrationtowhichthosewhohavebeenunlaw-fullypresentfor6monthsor1yeararesubjected.Forex-ample,ifaUScitizenmarriesandpetitionsforanundoc-umentedimmigrant,thecouplemayhavetobeseparatedfor10yearswhiletheundocumentedpartnerlivesoutsideofthecountry,allowingthebartotoll.Thisexamplesuggeststhatabjectivitycanbecontagiousinthat,muchlikethesecondaryprisonizationexperiencedbythespousesandpartnersofthosewhoareincarcerated(Comfort2008),theUScitizenspouseundergoessomethingofasecondaryabjectication(DingemanandCoutin,forthcoming;Kanstroom2007).Anothersuchgroupiscreatedbytheexpandeddenitionofaggravatedfelonyandtheeliminationofwaiversofde-portationforlong-termresidentsconvictedofcrimes.Priorto1996,noncitizenswhowereconvictedofcrimesthatmadethemdeportablehadtheopportunitytoarguetoanimmi-grationjudgethattheirequitiesintheUnitedStatesout-weighedtheharmthattheyhadcaused.Now,incontrast,evenlawfulpermanentresidentscanbestrippedoftheirstatusandrendereddeportable,suggestingthatalienagecansuper-sedeotherdimensionsoftheself.Like1.5-generationyouth,noncitizenswhobecomeremovableduetocriminalconvic-tionsmayexperiencesuddenandtraumatizingredenitions.AsonedeporteelamentedtomeduringaninterviewinElSalvador,I’mnevergoingtobeabletoacceptit.Because41yearsthere[intheUS]?Awholelife!Andpayingtaxes,everythingthere!Socialsecurity.Andsuddenly,nothing.Whathap-penedtoallofthat?HowdidIfail?Theyuprootyouandsendyouherewithoutanything.Bothofthesegroups,alongwiththe1.5-generationyouthwhowerethesubjectsofGonzalesandChavez’sstudy,havebeensubjectedtoapullingawayofthelaw,ofrights,andoftemporaryworkarounds(suchasusingsomeoneelse’sSocialSecuritynumber)that,inprioreras,couldhaveenabledin-dividualstolegalizeortomanagetheirundocumentedstatus.Thisretreatoccursinacontextofintensiedlegalsurveil-lance,astheauthorsdetail.Thecontradictorycombinationoflaw’sretreatandintensicationisshapingthecontoursofboththelegalizedandundocumentedpopulations.Itisthere-foreimportanttoattendtoprocessesthat,thatis,totheparticularacts—suchasdenyingeligibilityforadriver’slicense—thatconstituteindividualsasundocumentedaswellasthehistoriesthatleavemigrantsvulnerabletodeportation.Individualsarenotnaturally“illegal”;rather,theyarecon-stitutedassuch,bystructuralconditions,violence,andim-migrationlaws,policies,andhistories.Itisalsoworthconsideringthetransnationaldimensionsofabjectivity(CoutinandMcGuire2011).Gonzalesand GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants271ChavezalludetotheseindiscussingthesituationofCatarina,anundocumentedimmigrantwhoseyearsintheUnitedStateshave“madeherlifedifferentfromifshehadstayedinMexico.”HerabjectivityintheUnitedStatesmostlikelyex-tendstothelifeshewouldleadifdeportedtoMexico—apointthatGonzalesandChavezdonotfullydevelopherebutthatisconsistentwiththeiranalysis.Thecounterpartofbeing“unwantedby...theonlycountrytheyreallyknow”maybebeingunwantedbythecountrytowhichtheylegallybelong.Importantly,though,youthdevelopstrategiestocon-testabjectivity.Byhighlightingtheseyouths’strugglesandsuccesses,GonzalesandChavezhavemadeasignicantcon-tribution. JonathanXavierIndaDepartmentofLatina/LatinoStudies,510EastChalmers,Univer-sityofIllinois,Urbana-Champaign,Champaign,Illinois61820,U.S.A.(jxinda@illinois.edu).27X11Thisisawonderfulandcompellingarticle.Itanalyzesinstrikingdetailhowundocumentedyouthexperiencelivinginabjection.Itspeakspowerfullytohowthe“castingaway”ofyoungmigrantsshapesanddelimitstheirsocial,economic,andbiologicallife.Inmyremarkshere,Itakeuptheauthors’thoughtfulinvocationofphilosopherGiorgioAgamben’sworkonthepoliticsofexclusion.DrawingonPlatoandAristotle,Agamben(1998)notesthattheancientGreeksdidnothaveasingletermtoexpresswhatwetodaymeanby“life.”Instead,theyusedtwosemanticallydistinctwords:(thesimplefactofbeingalive,commontoalllivingthings)and(theformoflivingspecictoanindividualorgroup).AgambenemphasizesthatwhenPlatoandAristotletheorizedaboutlife,theyusedthetermbiosThiswasbecausewhatmatteredforthemwasnotbruteex-istencebutthewayoflifepropertohumanbeings.Naturallifewasinfactexcludedfromthepoliticallifeofthepolisandrestrictedtothesphereofthe(household).Itwasthusnotdeemedasubjectworthyofpoliticalandethicalcontemplation.ForAgamben,theexclusionofbiologicallifefromtheisrathersignicant.Itactuallytakesplacethroughafundamentalactofsovereignty.FollowingtheworkofCarlSchmitt,Agambenunderstandssovereignpowerasthecapacitytodecideontheexception—todecreeanemer-gencywhereinconventionallegalandconstitutionalrulesaresuspended.Insuchastateofexception,Agambensuggests,subjectsaredeprivedofconstitutionalrights,reducedtomerelivingbeings,andexposedtotheunconditionalpowerofdeath.Theexclusionofnaturallifefromthesphereofpoliticsamountstoasovereignactinsofarasitisbasedonadecisionastowhoisgrantedstatusintheandthussubjecttoitsprotections,orbannedfromitandexposedtounlimitedviolation.Inthissense,thesovereign’sactofexclusionresultsnecessarilyinthepoliticizationoflife.Thatis,naturallifeendsupincludedinthepoliticaldomainintheformofex-clusion;itissetoutsidepoliticsbutneverthelessimplicatedinit.Signicantly,whatgetsproducedthroughthesovereignactofinclusion/exclusionisbarelife.Barelifeisnotnaturallifeassuchbutitspoliticizedform.Itcanbedenedasanaturallifebereftofpoliticalstatusandhencesubjecttoin-niteviolation.InspiredbyAgamben,GonzalesandChavezcogentlyex-plorehowthelivesofundocumentedyouthhaveeffectivelybeenreducedtobarelife.Indeed,toliveillegallyintheUnitedStatesmeanslivinganexistencestrippedofjuridicalprotec-tion,openedtoviolence,andrenderedpotentiallydisposable.Centraltothereductionofundocumentedyouthtobarelifehasbeenthecontemporaryimmigrationenforcementclimate.Overthelastdecade,theboundariesofimmigrationenforce-menthavemigratedinward,turningmuchoftheinterioroftheUnitedStatesintoaborderzonewheregovernmentalauthoritiesendeavortoregulateputatively“dangerous”mi-grantillegalities.Theresulthasbeenthatundocumentedyouth(andunauthorizedimmigrantsgenerally)havebecomesubjecttoratherheavysurveillancebylocalandstatepolice.Astheauthorsnote,atypicalpolicetacticistosetupsobrietycheckpointsorothertrafcoperationsinornearimmigrantneighborhoods.Oncecaughtinthesetraps,youthwithoutauthorizationtobeintheUnitedStatesareroutinelyarrested,generallyfordrivingwithoutalicense,andoftendeported.Notsurprisingly,thistargetedpolicinghasproducedadeepdistrustamongundocumentedyouthoflocalpoliceofcials.Thedistrustissuchthatmanyyouthhavebeenpromptedtochangetheirbehaviorpatternsinordertododgecontactwithpoliceofcersorotherauthorities.Forexample,intervieweesreportventuringintopublicspaceslessoften,curtailingin-teractionswithmedicalandotherinstitutions,andcontinuallylookingovertheirshoulderswhentheydogooutinpublic.Thecurrentimmigrationenforcementclimate,then,hashelpedtodisrupttheeverydaylivesofimmigrantsandpro-ducedaheightenedsenseofinsecurity.Ultimately,suchaclimateservestodegradeimmigrantlifetoitsbiologicalmin-imumandexposeittoextremeabuse.Importantly,theauthorsalsoshowthatundocumentedyouthhavenotstoodidlybyandacceptedthehighlypunitiveanddiscriminatorytreatmenttowhichtheyhavebeensub-jected.Throughengaginginarangeofdemocraticprocesses,fromcollectiveprotestingandcampaigningforrightstocourtbattles,manyyouthhaveactuallyactedoutagainstthede-humanizingeffectsof“illegality.”Themessagetheyaresend-ingisthatundocumentedmigrantsarelegitimatemembersofUSsocietyanddeservetherighttowork,toraisefamilies,andtobefreefromthefearofpersecution.Inotherwords,theyareseekingtoberecognizedaslegitimatepoliticalsub-jectswithsocial,civil,andpoliticalrights—tobetreatednotasbarelifebutasbios CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012 CeciliaMenjõ«varSchoolofSocialandFamilyDynamics,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,Arizona85287-3701,U.S.A.(menjivar@asu.edu).6X11Icannotoverstatethetimelinessofthissignicant,thoughtful,carefullywrittenpiece,andIamgratefulfortheopportunitytocommentonit.GonzalesandChavezuseSarahWillen’sconceptofabjectivitytocapturethelivedexperiencesoftheundocumentedyoungLatinoswhoarrivedintheUnitedStatesasyoungchildrenandwhooftendonothaverecol-lectionofthecountriestheyleftorhowtheymadeittotheUnitedStates.Throughtheuseofthisconcept,theydrawattentiontohowpracticesofgovernmentality,inFoucault’sconceptualization,produceagroupinsocietythatismarkedasillegitimate,underserving,andunworthy.Importantly,theyobserve,thereisnothingintrinsicaboutthoseinthisgroupthatmakesthemundeservingandmarginal,noinherentchar-acteristicsthatcanmaketheirlivessotough.Instead,theauthorsrightlynote,itisthedisciplinaryandexclusionarypractices—thebiopoliticsofimmigrationtoday—thatmaketheyoungimmigrants’liveslimited,invisible,andevendan-gerous.Myparticipationinthisexchangeisrelatedtomyownresearchontheeverydayexperiencesofimmigrantswholiveonthemarginsofthelaw.Andinmyview,morethanotherscholarsworkinginthisarea,GonzalesandChavezprovideakeyanalyticalangletounderstandhow,today,immigrantsinuncertainlegalstatuseslivetheirvulnerableandmargin-alizedstatus.Theirfocusonthe1.5generation,whosepar-ticularpositioninthelifecycleampliestheexperienceoflifetransitionsasundocumented,allowstheauthorstoshowushowanundocumentedstatusbecomesaconditionofab-jectivity.Theauthorsillustrate,inthewordsoftheirstudyparticipants,howundocumentedyouth’slegalstatusrestrictstheiractivitiesandlifechances,andhowitcanfurtherleadtotheirdehumanization.Iparticularlyappreciatetheauthors’approachtolinktheeverydaylivesoftheyoungimmigrantstotheirundoc-umentedstatus,notonlyhowthisstatusimpedestheired-ucational(andeventuallysocioeconomic)mobilityandhowitshatterstheir“Americandream,”butalsohowmundanetasks,likedrivingfromhometoschool,involvemaneuveringandplanning,highlightingthedailyhumiliationsandfearsexperiencedbythosewholiveinthisabjectstatus.Indeed,Indmuchvalueintheauthors’focusoncommonplace,or-dinaryactivities,asitshedslightonhowtheseyoungim-migrants’abjectstatusshapespracticesthatthwarttheirpathtohighereducationandtootheropportunitiesinsociety.Thereismuchresearchonhowanundocumentedstatusnegativelyaffectsopportunitiesineducationandinthelabormarket,butusingthelensofabjectivityallowsustounearththeactualmechanismsthatproducetheseeffects.TheauthorsarguethattheconceptofabjectivitydrawsattentiontotheforcesthatcreatethisconditionbutalsototheincongruitiesinherentintheapplicationofUSimmigra-tionlaw.ThisdiscussionallowsGonzalesandChaveztoun-derscorethecontradictorypurposesofthelawinpushingtheseimmigrantstothemarginsbutatthesametimemakingthemthetargetsoftheseregulations,markingtheirexistence“inthenationbutnotpartofthenation.”AndalthoughIwouldhavelikedthemtoexpandontheseconnections,onhowthisabjectconditionisactuallyproducedbythelawandwhytheseyoungimmigrantsmustwaitforyearsandliveinlimboformostoftheirlives,thereisquiteabitofmeritintheirnotingthatitisforcesbeyondtheindividualthatpro-ducethisabjectcondition.Indoingso,theauthorscapturehowthepowerofthelawpenetratesthemindandbodytoproducephysicalandpsychologicalailments,howthispowercontortslivesandhumanrelations,andhowthroughitslawsthestatedisciplinesevensubjectsitseekstoexclude.Throughconvincingandvividnarratives,theauthorsdemonstratetheforcewithwhichthelawshapesthelivesoftheseyoungimmigrants,howtheylivethelaw’spowerendlessly“wait-ing”—foranewimmigrationreformorfortheirapplicationstonallybeapproved.Thiswaitingandtheuncertaintythatitengendersarekeyaspectsoflivinginabjectivity.Andtheseexaggeratedwaitingtimeshaveimportantparallelsamongothersimilarlyvulnerablegroups,suchastheresidentsofashantytowninBuenosAiresdepictedinAuyeroandSwistun’s(2007)study,apointthatshouldremindusoftheimpotencythatdominatedgroupsoftenexperience.ButGonzalesandChavezalsonotethatitispreciselytheawarenessoftheircondition,oftheirvulnerability,thatservesasimpetusforcivicparticipation,action,andresistance.Theundocumentedlackpower,theauthorsnote,butarenotpowerless.Livingabjectlivescreatesspacesfor“personalactsofresistance”andforundocumentedyouthtoparticipatepoliticallyandtoas-serttheirculturalcitizenship.Thisisanimportantpointtheauthorsmake,andoneIwouldhavelikedtoseethemdevelopfurther.Insum,thisisacriticalarticlethatcapturesvividlyhowvulnerable,abject,livesonthemarginsofsocietyarelivedandhowstatepowerisexperienced,whichnodoubtwillinspiremuchreection,furtherresearch,and,Ihope,action. CarlosSandovalGarciaInstitutodeInvestigacionesSociales,UniversidaddeCostaRica,ApartadoPostal4920-60,CiudadRodr´goFacioMontesdeOca,SanJose´,CostaRica(carlos.sandoval@ucr.ac.cr).2XI11“‘AwakeningtoaNightmare’:AbjectivityandIllegalityintheLivesofUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrantsintheUnitedStates,”byRobertoG.GonzalesandLeoR.Chavez,explores“practicesofthebiopoliticsofcitizenshipandgovernmentality...