There s more to it than that meets the eye Definition Definition Qualitative research is used to gain insight into peoples attitudes behavior value systems concerns motivations aspirations culture or life styles etc ID: 778810
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Slide1
Qualitative Research Methods
There
’
s more to it than that meets the eye!
Slide2Definition:
Definition:
Qualitative research is used to gain insight into people’s attitudes, behavior, value systems, concerns, motivations, aspirations, culture or life styles etc.
It is an in-depth study about human beings.
Slide3Qualitative research is concerned with '...developing explanations of social phenomena...'
The world in which we live
Why things are the way they are
Concerned with social aspects of our worldSeeks to answer questions about
Slide4Qualitative questions:
How
Why
What
Slide5Qualitative
research’s base/roots are
Anthropology
Philosophy
Sociology
Slide6Relation to theory
Slide7Slide8DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING
Slide9Elements of the Research Process
Deductive
thinking (Quantitative)
THEORY
HYPOTHESIS OBSERVATION CONFIRMATION
Slide10Elements of the Research Process (Cont.)
Inductive
thinking (Qualitative)
OBSERVATION
PATTERNS HYPOTHESIS THEORY
Slide11IDEAL
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Research process is deductive.
Research process is inductive.
Measure objective facts.Document social reality, meaning is constructed.Focus on variables.
Focus on in-depth meaning.Firewall between research process and researchers’ values.Values are present & explicit (empathy).Cross-contextual.
Contextual dependence.
Many cases.
Few cases.
Slide12IDEAL
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Statistical analysis
Thematic analysis
Highly structured research process.Loosely structured research process.
Particularistic, specificHolistic perspectiveSeparation from data
Intimacy with
data
Generalize to population
Generalization to properties
and
contexts
Slide13Qualitative Methods
When should I use qualitative methods?
When variables cannot be quantified
When variables are best understood in their natural settingsWhen variables are studied over real time
When studying intimate details of roles, processes, and groupsWhen the paramount objective is “understanding”
Slide14Qualitative Methods
What skills do I need?
Must
have requisite knowledge and skills about methodology, setting and nature of the issue.
Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions, expectations, and values.Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and interested in listeningMust be open to embracing multiple realities.Must be prepared to produce detailed, comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy reports.Source: (Kuh & Andreas, 1991)
Slide15Limitations of qualitative studies:
No universal rules and methods for analyzing data.
The absence of standard procedure makes it difficult how to explain and present the findings and replicate it.
Enormous data must be organized to make sense of pages and pages of narrative information.
How to reduce the data to make a final report.Fluency with language. (especially written)
Slide16For
credibility of
studies
you look for:
For credibility of Quantitative studies you look for:ValidityReliabilityIn Qualitative research you look for:Credibility – Member checking, peer debriefing Transferability – Meaning to other similar situationsDependability – TriangulationConformability – Auditable(Lincoln and Guba 1985)
Slide17Common
designs used in qualitative research:
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Grounded theoryNarrative
Slide18Qualitative Methods
Before collecting data, you have to determine what you want to accomplish.
Tight versus Loose Design
Ask yourself:
How much time do I have?What resources are available?What is the purpose of the study?In what am I really interested?Design
Slide19Qualitative Methods
Choose your unit of analysis.
Individuals
Certain experiences
Experiences in particular settingsIdentities such as nurse leaders, nurse role models…Groups Types of people such as cancer patients, Nursing students.Those in one setting versus another. RNM Nurses in Community etc…Organizations Design
Slide20Qualitative Methods
Qualitative research
quickly
exhausts resources and time.Limit the amount of data collected.
