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1 ÕZÅÃZ³Z¯֋Â»M†ËÁ
ÕZÅÃZ³Z¯֋Â»M†ËÁ€‡֐zeļm€eSTRSÕZņËÁ€‡Ã„ËÁ±Ô]Ö¼¸ŸcZŸÔ—Y‚¯€»ÕZź¸Ì§֋Â»M dË”ŸÄ»Z¿€^y{ |̨»ÕZÅ®ÀÌ· 1 Classification and Comparison of Persian and English Expressive Expressions (e.g. greeting, farewell, apologizing, well - wishing, etc) and Their Implications for Teaching Mohammad Hassan Ghaane Fars Department of Education ghaanemohsen@gmail.com Abstract People express their feelings toward each other by using expressives. Expressives are conventional patterns and formulas whic h people use to be polite. They play an important role in understanding the social rituals and in producing a good relationship between people. This article seeks to find, describe, and classify expressive expressions in Persian and in English. They are di vided into three categories with their own subcategories. As far as possibe, the structures, meanings, and functions of expressives in the two languages are compared and contrasted. Also, a detailed analysis is presented after each part. In a quantitative analysis, the differences between female and male in using some of expressives are examined. This paper argues that the expressives are not intended to get information or to convey information and thought. For example, some scholars believe that even the most literate speaker of English doesn ’ t know that good - bye is a contraction of God be with you. So, the meanings of the words in ex pressives are not of great importance. But the whole expression is used to associate and convey something more than the literal meanings. This becomes clear when we notice that expressives are used based on their functions in both English and Persian. Key words : Expressives, phatic talk, greeting, farewell, apologizing, well - wishing, …. 2 1. INTRODUCTION Greetings and farewells are two of the phatic communications which, according to (Malinowski, 1972), are the ways of communication between people, which are not intended to seek or convey information but have the social function of establishing or maintaining social contact. In this regard, (Fawcett, 1984) notes that phatic communications have wea k informational purposes. Greetings and farewells are two ways of being polite. Greeting is a way of starting a conversation when people meet each other and farewell is a way of ending convervation when they part with each other. So, when we ask people "Ho w are you?" we do not expect them to tell us about their health or their illness. It is a convention which people are required to use a simple answer like "I â

2 €™ m fine, thanks" or "very well thank
€™ m fine, thanks" or "very well thank you". The following example according to (Montgomery, 1995) indicates that in a doctor - pationt interview, when the doctor asks the patient about his health by saying "How are you?", the pationt does not answer the doctor truly but he uses a conventional utterances to be polite, which produces a kind of ambiguity. D octor: How are you? Patient: I ’ m very well thank you doctor, are you all right? Doctor: Yes … . (Montgomery, 1995: 207) says: "when the patient responds to the doctor`s query with I ’ m very well thank you doctor, He treats it as a mere politeness formula, o ne not to be taken literally. And, he is actually not very well at all." Phatic talks are used in opening interactions, maintaining relationship an d closing conversation. (Hudson, 1996) believes that phatic communications are used to show the presence of interlocutors. And, it is conventional and ritualized, such as hello and how are you. (Khalid S. A. Hassanain, 1994: 73) notes: "It is a convention which requires the greeter to say that s/he is feeling well or very well by the grace of God or that of the greetee even if the greetee is not feeling so." The phatic talk is a kind of small talk. And small talk is a term which refers to nonreferential uses of language which share feelings or esta blish a mood of sociability rather than communicating in formation or ideas. (Grzega, J., 2008) believes that small talk reflects a broad concept which includes discussi on of weather, politics or the economy . However, ( Cui, X. , 2014) says that the w ays of dealing with small talk situations are considered to be rooted in their socioculturally ingrained perception of interpersonal relationships. Greeting rituals play an important role in understanding the social environment and in producing a good r elationship between people. In this case, (Cortes and Cardona, 2011) mentiones : “greeting customs are highly culture and situation - specific and may change within a culture depending on social status and relationship.” Some scholars like (Firth, 1972) arg ue that greetings and farewells constitute a natural unit and should be considered together. Ferguson (1976) states that all politeness formulas are the same. They are treated as greeting behavior. He also notes that some structural features of formula exc hange, like patterns of response and turn - taking, are equal in greetings, thankings, apologizings, blessings, curses, condolencies, wishings and so on. (Tsui, 1995) points out that speakers express their feelings and attitudes to each other by using expres sives. She believes that the the ability to use s