[that]enclose,penetrate,dene,limit,andfrustratethelivesofundocumented1.5-generationLatinoimmigrants.”TheworkofSarahWillenandJudithButlerinformsthe GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants273wayinwhichtheauthorsconceptualizedabjectivityastheprocessthroughwhichwhatisconsideredalienisproducedassuchthroughitsexpulsion.GonzalesandChavezlookatwaysinwhichdiscoursesofabjectivityareinternalized.Ab-jectivityisembodied,theyargued.ThestudyislocatedinCalifornia,specicallyinOrangeCounty,alocationwhere“anti-immigrationmovementshavefoundsubstantialsup-port.”Methodologically,itcombinesquantitativeandqual-itativedata.QuantitativedatawerecollectedinJanuary2006,andinterviewstookplacebetween2002and2007.Intermsofbothinstitutionalconstraintsandinternalizedfears,quan-titativeandqualitativeevidenceconrmthatthe1.5gener-ationexperienceabjection.ThendingsaddevidencetoawidearrayofclaimsthatsupporttheapprovaloflegislationknownastheDREAMAct,whichwouldallowtherighttoapplyforapermanentresidentstatustothosewhoarrivedintheUnitedStatesasminors.However,despitethefactthatabout67%oftheLatinopop-ulationvotedforBarackObamainthelastelection,theDREAMActdoesnotseemtobepoliticallypossibleintheelectoralcontextof2012.Fartherawayisacomprehensiveimmigrationreform,oneofthepromisesofObama’scam-paign.Evenworse,duringtherstyearoftheObamaad-ministration,deportationincreasedby25%.RecentchangesinimmigrationlegislationinArizona,Georgia,and,morerecently,inAlabamaconrmthistendency.Thecurrenteco-nomiccrisisonbothsidesoftheAtlanticandprobablybeyondmakesthisscenarioevenmorecomplex.Aquerythatemergesfrommyreadingisrelatedtothewaysinwhichmigrants’agencyisconceptualized.Ithastodobothwiththepoliticallandscapeandwiththechosentheoreticalperspective.Regardingthepoliticalcontext,es-peciallyintheUnitedStatesandtheEuropeanUnion,thehardeningofimmigrationpoliciesisthedominanttendency:inthecriminalizationofmigrants,intheunderminingoftheruleoflaw,andintheexternalizationofborders,amongothers.Inthissense,theauthorsgivemoreprominencetowhatisbyitselfmorenoticeable.Regardingtheadoptedtheoreticalperspective,onemightasktowhatextentabjectivity,asakeytheoreticaltool,canmakesenseofbothrejectiontowardmigrantsbycurrentcriminalizingpoliciesandthewaysofresistanceofnewgen-erationsofmigrants.Itseemstomethatrejectionhasmuchmoreprominencethanresistance,whichisunderstandablegiventhatcriminalizationisthedrivingforce.However,re-sistanceisnot,sotospeak,theorized;itemergesasacon-sequenceofpowerbutdoesnotreceivethesameattention.Theauthorsnotethatundocumented1.5ers“can,anddo,resisttotalexclusion.”TheyquoteFoucault(1990[1976]:95):“Wherethereispower,thereisresistance.”Theynotealsothat,“thoughlackingpower,undocumentedimmigrantsarenotpowerless.”Inshort,myqueryiswhetherabjectivity,givenitsemphasisonthepoweroftheoppressor,allowsustounderstandhowresistancebecomeslivedexperience,andwhetherthislivedexperiencemightbethoughtofastheterrainuponwhichpoliticalagendascanbeforged.Withsometrepidation,Iwouldsaythatbylocatingabjectivityasakeyreference,criticalresearchmightloseitsproductivetensionbetweenpowercon-straintsandresistance.Itisespeciallyrelevantsince,forexample,animportantnumberofinitiativesin2006wereundertakenbyyoungpeo-plewhorecruitedoldergenerationstojoinmarchesandothercollectiveactions.Itmightbeusefultothinkofthesedem-onstrationsasagroupofactors(i.e.,thosewhospeakonbehalfofmigrantsaswellasmigrantsthemselves)indifferentscales(i.e.,communityorganizations,nationalinitiatives,transnationalnetworks)gatheringtodiscussdifferentagendas(i.e.,laborandmigration,equityandmigration,diversityandmigration).Inotherwords,thedeepeningofright-wingviewsonimmigrationintheUnitedStatesandelsewhererequiresatheoreticalandpoliticalanalysisofmigrants’collectiveac-tion.QuotationsfromEsperanza(theSpanishtranslationof“hope”)arethemostprominentthroughoutthearticle.Idonotknowifthiswasdoneonpurpose.Eitherway,Esperanza’snamesuggeststhathorizonsofpossibilitiesarenotclosed.Thankstotheauthorsforremindingusofthis. JensSchneiderInstituteforMigrationResearchandInterculturalStudies,Univer-¨tOsnabru¨ck,Germany(jens.schneider@uni-osnabrueck.de).18XI11RobertoGonzalesandLeoChavezveryvividlyillustratethedisturbing“destructiveirrationality”ofUS-Americanimmi-grationpolicies.Thesituationof1.5-generationLatinosinCaliforniaseemstomockthestate’sgeneralaimsofpro-motinglawabidanceamongitscitizens,avoidingsocialdis-order,andfosteringanequalrelationshipbetweeninvestmentineducationanditspayoffstoindividualsandsocietyalike.Thearticledescribesfamilysituationsinwhichthefatherhasapermanentresidencypermit,themotherandforeign-borneldestdaughterareillegal,yettheyoungersiblingsareAmer-icancitizenssincetheyareUS-born.FromaEuropeanper-spective,thisseemsquiteodd.Andmorequestionsarise:Whywouldayoungpersonenrolledinhighereducationnotreceivearesidencypermit?Wherearethescholarshipprogramsforcoveringthetuitionfeesfornonresidentstudents?Howcanitbethatsomeoneisconvictedofacrimewhenhispartic-ipationinitisneitherevidentnorplausible—becauseheisundocumented,andthesituationoffersanicepretexttojailanddeportation?Thisisamajorquestionfordebate:theuseofFoucault’sconceptofbiopoliticsinthearticlesuggestsrationalitybehindtheapparentirrationality.Butisthereany?Whilethedecisionsofmigrantstofacetheoccasionalhardshipsofgoingabroad—especiallyforillegalmigrants—cangenerallybeexplainedas CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012“rationalchoices,”therationalebehindcertainpolicymeasuresand“institutionalarrangements”regardingimmigrationcon-trolfrequentlypointtoadivergencebetweenaimsandresults.Controllingimmigrationandputtingpressureonundoc-umentedimmigrantsseemstohavebecomeasortofplay-groundforpoliceandpolicy,stronglyaffectingpeoples’livesbutwithouthavingmuchrealinuenceonaneffectivecontrolofillegalimmigration.PuttingthiskindofpressureonthosewhowereformallyeducatedintheUnitedStatesandaremorethanwillingtobecomeusefulandproductivemembersofso-cietyisevenmoredifculttoexplainbyanysortofrationalargument.Inmyview,thearticleaddstwoimportantnewelementstotheacademicdiscussion:therstisthefocusonthetran-sitionfromchildhood/adolescencetoadulthood,thatis,themomentof“awakeningtothenightmare.”Thesecondaspectisintertwinedwiththis:theseeminglytrivialsignicanttypeofsituationsinwhichinsecurestatusbecomesdecisive—forexample,askingforalcoholinabarorrestaurant,gettinginvolvedinacaraccident,becomingill,ormakingatriptoLasVegas.Adolescenceisthedelicatetimeinanyyoungper-son’slifetodevelopnormsandethics,andtondaplaceandpositioninsociety.Forchildrenofimmigrants,thispe-riodmoreoverincludesthedifculttaskofreconcilingtheworldsoftheparentalandcommunitylifewiththelife“outthere.”Consideringthenightmaretowhichtheundoc-umented1.5generationinCaliforniaawakesatthatcrucialmoment,itiseasytoimaginehowtraumaticthisexperiencecanbe.Inaddition,itmightnotalwaysbelife’sbiggestpo-tentialhardshipsthatproducethemostcripplinginjuries.GonzalesandChavez’sarticlealsoshowsthatpeopletendto“survive”beingforcedtochangetheirprofessionaloptionsandplans.Thefearofdeportationwhilechildrengetleftbehind,orhowasimplecaraccidentcanleadtoprisonanddeportation,bycontrast,arelikelytoleavedeepscarsthatwon’thealquickly.Thishaspolicyimplications;perhapsthereshouldbeaparallelpathtowaitingfortheDREAMAct:forexample,giving“il-legals”accesstoadriver’slicense,toabankaccount,andtohealthinsurancewithoutcheckingforresidencystatus.Thearticleraisestwoimportantissuesthat,inmyview,needfurtherdevelopment.First,whatisthelogicandidio-syncrasyof“theotherside,”ofthosewhoproduceandenacttheabjectionofthe1.5generation(policeofcers,politicians,middle-classwhites,employers,etc.)?Whatisthereactionofuniversitiesandesteemedcollegestothebanofhighlyper-forming1.5-generationstudents?Theanswerstotheseques-tionsarealsorelevanttotheinitialinquiryabouttheappli-cabilityoftheconceptofbiopolitics.Second,theelementsof“resistance”and“subversion”arehighlightedinthearticleintheformofindividualsurvivalstrategies,butwhatcollectiveresponsesaretherebeyondthevisibleones,suchasthemarchesandtheactivitiessurround-ingtheDREAMAct?Whatcanpeopledotobecomelegaloreventobecomecitizens?Howcouldbeingenrolledinformaleducationforanextendedperiodoftimetranslatetoanactualoptionforlegalization?Whatabout(fake)marriagewithalegalperson?Andnally,couldthe1.5ersstudyorworkinMexicoforaperiodoftimeandthenreturntotheUnitedStateswithastudentorworkingvisa? NandoSigonaRefugeeStudiesCentre,UniversityofOxford,3ManseldRoad,OxfordOX13TB,UnitedKingdom(nando.sigona@qeh.ox.ac.uk).12XII11GonzalesandChavez’sarticleprovidesaninformedandde-tailedaccountoftheeverydaylivesof1.5-generationundoc-umentedmigrantsintheUnitedStates.Drawingoninter-views,informalconversations,andparticipantobservationwithyoungmigrantsoriginally(mainly)fromMexicolivingintheOrangeCountyinCalifornia,theyexaminethemultiplewaysinwhichthelackofresidencestatusshapesthepresentandthefutureofmigrantswhowerebornabroadbuthavespentasignicantpartoftheirformativeyearsintheUnitedStates.Asrecentscholarshiphaspointedout(BlochandChimienti2011;Bloch,Sigona,andZetter2011;Coutin;DeGenova2002;Goldring,Berinstein,andBernhard2009;Menj´var2006;Willen2007),theconditionofillegalityisdenedandshapedbyspeciclegalarrangements,whichinturnproduceillegalaliens(Ngai2004)whosepoliticalandlegalsubjectivityiscontingentonthespeciclegalandpolicyarrangements,aswellasthebroadersocial,political,andgeo-graphiccontextthatmadethem(Sassen2002).Theinvesti-gationofmigrantaccountscanthereforebeinstrumentaltoilluminatethecontingencyofspeciccongurationsofille-galityandlocatetheminglobalandlocalpoliticaleconomies.Theemphasisishereonthebroaderheuristicvalueofmigrantnarrativesratherthanontheimpactsofillegalityonindividualexperiences.Tobridgethisconceptualgap,theauthorsevokeFoucault’sconceptofbiopoliticsthatisthecombinationoftechniquesofpowerandselfthroughwhichsubjectsarepro-ducedinandbypower.However,theattempt(whichisattimesratherimpressionistic)isnotcompletelysuccessful.Itleavesthereaderwitharathermonodimensionalrepresen-tationofundocumentedmigrants,overdeterminedbythestructuringpowerofimmigrationpoliciesandbureaucraticpractices,andassuchunabletoprovideatheoreticalexpla-nationofvariationsanddifferencesintheveryaccountsthattheauthorsdiscussinthearticle.“Immigrationhereandemigrationtherearethetwoin-dissociablesidesofthesamereality,whichcannotbeex-plainedtheonewithouttheother”(Sayad1999:15).AsBour-dieuandWacquantnoticeintheircelebrationoftheworkoftheAlgerianethnologistAbdelmalekSayad,inordertoun-derstandmigrationandmigrantexperiences,thestartingpointmustbethe“history,structureandcontradictions”ofsendingcountriesandnotthe“concernandcleavagesofthereceivingsociety”(BourdieuandWacquant2000:174).This GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants275argumentresonateswithwarningstoavoidmethodologicalnationalisminresearchonmigration(WimmerandGlickSchiller2002).InGonzalesandChavez’scontribution,themonodimensionalportraitofundocumentednessthatemergesfromtheanalysiscanbetracedbacktotwoaspectsofthemethodologyofresearch:rst,thedecisiontoadoptthehet-eronym“Latinos/Latinas”foridentifyingtheindividualsinthestudy,achoicethatobscuresthepossibilityofvaluingthe“history,structureandcontradictions”ofsendingcountries;secondandsimilarly,byfocusingalmostexclusivelyintheirqualitativeanalysisontheaccountsofMexicanmigrants(de-spitereferringtothemmainlyasLatinos/Latinas),theauthorsmisstheopportunitytoexploretheintersectionofundoc-umentednessandcountryoforiginthatincludestheasso-ciatedsituatedcongurationsofgender,class,andethnicity.This,forexample,leaveslittlespacetoappreciateandun-derstandthetransnationalpracticesofinformants.Anex-ampleisprovidedbythediscussionoftheparalyzingeffectthattheconditionofillegalityproduce,keepingmanyrespondentsinlimbo.Thereaderisleftthinking:Whichre-spondents?Whyonlysomeofthemandnotall?Howcanweexplainthisdifference?Thediscussionofdeportability,thatis,thefearofbeingdeportedanditsimpactontheeverydaylivesofmigrants,incursasimilarlimitation.Didallintervieweesexperiencethesamefear?Arethereotherfactorsthatcontributetoshapingthisfear?Myownwork,comparingtheexperiencesofundoc-umentedmigrantsfromBrazil,China,Turkey,Ukraine,andZimbabweintheUnitedKingdom,showsthatmigratorypro-jectsandhistoriescannotbeunderestimated.Ifdeported“backhome,”whatisatstakeforaKurdishundocumentedmigrantwhoexperiencedpoliticalpersecutioninTurkey,andaUkrainianundocumentedbuilderwhomovedtotheUnitedKingdomtoaccumulatecapitalandenjoylifeinametropolis,iscertainlydifferentandhasonlypartlytodowiththeirlegalstatusintheUnitedKingdom(Bloch,Sigona,andZetter2009;Sigona2012). LynnStephenCenterforLatino/aandLatinAmericanStudies(CLLAS),Anthro-pologyandEthnicStudies,DepartmentofAnthropology,1218UniversityofOregon,Eugene,Oregon97403-1218,U.S.A.