3 ociolinguistic routines, e.g. greeting,
ociolinguistic routines, e.g. greeting, thanks, farewells and excuses, is an essential part of comunicative competence. She (1995: 152 - 53) continues to say that there are three kinds of expressives: Firstly, there are those which express good will and are typically responded to by a return of good will. They include acts which have been commonly referred to as 'greeting', 'leave - taking', 'farewell', and so on. Secondly, there are those in which the sp eaker expresses his feelings towards a debt which he has incurred. They include acts which have been commonly referred to as 'thanking' and 'apologizing'. Thirdly, there are those in which the speaker shows concern for and empathizes with the addressee. 3 They include acts which are commonly referred to as 'congratulate', 'well - wishing', 'welcome', and 'condole'. The study of expressives usually focuses on the linguistics aspects of conversation, the social and cultural aspects of conversation, and the u se of language in communications (contexts of situation). So, the expressives belong to the realm of sociolinguistics, pragmatics and discourse. And, if we want to compare and contrast the expressives of two languages, we can say that the expressives are also studied under the domain of Contrastive Analysis (CA) which according to (Yarmohammadi , 1996: 6) "is a subdiscipline of linguistics that brings two or more language systems or subsystems together". 2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The first objective of this study is to find and describe expressive expressions in Persian and to clssify them based on Tsui classification. Another objective of the present study is to classify English expressives and to compare Persian expressives with their equivalence in English. It is to find out the similarities and differences between them. The next objective of the study is to make it clear that most expressives are not to convey information. They are conventional expressions which are used by peop le who have the same ideas and feelings. Also, these expressions do not need full answers or true answers. So, their functions should be taken into consideration and their structures and their meanings are not of great importance. The last objective of thi s study is to show the frequency of using spontanous production of "Hello" when two persons meet each other and "Good - bye" when they end the conversation. Then, the differences between men and women in production of these two words in Persian and, the dif ferences between Persian and English in their production are determined. 3. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDE This study is of great benefit to English learners especially to the Persian

4 learners of English because it gives th
learners of English because it gives them some information on most impo rtant expressives in English with their equivalence in Persian. Also, Persian learners who know English can benefit from this study, because expressives of two languages are mentioned. In the light of this study, teachers can get a good knowledge of expres sives in both English and Persian. It also gives teachers some information on similarities and differences between expressives of two languages so that they can predict where the influence of mother tongue creates some problems and where different structur es have the same function. So, this study is of great use in language teaching. The next significance of the study is that not only it is the first time that such a kind of research is done but also it is done experimentally because it is organized both de scriptively (the first part of data analysis) and statistically (the second part). 4. METHEDOLOGY 4.1. Subjects of the Study The subjects of this study are characters of four plays and one scenario in Persian and seven plays in English. In addition, the p articipants in the present study are 50 female and 50 male students of Shiraz University aged from 20 to 30. But their fields of study are different. 4.2. Data The data which are put into practice are Persian expressive expressions in face to face intera ction with their equivalence in English. 4.3. Procedure As it was mentioned before, Tsui (1994) divided expressives into three categories: 1. greeting and farewell, 2. thanking and apologizing, 3. congratulate, condole and well - wishing. In the present st udy 4 in order to test applicability of this classification to Persian expressives, these expressions are divided into three categories with their own subcategories. So, the first attention directs to the classification of expressives in Persian. In order to show the similarities and differences between expressives in Persian and English, the expressive expressions in English are also diveded into three parts and the expressives of two languages are compared and contrasted with each other. After ea ch part, a detailed analysis is presented. At the end, with respect to the result of an interview in English and the result of the observation of 100 Persian dyads (pairs of speech act), the frequency of using hello, and good - bye in both languages are comp ared and analyzed. In this case, frequency of students using hello and good - bye were examined. When the students enter the room, they uses greeting expressives and when they left it, they uses thanking and farewells . Also, the differences between the fema le and male in using Persian expressives are e