(stephenl@uoregon.edu).9XI11OnOctober8,2011,CaliforniaGovernorJerryBrownsignedthesecondpartoftheCaliforniaDREAMAct,whichgrantsundocumentedimmigrantsaccesstostatenancialaidatpublicuniversitiesandcollegesbeginningin2013.KnownasAB131,thebillrequiresthatstudentsgraduatefroma25.Thersthalfofthesameact,signedinJuly2011,allowedundoc-umentedstudentstoreceiveprivatelyfundednancialaidfromtheUni-versityofCalifornia,CaliforniaState,andCaliforniaCommunityCollegesystems.Californiahighschool,haveattendedschoolforatleast3yearsinthestate,andareintheprocessofapplyingtolegalizetheirstatus.GovernorBrownreportedthattheCaliforniaDepartmentofFinancesestimatesthatAB131willbenetapproximately2,500studentsannuallyatacostof14.5million(McGreevyandYork2011).TheCaliforniaDREAMActiswelcomenewsforsomeofthesubjectsofGonzalesandChavez’stimelyarticle“Awak-eningtoaNightmare.”Thisimportantpieceofresearchbringsattentiontothewide-rangingpsychological,economic,social,andidentity-formationexperiencesof1.5-generationundocumentedLatinoyouth.Whilemuchresearchhasfo-cusedonthisin-betweengenerationofimmigrantyouth,fewstudieshavelookedindepthatwhatGonzalezandChavezcallthe“experiencesoflivinginabjection.”Theirstudycon-rmsthatundocumentedLatinoyouthlivetheirdailylivesatamuchhigherlevelofstressandlowerlevelsofsocial,material,andpsychologicalsecuritythandocumentedLatinoimmigrantyouth.GonzalesandChavezdescribe,ashaveothers,how1.5-generationundocumentedLatinoyoutharesocializedintheUnitedStates,learnEnglish,attendschools,andbegintodevelopidentitiesandexpectationsaboutattendingcollegeandaspiringtoamiddle-classAmericanlifestyle.“Awakeningtothenightmare”occurswhenyouthatages14–17comefacetofacewiththeirundocumentedstatus,somethingwhichisoftenhiddenfromthemuntilthisagebytheirparents,teachers,andothers.Whilethisprotectionensuresthemameasureofself-condenceandsecurityintheiryoungeryears,italsocreatesasetofexpectationsandsenseofidentityfor-mationthatarerudelyinterruptedpreciselywhenteensaremostinneedofconrmationofwhotheyare.JoiningfriendsinaCaliforniasociallife,work,anddrivingrequireaCali-fornialicenseorID,whichinturnrequiresaSocialSecuritycard.Therealityofbeingclassiedas“illegal”isagamechangerforLatinoimmigrantyouth.Immigrationstatusistheonlykindoflegalcategorywhere“illegal”becomesatotalizing,criminalizinglabelfortheindividual.Youdidnotcommitanillegalact,youareillegal.Inmyownresearch,IhavedocumentedtheexperiencesofundocumentedindigenousimmigrantyouthandfoundsimilarresultstothatoutlinedbyGonzalesandChavez,withtheadditionaldimensionofracializationprocessesthatdel-egateindigenousyouthtolesserstatusamongMexicanoim-migrants(Stephen2007:211–220;2008).Theyarereadbymanyas“illegals”inanincreasinglyhostilepoliticalandlegalclimateintheUnitedStates,as“Mexicans”or“Latinos”bythosewhodon’tknowenoughtodiscriminatebetweendif-ferenttypesofMexicans,andbytheirfellowMexicanosasinferiorbecauseoftheircultural,linguistic,andgeographicrootsasindigenouspeoples.Avenuesofculturalexpressionthatexplicitlycallonindigenousformsofdance,music,art,sports,writing,andlanguageseemtobeoneofthemostsuccessfulvehiclesforindigenousimmigrantyouthtoachievesomelevelofcivicintegrationintheirschoolsandcommu- CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012nities.IftheyareundocumentedinstateslikeOregon,how-ever,theyagaincometotherealizationthattheycannotgotocollegeandfacethe“awakeningtoanightmare.”Thisarticleisalsoanimportantcomplementtootherre-centcomparativeresearchdonebySua´rez-Orozcoetal.(2011),whichlooksattheexperiencesofthe1millionun-authorizedchildrenandyouthfromaroundtheworldandthe5.5millionchildrenintheUnitedStateswithunauthor-izedparents.Theirworkintegratesaninterdisciplinaryap-proachfocusingonthestructuralconditionschildrenofundocumentedparentsexistin,butmoreimportantlyoffersaframeworkforunderstandingthefactorsthatshapetheday-to-dayexperiencesofchildrenandyouthastheymovethroughdifferentdevelopmentalstages.Theyconcludethattheevidencerevealsaconsistentpattern:theeffectsofun-authorizedstatusondevelopmentacrossthelifespanareuniformlynegative,withmillionsofU.S.childrenandyouthatriskoflowereducationalperformance,economicstag-nation,blockedmobility,andambiguousbelonging.Inall,thedatasuggestanalarmingpsychosocialformation.(Sua´rez-Orozcoetal.2011:461)Theysuggestthatthesheernumbersofchildrenwhoarethemselvesundocumentedorlivewithundocumentedpar-entsarealarge-scalenationalconcernthattoucheseverystate.ThesolutionsadvocatedbyGonzalesandChavez,Sua´rez-Orozcoetal.,myself,andmanyothersareaccesstoeducationthroughtheDREAMAct,andmoreimportantlyapathwaytocitizenship.Engagedresearchcanhelptoinuencepolicy,andGonzalesandChavezprovideanimportantmodelofhowthismightwork. LilianaSua«rezNavazDepartmentofSocialAnthropology,AutonomousUniversityofMadrid,Cantoblanco,Madrid28049,Spain(liliana.suarez@uam.es).13XI11Similartotheauthorsofthispowerfularticle,myresearchinsouthernEuropeshowshowthesymbolictreatmentoflegalityversusillegalityincontemporarydemocraticmigra-tionregimeshasbeeninstrumentalinthecreationofracial-izedboundariesaswellasinthemaintenanceofareservearmyofdisposableworkerslivinginthecountryofdesti-nation.Theconceptof“fetishismofthepapers”servedmetoexplainwhy,despiteempiricalevidenceofthefactthatillegalityhasbecomeastructuralfeatureofcontemporarycitizenry,the“appearanceoflegality”conjuredupthroughthisfetishismkeepspeopledreamingonapersonalavenueforalegalrecognition(Sua´rez-Navaz2004).GonzalesandChavez’sresearchpowerfullyshowsthatthisisnotjustthecasefornewimmigrationcountries,butastructuralfeatureofneoliberalmigrationregimes.Thestate’sabilitytodemar