5 xamined to see which one uses these two
xamined to see which one uses these two words more than the other. 5. DATA ANALYSIS This part of the study deals with the most important Persian expressive expressions used in face to face interactions in com parison with their equivalence in English. 5.1. Greeting, leave - taking and farewell 5.1.1. Greetings English Persian Hello /Hai/Hi /sælam/ م�س Hello /sælam ?æleyk/ كϴلع م�س Good morning/ morning /sobh bexeyr/ رϴخΑ ΢Βص Good morrow (Arch) /sobh bexeyr / رϴخΑ ΢Βص Good evening/ evening /šæb bexeyr/ /?æsr bexeyr/ رϴخΑ رصع /رϴخΑ ΐη Good day /sælam/ /ruz bexeyr/ رϴخΑزور /م�س Good afternoon /?æsr bexeyr/ رϴخΑ رصع How are you? /hale Å¡oma č etowr æst/ لاΣ امη روطچ ؟Ζسا How do you do?/ How do? / č etowri/ ؟ϱروطچ How are you getting along? /xoÅ¡ migzare / ؟هرذگ ϲم شوخ Are you all - right? /xobi/ ؟ϲΑوخ How is everything with you? /owza - ?o æhval cetowre/ ؟هروطچ لاوΣاو عاضوا How are you? Do you have a good time? /xoÅ¡i/ ؟ϲηوخ 5.1.2 Farewell and Leave - taking English Persian Good - bye /xodahafez/ ظϓاΣادخ Bye - bye /xodahafez/ /bay bay/ ϱاΑ ϱاΑ /ظϓاΣادخ God (be) with you /xoda hafez - e Å¡oma/ ظϓاΣادخ /Εارمه هΑ ادخ God protect you /xoda negæhdar/ رادهگنادخ With the permission of God /be ?omid - e xoda/ /?enÅ¡a?ælah/ )�اθنا( ادخ دϴما هΑ Good luck to you /movæfæq baÅ¡id/ /xoda be hæmrat/ /دϴηاΑ قϓوم Εارمه هΑ ادخ See you /xoda hafez/ /be ?omid - e didar/ رادϳد دϴما هΑ /ظϓاΣ ادخ See you later /be ?omid - e didar/ رادϳد دϴما هΑ Be seeing you soon /bezudi Å¡oma ra mibinæm/ منϴΑ ϲم ار امη ϱدوزΑ So long /xodahafez/ ظϓاΣادخ Cheers /xodahafez/ ظϓاΣادخ Good day /ruz bexeyr/ رϴخΑ زور 5 Good evening /šæb bexeyr/ /?æsr bexeyr/ رϴخΑ رصع /رϴخΑ ΐη Night/ Good night /šæb bexeyr/ /xoda negæhdar/ رادهگنادخ /رϴخΑ ΐη Adieu /dæst - e haq n eqæhdaret/ /xodahafez/ ظϓاΣادخ /Εرادهگن قΣ Ζسد Be merry /xoÅ¡ baÅ¡id/ دϴηاΑ شوخ Have a good time /xoÅ¡

6 bašid/ دϴηاΑ شوخ You are we
baÅ¡id/ دϴηاΑ شوخ You are welcome /xoÅ¡ ?amædi/ /besælamæt/ Ζم�س هΑ /ϱدمآ شوخ Good afternoon /?æsr bexeyr / رϴخΑ رصع As it was mentioned before, one part of the classification of Tsui for expressive expressions is "greeting and farewell". With respect to above data, we can see Persian greeting and farewell can be considered as a part of expressives and they can be classified based on Tsui classification. The comparison between Persian and English greeting and farewell reveals that both languages almost have the same greeting and farewell expressions. The most important greeting in Persian is /sælam / and its equivalence in English is "Hello". Both have the same structure and function. Here, what is important is coventional patterns and formulas which people use to start communication. So, when we say /sælam/ which means peace be with you, we don ’ t re ally intend to convey its meaning but we want to open a sequence of comunicative acts. This also happens in English by using hello. Almost most participants involved in every day interaction both in Persian and in English, in every place and every time, us e hello (/sælam/) to open the conversation. However, some of the greeting and farewell expressions (time expressives) are used at a certain time of day. For example, in Persian, people use /sobh bexeyr/ in the morning. But, in the evening they use /?æsr be xeyr/ and, at night /šæb bexeyr/ is used. Similarly, in English people use good morning in the morning as it is repeated twelve times in the act 1 of "Good Night Children" which happens in the morning. At the end of the first act and the second act of th is play which happens in the middle of the afternoon, characters use good evening and good afternoon ten times in their speaking. Good night is only repeated three times at the end of the second act. So the two languages have the same time expressives for greeting and farewell, regarding their functions, structures and meanings. Other expressions which are interpreted as part of social rituals are "How are you?" /hale Å¡oma četowr æst/ and its family. The meanings of these expressions are not very important but their conventional functional purposes are of high importance as the author of this study ask fifty people /hale Å¡oma četowr æst/ and nobody told something about their health or their illness. For example, nobody initially answered "I have a headache" /særæm dærd mikonæd/. In English also Coupland (1993) and his colleages hold an interview with 40 people (34 women and 6 men) aged 64 to 90. They were asked a series of prepared questions on the subject of experiences of health care.

7 One of the questions was "How are yo
One of the questions was "How are you?". In this case Coupland (1993: 225)concluded: "Even though our volunteers were made aware that the interviews were established to purse questions on a medical agenda, and despite their being elderly and often having specific ill - health concerns to divulge, we find that a systematically phatic orientation is integrated into very many of their initial responses." So, according to what have been discussed, English and Persian have the same patterns of greeting inquiries. The central example of closing phases of interactions in Persian is /xodahafez/ and in English is good - bye. Herbert Clark and J. Wadefrench (1981) mentiones that good - bye belongs in expressives because it expresses a feeling of willingness to end contact immediately with the addressee. The comparison between Persian and English farewell expressives shows that there are almost the same function, structure and the same kind of farewell expressions in both languages. And, as you saw, most of the farewell expressions used in Pers ian include the word /xoda/ and in English include the word "God", which are the same. In this regard, Clark and Wadefrench (1981) said: "In Shakespears time, good - bye was pronounced God be wy you". As above mentioned, the most important greeting and far ewell expressives are "Helo" /sælam/, "How are you?" /hale Å¡oma četowr æst/ and "Good - bye" /xodahafez/. They are central examples of greeting and farewell expressions. Here, it is notable to say that if we look at other greeting and farewell rituals which are the families of these three words, it becomes clear that both Persian and English have the 6 same use and the same number of greeting and farewell rituals. In addition, their meanings as well as their structures are almost similar to each other. 5.2. Thanking and Apologizing 5.2.1. Thanking English Persian Thank you /sepas gozaræm/ مرازگساپس Thanks /motešækeræm/ مركθΘم Thank you /mæmnun/ نونمم Thanks a lot/Thank you very much /xeyli mæmnun/ نونمم ϲلϴخ That is very kind of you /lotf darid/ دϳراد ϒطل That is very nice of you /lotf kardid / دϳدرك ϒطل I ’ m grateful /sepas gozaræm/ مرازگساپس That is very good of you /mohæbæt darid/ دϳراد ΖΒΤم 5.2.2. Apologizing English Persian Excuse me /bebæxÅ¡id/ /mæ?zeræt mixa

8 m/ ϲم Εرذعم /دϴθخΒΑ ماÙ
m/ ϲم Εرذعم /دϴθخΒΑ ماوخ Excuse me /puzeÅ¡ mixam/ ماوخ ϲم شزوپ Sorry / bebæxÅ¡id/ /mote?æsefæm/ مϔساΘم /دϴθخΒΑ I ’ m sorry /bebæxÅ¡id/ /mote?æsefæm/ مϔساΘم /دϴθخΒΑ I ’ m afraid /mote?æsefæm/ مϔساΘم Pardone me /?ozr mixam/ ϲم رذع ماوخ I beg your pardon /puzeÅ¡ mitælæbæm/ مΒلط ϲم شزوپ Forgive me / bebæxÅ¡id/ دϴθخΒΑ Sorry to trouble you /bebæxÅ¡id be - Å¡oma zæhmæt dadæm/ دϴθخΒΑ مداد ΖمΣز امη هΑ Excuse my disturbing you /bebæxÅ¡id mozahemetun Å¡odæm/ مدη نوΘمΣازم دϴθخΒΑ I apologize /mæ?zeræt mixam/ ماوخ ϲم Εرذعم Please excuse /lotfæn mæ - ra bebæxÅ¡id/ دϴθخΒΑ ارم اϔطل Based on the data mentioned in this part, it is clear that thanking and apologizing expressions are the most essential part of expressives in Persian. In comparison with their equivalence in English, we can recognize that both languages h ave almost the same use and the same kind of thanking and apologyzing expressives. Also, two languages have similar structures and similar meanings for their thanking and apologyzing. 