-cateandmaintainclassicatoryboundariesshapingthecon-structionofsocialdifferenceislegitimizedandlargelynat-uralized.Immigrants,whoaretreatedasanobjectandnotasubjectofthelaw,donotappropriatethesurplusvaluecreatedbythisfetishism,butthestatedoes.GonzalesandChavez’stheoreticaltakeonabjectivitygreatlyexpandedmyunderstandingoftheeffectsofbiopowerindiscipliningundocumentedimmigrants’body,subjectivity,andbehavior,andallowedmetobetterframeprocessesofresistanceandstruggle(Sua´rezNavazandAl-Jaima2007).Theconclusiveempiricalresearchdemonstratestheextenttowhichthisappearanceoflegalityrendersundocumentedbutlong-timeLatinoresidentsasabject,abnormal,anddeviant.Asdescribedbytheauthors,theseimmigrantsawoketoanightmaretheydidnotexpectforthemselves.Weunderstandwhytheyfailtoforeseethenightmare,basedontheargumentexposedabove.However,thecomparativeperspectiveac-quiredafterreadingthisworkresultsinaverydisturbingscenario,whichdeeplychallengescommonsenseandpoliticalpremisesonthegovernanceofmigratoryprocesses.First,GonzalesandChavez’sresearchonyoung1.5-gen-erationLatinoimmigrantsshowshowthelegalnormsofthemigratoryregimeactuallyhinderliferitesofpassagetoadult-hood.Undocumentedminors,protectedbytheirdependencyontheirfamilies,ndthemselvesunabletoreachindepen-denceandautonomyasadults,condemnedtoanever-endingtransitionalphase.Youngpeoplegettrampledintoalimbo,despitetheirfactualmembershipandfeelingofbelongingtotheUnitedStates.ThisshockingfactmarksmyreectiononsimilartrendshereinEurope.MyresearchhasclearlyshowedthetendencytotemporarilyprotecttheseyoungmigrantsorrefugeescomingtoSpain—inordertocomplywithinter-nationalagreementsontherightsofminors—withoutdoc-umentingthem.Thistemporaryprotectionstopswhentheyturn18,whentheminorstransformintoundocumentedfor-eignersandthelegalandmoralcommitmentofthestatecollapses(Sua´rezNavazandJime´nez2011).Thismanipula-tionofgivingrestrictedandtemporaryaccesstocitizenshiprightstominorscannotgowithoutconsequencesinourun-derstandingofanimmigrant’sprocessesofintegration,asec-ondfeatureofthisdisturbingscenarioIwanttorefertobriey.Commonsenseandpoliticaldiscoursesharethepremisethatthereissomekindofcongruencebetweenahighlevelofintegrationinthecountry,liketheyoungLatinostheau-thorsinterviewed,andthelegalguaranteeoftheirrightsascitizens.Thecontraryisshownhere:this“awakeningtoanightmare”ofLatinoscomingofageproducesapersonaldrama,anembodimentofabjectivityintheirdailybehaviorandidentities.Thereisalsoadeepeffectintheirpoliticalexpectationsvis-a`-viscitizenry:“EventhoughtheymayhavecometobelievetheciviclessonssoessentialtocitizenshipandtoholddearthevaluesdrivingtheAmericanDream,theillegalitythatdenedtheirabjectstatusleftthemwithaclearsenseoftheirdifference.”Ifoundsomethingsimilarwhenexploringtheculturalandpoliticaleffectsof“fetishismofthepapers”onAfricanMuslimimmigrants:anextendedfeeling GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants277thatcitizenshipwasnotacrediblesystem,lackingnotjusttheuniversaldimensionitclaims,butmostdangerously,lack-ingthepotentialtofunctionasamortarforbelongingandloyaltytoamulticulturalpoliticalcommunity.IfMartinLutherKingJr.shookuptheworldwithadreamofequalityandsocialcohesionforall,this“awakeningtoanightmare”ofnoncitizenswhothoughtofthemselvesoth-erwiseopensupanalarmingscenario:acitizenrytopographyfullofblackholesofrecognition.GonzalesandChavez’sworkverypoignantlyshowssomeofthedramaticconsequencesofdemocraticsocietiesraising“integratedyouth”withoutpapersjusttoletthemfallintothegravityofthoseblackholes.LetushopethattheeffortsoftheseundocumentedLatinosget-tingengagedincollectivepoliticalactionsuchastheDREAMActorthemarchesanddemonstrationsofimmigrantsacrosstheUnitedStateswillbeatleastassuccessfulasthecivilrightsstruggletoreachMartinLutherKing’sdreamwas.Otherwise,thwartedexpectationscouldleadyoungpeopleintowhatDr.Konzevikhasnamedthe“expectationrevolutions,”fednotjustbyeducationandaccesstoglobalsocialnetworksbutalsobythemoralclaimofbeingdefeatedbythesystem. «ctorZu÷igaUniversidaddeMonterrey,Ave.MoronesPrieto4500Pte.,SanPe-droGarzaGarc´a,N.L.,Me´xico(victor.aurelio.zuniga@udem.edu.mx).28IX11Thisremarkablepaperisapiecethatrobustlycontributeswhatwecancallthesociologyofsubjectivityamongsubor-dinatesocialactorsintheUnitedStatesandelsewhere.Itshowswhatbarelifeisforyoungundocumented1.5-gener-ationmigrantsintherichestsocietiestoday.AsaMexicansociologist,Iwasextremelyinterestedinlearningfromthispaperthat“illegality”constitutesanin-visibleobstacleforcreating,reproducing,andnourishingtransnationalnetworkswithfamilymembersintheirowncountriesoforigin.Incontrast,legalresidentsof1.5orsecondgenerationshavetheopportunitytovisittheirfamiliesinMexico,Guatemala,andElSalvador.Theycanmeettheirgrandparents,aunts,uncles,andcousins.Theyfeeltheyaremembersofatransnationalfamily.Exactlytheoppositehap-penswiththose1.5-generationimmigrantswhoareundoc-umented.Forthem,illegalityimpedestravels,visits,personalcommunication,networks;theysimplycannotbeapartofatransnationalfamily.Theyareisolatedtothepointofincar-ceration.Asaresult,paradoxically,underthecurrentlegalUSconditions,undocumented1.5-generationmigrantshavetherighttoliveintheircountryoforigin—thisultimatelymeansdeportation;however,theyhavenopersonalcontactsintheircountriesoforigin.Theirrootsareinthewrongsideoftheirlives.Interestingly,mostof1.5-generationyoungmigrantsareunawareoftheirmigratorystatusuntiltheyenteradulthood.TheyfeelliketheywerebornintheUnitedStates—then,whentheyconfrontthelegalreality,theymustlearnhowtoliveas“illegal”inwhattheyconsidertheirownhomeland.Inaddition,theyareunabletoimaginealifeinthecountriestheyhavetherightinwhichtolive,succeed,andcontribute.Theynallywindupacceptingoneconservativeideologicalpremisewecanreadinthepaper:“Thereareobstacles[intheUnitedStates],butit’sbetter.It’sbetterhereevenwiththeinequalities.”The1.5-generationundocumentedmigrantsinevitablyin-ternalizedasociety—theUSpoliticalsociety—intheschoolsandfromtheschools.