5.3. Well - wishing and Blessing - God/ Congratulation/ Welcome/ Condone 5.3.1. Well - wishing and Blessing - God English Persian May God give you strength /xoda qovæt/ Εوق ادخ May God strengthen /xoda qovæt/ Εوق ادخ (God) bless you /?afiyæt baÅ¡e/ هηاΑ Ζϴϓاع God bless you /xoda be Å¡oma bærkæt dæhæd/ هد ΖكرΑ امη هΑ ادخ د دϴηاΑ قϓوم God bless you /mowæfæq bashid/ Good luck /mowæfæq bashid/ دϴηاΑ قϓوم May God keep you safe /maÅ¡ala/ �اηام May God preserve you /xoda hefzet kon / هنك ΖظϔΣ ادخ 7 May God keep him (at birth) /xoda hefzeÅ¡ kone/ هنك ζظϔΣ ادخ Thank God /Å¡okr - e xoda/ ادخ ركη May it please God/ If God wills /?enÅ¡a?ælah/ �اθنا May I be sacrified in your place /qorbanet beræm/ مرΑ ΖناΑرق May I be ransomed for you /qorbanæt šævæm/ موη ΖناΑرق May God forbid/ May God forgive /?æstægferolah/ .�رϔغΘسا I wish you good luck /mobaræk baÅ¡e/ هηاΑ كراΒم God is the greatest /?ælah - o ækbær/ رΒكا � Good God/ glory to God /sobhanælah/ � ناΤΒس The generous (great) lord /xoda kærim æst/ Ζسا مϳرك ادخ Let i

9 t be good, if God wills /xeyr æst ?en
t be good, if God wills /xeyr æst ?enÅ¡aælah / �اθنا Ζسا رϴخ God forbid/ heaven forbid /xoda nækone/ هنكنادخ Thanks (to) God /xoda ra Å¡okr/ /Å¡okre xoda/ ادخ ركη /ركη ار ادخ Be merry/ Have a good time / xoÅ¡ baÅ¡id/ دϴηاΑ شوخ Peace be upon him /dorud - e xoda bær - u bad/ داΑ وا رΑ )ادخ( دورد God helps us /xoda komækeman konæd/ دنك نامكمك ادخ Stay happy /xoÅ¡ baÅ¡id/ دϴηاΑ شوخ Good God/ Good heaven /xodaya/ اϳادخ With a view to win God Ù¬ s favour /qorbætæn ?elælah/ � ϲلا هΑرق I hope to God /pænah bær xoda/ /?æ?uz - o belah/ �اΑذوعا/ادخ رΑ هانپ 5.3.2. Congratulation English Persian Congratulation /mobaræk baÅ¡e/ هηاΑ كراΒم I congratulate you /tæbrik migæm/ ϲم كϳرΒΗ مگ Happy new year /sale now mobaræk / كراΒم ون لاس I wish you good luck /mobaræk baÅ¡e/ هηاΑ كراΒم Happy your birthday /tævælodet mobaræk/ كراΒم ΕدلوΗ 5.3.3. Welcome English Persian Welcome/ you are welcome /xoÅ¡ amædi/ ϱدمآ شوخ We are very pleased to meet you /xeyli xoÅ¡ amædid/ دϳدمآ شوخ ϲلϴخ Sweatly / pleasantly /xoÅ¡ amædid/ دϳدمآ شوخ Pleased to meet you /xoÅ¡ amædi/ ϱدمآ شوخ Please come /besmelah/ ...ا مسΑ In the name of God /besmelah/ is generally used to mean help yourself, please come, sit, say, carry on, goodbye … . 5.3.4. Condole English Persian The late /mærhum/ موΣرم May God have mercy on him /xoda ræhmæteÅ¡ kone/ هنك ζΘمΣر ادخ May God have mercy on him /xoda biyamorzæteÅ¡/ ζΗزرماϴΑ ادخ And your life (response) /bæqaye ?omr - e Å¡oma/ امη رمع ϱاقΑ May the remainder be added to your life /bæqaye ?omr - e Å¡oma/ امη رمع ϱاقΑ May God give you patience /xoda sæbretun bede/ هدΑ نوΗرΒص ادخ 8 May God compensate you with good /æjretun ba xoda/ ادخ اΑ نوΗرجا I am sorry (to) /mote?æsefæm æz/ ... زا مϔساΘم I am afraid of (to) /mote?æsefæm æz/ ... زا مϔساΘم What a pity /čeqædr heyf Å¡od/ دη ϒϴΣ ردقچ It is a thousand pities /mayeye b

10 æsi tæ?æsof æst/ Ζسا ϒساΗ ϲسÎ
æsi tæ?æsof æst/ Ζسا ϒساΗ ϲسΑ هϳام The third part of data analysis of this study consists of those expressives which show speakers ’ sympathy toward addressees. In the part of well - wishing and blessing God, most of Persian expressives were translated into English. So, we can see a bit more Persian well - wishing and blessing God than those of in English. But both languages have the same kind of congratulation, welcome and condolence expressions. 