(“ThesignicantpartoftheireducationwasintheUnitedStates,and,likeotheryouth,theywereforthemostpartinculcatedinthevalues,desires,drives,ethics,andculturalpracticesofUSyouth.”)Itwastheirrighttobeeducatedinthecountrytheylivedinsincetheyarrived.How-ever,thelawrejectsthemjustbeforetheyachievethegoalofbeinganentirepartofthatsocietythatwelcomedthemwhentheywerechildrenand,ironically,refusestorecognizethemwhentheybecomeyoungadults.Oneissue,aswecanreadinthepaper,ishowthehostsocietycannegotiatewiththeseironiesandparadoxes.Theotherissueishowthecountriesoforigincouldopentheirdoorsforthosetalented,bilingual,andenergeticyoungpeoplelivinginlegallimbointheUnitedStatesandrejectedbytheUSSenate.ThisissomethingthatGonzalesandChavezdonotdiscussintheirpaper.ButthoseofuslivinginMexico,Guatemala,ElSalvador,orHondurashavetodiscussthissecondrelevantpoliticalconcernasquicklyaspossible.Iftheyaregoingtoreturn,voluntarilyorinvoluntarily,theyhavetoknowtheyarepoliticallywelcome.Thismessagecouldchangetheirperceptionofthemselves. Wewouldliketothankthedistinguishedscholarswhocom-mentedonourarticle.Allofyourobservationsmattertous,especiallybecausetheyarebasedonyourownimpressiveresearchinthisarea.Wearepleasedthattheissuesraisedinthearticlealsoresonatedinmanywayswiththecommen-tators’workindifferentcontexts,bothnationalandinter-national.Forexample,DeborahA.Boehmremindsusthatabjectivityisalsoexperiencedbythosewhomigratedwithoutauthori-zationasadults,aswellasthoseexpelledordeported.Indeed,itwasourintentiontobuildaconceptualbridgebetweenthosewhoexperienceabjectivity.Societycananddoeslabeloutcastsanddiscardableindividualsandgroupsbasedonanynumberofprejudices.Bydelineatinghow1.5-generationundocumentedimmigrantsexperienceabjectivity,wehopetocontributetoadiscussionofabjectivityingeneral.LikeBoehm,CarolineB.Brettellndsthattheabjected CurrentAnthropologyVolume53,Number3,June2012experiencesoftheyoungpeopleinourarticlealsoofferarayofhope.Ratherthanmerelyacquiesceasdocilebodies,youngundocumentedpeopleareactivelypursingpoliticalagendas,organizingagainstICEdeportations,andcoming“outoftheshadows”toresisttheircontradictorystatusasinsiders/out-siders.WeagreewithBrettellthatthelimitonopportunitiesfacedbythe1.5undocumentedimmigrantsinourarticleputsintosharprelieftheprinciplesofopportunityandin-dividualachievementsocentraltothe“AmericanDream.”AndasBrettellnotes,wehopeourarticlehasadualpurpose,bothasacontributiontoscholarshipandasacontributiontopublicdiscourseonwhatwebelieveisoneofthemostimportantcivilrightsissuesofthenewmillennium.SusanBiblerCoutinemphasizesthelegalaspectsofabjec-tivity.AsCoutinrightlynotes,individualsarenot“naturally”illegal.Immigrationlawshaveincreasinglymadeitmoredif-culttoadjustone’sstatustothatofalegalpermanentresident,expandedthecriminaloffensesthatmakeimmigrantsdeport-able,putmoreimmigrantsinjailforrelativelyminorinfrac-tions,andshapedtheconditionofillegality.Furtherresearch,suchasthatbyCoutinherself,willshedmorelightonthetransnationalnatureofabjectivitythanwewereabletodointhisarticle.Thisisespeciallytrueasmoreofthe1.5generationaredeportedfromtheUnitedStatesandthenexperienceanoftenwaryreceptionintheirparents’homecounty.CeciliaMenj´varisalsoconcernedwithhowthelawstruc-turessubjectiveexperiencesandabjectstatus.Forher,beingcaughtinanendlesslifeofwaitingforthelawtodosome-thing—toeitherallowforachangeofstatusortondthemandexpelthem—isakeyaspectofabjectivity.Weagree.Itisthisliminalstateofnotknowingwhattheirfatewillbethatissoexcruciating.JonathanXavierIndafocusesonAgamben’suseofthe.Henotesthatitisnotbruteexistencethatmat-ters,butthewayoflifeofspecicindividualsorgroups.Itistheexceptionstoconventionallawthatmustexperiencewhatitmeanstobemerelivingbeings.SimilartoCoutin’sobservations,Indacitesimmigrationlawsthatareincreasinglypunitive,restrictive,andsurveillance-oriented.Indaappre-ciatestheworkofyoungpeoplecaughtinthistragicdilemmatoagitateforrecognitionaslegitimatepoliticalsubjectswithrights.Or,asIndaputit,theyarestrugglingtobetreatedas.Wewouldaddonlythatasacademics,wemustnotsitonthesidelinesasmereobserversinthisstruggle,butbuildonresearchinourownstrugglesasengagedscholars.Weappreciateourcommentators’criticalreadingsofourarticle.CarlosSandovalGarcia,aswellasCeciliaMenj´var,wouldhavelikedmorediscussionofresistanceasbothaprac-ticeandananalyticalconcept.Webelievewecouldhaveelab-oratedmoreonresistance,butspaceconstraintsmustbecon-sidered.Also,wewereprimarilyfocusedondevelopingtheconceptofabjectivity.However,resistance,intermsofbothanundampenedsenseofhopeandreinvigoratedpoliticalen-gagement,emergedfromaconditionofabjectivity.Thisiswhatwewantedtogetacrossinthearticle.ThelargeimmigrantrightsdemonstrationsacrosstheUnitedStatesin2006reected,webelieve,theresistancethatemergeswhenstatepoliciesthreatentofurthercriminalizeone’slifeandtomakebarelifeevenmoreastateofexistence.Ratherthanlimitingourana-lyticallenstotherelationbetweenpowerconstraintsandre-sistance,understandingsubjectiveexperiencesofabjectstatusthroughthelensofabjectivityhelpsusunderstandthefrus-trations,desires,dreams,hopes,anddeterminationsthatpropelprivateandpublicresistancestopower.JensSchneider,offeringaEuropeanperspective,wondersattherationality/irrationalityofprovidingeducationbutnotlegalresidencyforthosebroughttotheUnitedStatesatayoungage.Heraisesanimportantissuesbyquestioningthe“logicandidiosyncrasy”ofthosewhoproduceandenactthepoliciesandlawsthatproduceabjection.Thereis,ofcourse,nohegemonicsetofviewsonimmigrantsandimmigrationpolicy.TheUnitedStates,asa“nationofimmigrants,”haslongdebatedthepositiveandnegativeaspectsofimmigration(Chavez2001;Gerstle2001).Onehasmerelytolistentopoliticalcandidatesfromvariouspartiestogetasenseoftherangeofopinionaboutimmigration,immigrantcontribu-tions,andnoncitizensusinglimitedresources.Manysym-pathizewiththeplightofthe1.5undocumentedimmigrants,andeducatorsmaydesiretoeducatethem.Butfederalim-migrationpolicies,andincreasinglystatepolicies,onpolicing,accesstohighereducation,drivers’licenses,apartmentrentals,medicalcare,andmyriadothersareaspectsofthebiopoliticsthatproducetheconditionofillegalitywithinwhicheduca-tors,medicalpractitioners,undocumentedimmigrants,andothersmustlive.NandoSigonanotesthatwedidnotelaborateonthecon-ditionsinthesendingcountriesofourrespondents,thuslim-itinganunderstandingofmigrationandmigrationexperiences.Weagree,ifwewereexploringthelivesofthosewhomigratedasadults,asintheexamplesSigonaprovides.Suchanapproachwouldbeessentialforunderstandingwhymigrationoccursandthemaintenanceofmigrationstreams.Butherewewerein-terestedinmodesofincorporation.Webelievethepolicies,practices,andattitudesofthereceivingcountryareessential,whetherwearetalkingabouttheUnitedStates,Japan,Ger-many,France,Spain,ortheUnitedKingdom,wherethechil-drenofimmigrantshavealsofacedobstaclestosocialinte-gration.Undocumented1.5-generationChinese,Koreans,Mexicans,Salvadorans,andsoforthmustallcontendwithsimilarimmigration-relatedpoliciesandpractices.Wherethereisadifferenceisintheirparents’statusandbackground.SomegroupsmayhaveanadvantageinthattheirparentsaremorelikelytobelegalpermanentresidentsorcitizensoftheUnitedStates,andinjobsthatprovidemoreresourcesforthelegalcostsassociatedwiththelegalizationprocess.Whileweuse“Latino”toindicatethesharedexperiencesofillegalityamongourrespondents,weindicatenationalbackgroundwhenspeakingofindividuals.Shouldtheseyoungpeoplebedeported,theywouldsurelyfacedifferentsituationsuniquetotheirparents’countryoforigin,makingwhatisatstake GonzalesandChavezUndocumented1.5-GenerationLatinoImmigrants279differentforeachindividualbeyondthedisruptioninthelifetheyhadbecomeaccustomedtointheUnitedStates.Thelogicalnextresearchprojectwouldbetheanthropologyofdeportationtomorefullyexplorewhatisatstakeintheultimateactofexclusion(Coutin2008;Peutz2006).LynnStephenraisestheproblemsfacedbyindigenousgroupsfromLatinoAmerica.Theyareoftenglossedas“il-legals”andaredoublyracialized,bythereceivingsocietyandbytheirfellowconationalswhoviewthemasinferior.LynnStephen’sownworkhashelpedusunderstandtheabjectionexperiencedbyindigenouspeoplesfromOaxaca,Mexico,whomigratetoOregon.Stephen,likemanyoftheothercom-mentators,stressestheneedtoprovidesimilarlysituatedpeo-pleapathwaytocitizenship.Weagree,andthenissuesofindigeneityandracializationcancomeintosharperfocusforresearchandintervention.LilianaSua´rezNavaznotesthatissuesoflegalityandille-galityhavebeenessentialinthecreationofracializedbound-ariesbetweenSpain,Europe,andthelessdevelopedcountrieswheremanymigrantsoriginate.Sua´rezNavazreectsonSpain’sattempttocomplywiththeinternationalrightsofminorsbyprovidingthemtemporaryprotection,whichendsatage18,whentheybecomesubjecttothelawsgoverningundocumentedforeigners.Wewouldbeinterestedinthesub-jectiveunderstandingsoftheseyoungpeople’schangeinstatusvis-a`-vistheSpanishstateasweexplorethecomparativeaspectsofabjectivity,aprocessbegunbySarahWillen(2007).WeappreciateV´ctorZu˜iga’sinterventionhere.Mexico,asZu˜igaunderstandssowell,isthelargestsourceof1.5undocumentedimmigrantsintheUnitedStates.Herightlypointstothemisperceptionschildrenofimmigrantsoftenhaveabouttheirparents’countryoforigin.Sincetheirparentstypicallyleftfora“betterlife,”theyoftenassumetheworstoflifeandopportunitiesintheirparents’natalcountries.TheyarealsoraisedwithmediaandpublicdiscoursethatroutinelycharacterizescountriessuchasMexicoasplacesofsocialandeconomicproblems.Asaresult,asZu˜iganotes,theyareoftenunabletoimaginepositivelyapermanentreturn,eitherforcedorvoluntary,tothecountryoftheirbirth.Ratherthanblamingthemforthesemisperceptions,weviewthemaspartofthesubjectiveunderstandingsoftheirlivesthatcontributetotheirangstandsenseofdreadembeddedintheirlackoflegalstatus.Zu˜iganotesthatshouldtheseyoungpeoplebereturnedtoMexico,Guatemala,ElSalvador,orHonduras,theywouldbe“politicallywelcome.”However,aswediscussedabove,thestakesofbeingforcedtoreturnmaynotalwaysbesopositive.Indeed,therecouldbeamuchmorecautiouswelcomeiftheseyoungpeopleareculturallyandlinguisticallyunpreparedforrapidintegration.Moreover,itisnotonlythechildrenofmigrantswhoharbormisperceptions.WhatifMexicans,Hondurans,Salvadorans,andothersviewreturnedyoungpeopleascompetitorsorassociallydisruptive?Theseperceptionswouldalsocolorthewelcomeaffordedreturned1.5-generationmigrants.Onceagain,weappreciatethethoughtfulcommentsonourpaper.Asthesescholarsunderscore,thelivesofpeoplelivingindifcultsituationsarenotmerelyobjectsofstudy.Theyarehumanbeingswhostrugglefordignityandopportunity.—RobertoG.GonzalesandLeoR.ChavezReferencesCitedAbrego,LeisyJanet.2006.“Ican’tgotocollegebecauseIdon’thavepapers”:incorporationpatternsofLatinoundocumentedyouth.LatinoStudies———.2008.Legitimacy,socialidentity,andthemobilizationoflaw:theeffectsofassemblybill540onundocumentedstudentsinCalifornia.andSocialInquiry33(3):709–734.Agamben,Giorgio.1998.Homosacer:sovereignpowerandbarelife.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.———.2005.Stateofexception.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.Auyero,Javier,andDeboraSwistun.2007.Confusedbecauseexposed:towardsanethnographyofenvironmentalsuffering.Ethnography8(2):123–144.[CM]Basch,Linda,NinaGlickSchiller,andCristinaSzantonBlanc.1994.Nationsunbound:transnationalprojects,postcolonialpredicaments,anddeterritorial-izednation-states.Amsterdam:Gordon&Breach.Bhabha,HomiK.1994.Thelocationofculture.London:Routledge.[DAB]Biehl,Joa˜oGuilherme.2005.Vita:lifeinazoneofsocialabandonment.Berke-ley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Bloch,A.,andM.Chimienti.2011.Irregularmigrationinaglobalizingworld.EthnicandRacialStudies34(8):1271–1285.[NS]Bloch,A.,N.Sigona,andR.Zetter.2009.“Norighttodream”:thesocialandeconomiclivesofyoungundocumentedmigrantsinBritain.London:PaulHamlynFoundation.[NS]———.2011.Migrationroutesandstrategiesofyoungundocumentedmi-grantsinEngland:aqualitativeperspective.EthnicandRacialStudies34(8):1286–1302.[NS]Boehm,DeborahA.2008.“Formychildren”:constructingfamilyandnav-igatingthestateintheU.S.-Mexicotransnation.AnthropologicalQuarterly81(4):777–802.———.2011.“Here/nothere”:contingentcitizenshipandtransnationalMex-icanchildren.InEverydayruptures:children,youth,andmigrationin.CatiCoe,RachelReynolds,DeborahA.Boehm,JuliaMeredithHess,andHeatherRae-Espinoza,eds.Pp.161–173.Nashville,TN:Van-derbiltUniversityPress.[DAB]Bosniak,LindaS.1998.Thecitizenshipofaliens.SocialText———.2000.Universalcitizenshipandtheproblemofalienage.NorthwesternUniversityLawReview94(3):963–984.Bourdieu,Pierre.1992.Ritesasactsofinstitution.InHonorandgraceinanthropology.J.G.PeristianyandJ.Pitt-Rivers,eds.Pp.79–89.Cambridge:CambridgeUnive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