6. PRODUCTION OF "HELLO" AND "GOOD BYE" (A QUANTITATIVE STUDY) This part of data analysis deals w ith the spontanous production of "hello" and "good - bye" by 50 men and 50 women in Iran when they enter the room and when they left the room. The results indicate that differences between men and women are not significant for hello and good - bye. (Table 1) Table 1 : Production of routines between men and women in Persian Men Women Hello 94 96 Good bye 88 90 x² = 0.0023 df = 1 P 0.01 (c.v = 6.63) ( differerences are not significant ) Grief and Gleason (1980) describe a study which shows production of two politeness routines by 22 men and 22 women. They were given the opportunity to say hello when they met someone and they also had the opportunity to say good - bye when they ended contact . The result showed that 41 (%92.5) of 44 said hello and, 18 (%40.5) of 44 used good - bye. By comparing the results of English and Persian study, it becomes clear that the difference between them is not statistically significant for hello, but is signific ant for good - bye. (Table 2 and 3) Table 2: Production of Hello in Persian and English (in percent) Persian English Hello 95 92.5 x² = 0.006 df = 1 p 0.01 (difference is not significant) Table 3: Production of Good - bye in Persian and English Persian English Good - bye 89 40.5 x² = 8.1 df = 1 p 0.01 (difference is significant x � 6.63) 7. CONCLUSION Based on the data analysis of the present study, it is concluded that Tsui classification is applicable t o Persian expressives which are of high importance in face to face interaction. This study has also shown that Persian and English have almost the same kind and t

11 he same function and and use of express
he same function and and use of expressives . Only in the part of well - wishing and blessing - God, we have more expressions in Persian, so due to the lack of their equivalence in English some of them were translated. 9 Regarding structures and meanings of expressives, we can say that there are not sig nificant differences between two languages so it can be predicted that the interference is not created. But it is also important to mention that even if the meanings and the structures of expressives differ in two languages, the influence of mother tongue will not be transferred into learners language because these expressives have conventional purposes and the whole expression is used to convey something more than literal meanings and they are not used in order to express any thought or inform any informat ion. So, expressives Ù¬ meanings and structures are not important but their social function of establishing or maintaining social contacts are of great value. By using expressives, people try to agree on something. This is done by praising or thanking God, e xpressing the common feelings and ideas and talking about those things which are common among people. In the light of this study it is also concluded that the spontanous production of /sælam/ as well as /xodahafez/ are alike for men and women in Persian. I n additon, by comparing the results of English and Persian study which was discussed at the end of data analysis of this study, it becomes clear that no significant difference between people of two languages in using "Hello" was observed but in using "Good bye" the difference was significant. References Aryanpour, A. (1978) The Concise Persian - English Dictionary. Tehran: Amir Kabir Publication Organization. ......................... (1991) The new unabridged English Persian Dictionary. Tehran: Amir Kabir Publication Organization. Clark, H, & Wade French, J. (1981) "Telephone Goodby''. Language in Society 10: 1 - 19. Coupland, J. Coupland, N. & Robinson (1992) "How are you?: Negotiating phatic communion". Language in Society 21: 207 - 230. Cui, X. (2014). Getting to the Source: An Instrument for Examining the Dynamics of Problematic Interactions. RELC Journal: A Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 45(2), 197 - 210. Fawcett, R. P. (1984) Language as a resourse. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics. 7( І ): 17 - 56. Ferguson, C. A. (1976) "The structure and use of politeness formulas." Language in Society 5: 137 - 51. Firth, J. R. (1972) Verbal and bodily rituals of greeting and parting. In J. S. La Fontaine (ed.), The interpretation of ritual. London: Tav istock. 1 - 38. Goofman, E. (1971) Relations in Public. N

12 ew York: Macmillan. Greif, E. & Gleas
ew York: Macmillan. Greif, E. & Gleason, J. (1980) "Hi, thanks, and goodbye: More routine information". Language in Society 9: 159 - 66. Grzega, J. )2008( “Elements of Basic European Language Guide”, Jo urnal for EuroLinguistics 5:pp. 118 - 133. Hassanian, Khalid S. A. (1994) "Saudi Mode of Greeting Rituals: Their Implications for Teaching and Learning English." IRAL. XXXI/1, 68 - 77. Hudson, R. A. (1996) Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pre ss. Malinowski, B. (1972) "Phatic Communion". In J. Laver & S. Hutcheson (eds.), Communication in face to face interaction. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 146 - 52. Montgomery, M. (1995) An Introduction to Language and Society. London: Routledge. Sacks, H. (1975) " Everyone Has to Lie." In M. Sanches & B. G. Blout (eds.), Sociocultural Dimentions of Language Use. New York: Academic. 57 - 80. Schegloff, E. (1972) "Sequencing in Conversational Opening". Hymes, D. & Gumperz, J. (eds.), Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Thomas, A. P. , Bull, P. , & Roger, D. (1982) Conversational exchange analysis. Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 1(2): 141 - 56. Tsui, Amy B. M. (1995) English Conversation. Lond on: Oxford University Press. Yarmohammadi, L. (1996) A Contrastive Analysis of Persian and English. Tehran: Payame Noor University Press. English Drama Bernard Shaw, G. "Arms and the man". In P. Hamlyn, (Ed.), (1965) The Complete Plays of Bernard Shaw. L ondon: Odhams Press. ............. "Getting married". In P. Hamlyn, (Ed.), (1965) The Complete Plays of Bernard Shaw. London: Odhams Press. 10 O Ù¬ Neill, E. G. "Mourning Becomes Electra". In J. Cape, (Ed.), (1965) Mourning Becomes Electra. London: Routledged. Priestly, J. B. "How are they at home". In W. Heinemann, (Ed.), (1955) The plays of J. B. Priestley. London: Windmill Press. ................. "Good night children". In W. Heinemann, (Ed.), (1955) The plays of J. B. Priestly. London: Windmill Press. .... ............. "When we are married". In W. Heinemann, (Ed.), (1955) The plays of J. B. Priestly. London: Windmill Press. Saroyan, W. "The time of your life". In H. Hatcher (Ed.), (196 9) Modern American Dramas. New York: Harcourt. Persian Drama /axund za deh, mirza fætæhli/ )1349( /tæmsilat: Å¡eÅ¡ næmayeÅ¡name væ yek dastan/. Tehran: /xaræzmi/. /dowlæt abadi mæhmud/ )1372( /otobus/. Tehran: /næšr - e čeÅ¡me/. /sa?edi qolamhoseyn/ (1370) /?æzadaran - e bæyæl/. Tehran: /næšr - e qætre/. /mæxmælbaf mohsen/ (1365) /baq - e bolur/. Tehran: /bærg/. /mæxmælbaf mohsen/ (1365) /mædreseye ræjayi/. Tehran: /mærkæz - e færhængi væ hon