It’s not the size that matters, it’s what you do with the data.Be very clear about the research focusWrite down your foggy ideas and then get more specific.Concentrate on most important issues and not others.Start writing specific questions you want to answer.Now get even more specific…reduceDesign
Slide21The main methods for collecting qualitative data are:
Individual interviews
Focus groups
ObservationsAction Research
Slide22Sampling
Plan Data Collection
Define sampling boundaries:
Space
TimeSocial positionContextRecord nothing that is not in your sampling parameters Design
Slide23Select Elements Representative of Target Population
Generalize from sample to population
Make claims about the population Test theories within population
Select Elements Representative of Research Focus Generate Detailed and Subjective Understanding Answer research questions Build theories Sampling: Qualitative versus QuantitativeQuantitative SamplingQualitative Sampling
Slide24Sampling
Make choices that
narrow
or delimit research focus and activities to a level that A researcher’s brain can handle
Can be done in a reasonable amount of timeIs within a reasonable budgetSeek exposure to topic-related informationFocus only on information directly useful for the researchSamples should be small, not largeSampling decisions are made throughout data collectionSampling
Slide25Tools
Interviews
Interviews can be
UnstructuredCan be referred to as 'depth' or 'in depth' interviewsThey have very little structure at allSemi structuredSemi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused interviews
A series of open ended / broad questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants to cover
Slide26Good quality interview involves:
Thought
Preparation
The development of the interview scheduleConducting and analyzing the interview data with care and consideration
Slide27Focus groups
Characteristics of a focus group:
Recommended size of
group
is 6 - 10.Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view of the investigation.Members should have something in common which is important to the investigationGroups can either be put together or existing groups can be used - it is always useful to be mindful of the group dynamics of both situationsThe aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings, perceptions and opinions
Slide28This method requires the researcher to use a range of skills:
group skills
facilitating
moderatinglistening/observinganalysis
Slide29Observation
Observation
may
take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking lengthy and descriptive notes of what is happening.
Strengths of observationCan offer a flavor for what is happeningCan give an insight into the bigger pictureCan demonstrate sub-groupsCan be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research
Slide30Techniques
for collecting data through observation
Written descriptions
Video recording
Photographs and artifacts
Slide31Documentation
Any and all kinds of documentation may be used to provide information - a local paper, information on a notice board, administrative policies and procedures...etc previous research,
even.
Slide32Data
Text is generally collected from or in the form of…
Field notes -- Newspaper or magazine stories
Interviews (recorded and transcribed)
Focus groups -- Web pagesAudio & video tapes (transcribed and described)Copies of documents -- Photographs (described)Narrative descriptionsDiaries
Slide33Read Data, develop ideas and feelings
Code Data, tag items with same meaning using a unique code
Search and extract instances of codes
Identify patterns among codes (pattern coding)
Create figures, tables, or descriptions of patternsANALYSISTHEMES
Slide34Analysis
Process of Qualitative Analysis:
Data Reduction
Data DisplayConclusion Drawing and Verification
Slide35Analysis
Collect
Data
Target TextCoded DataData DisplaysFinal Report
Read, Think, Feel, (Re)Code, ReduceWrite, ReduceGroup, Organize, Reduce
Slide36Coding
Slide37Coding
What is coding?
In qualitative analysis, coding is the process of identifying categories and meanings in text, creating and applying a name or code to each, and systematically marking similar strings of text with the same code name.
Coding permits systematic retrieval of categories and meanings during analysis. C
odes help researchers identify patterns in data.
Slide38Coding
One codes
only relevant data (Not all
text must be coded to complete the project)Codes may be based on:
Actions, Behaviors, Topics, Ideas, Concepts,Terms, Phrases, Keywords, and so forthCoding is purposeful interpretation, with mindful reflection on the meanings of the persons, context, interactions, statements, assumptions, and so forth
Slide39Coding
Source: http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/phpechopage_titleOnlineQDA-Examples_QDA.php
An example of
“
old school” coding
Slide40Coding
Sources of codes (typically both):
A priori codes—
expected, looked forPrevious researchPrevious theoryResearch question
Your intuition of the data or settingGrounded codes—discovered(suspend ideas about the subject and let the data determine codes)
Slide41Coding
It helps if code names are meaningful.
When new
relevant content is discovered, a new code is created.
Codes may evolveA string of text may contain more than one code.
Slide42Coding
C
odes must be consistently applied
Keeping a list of codes helps to:I
dentify the content of each code, and Reveal the contents of the text.Codes should be grouped in some form (e.g., related clusters) to advance analysis
Slide43Coding
http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/209/461
Slide44Slide45Displays
Making sense of the data
Slide46Displays
There are numerous legitimate ways to move from codes to final narrative, but core among them is systematic work and adherence to logic.
Systematic analysis is advanced when codes are put into
“data displays” which reflect the researcher
’s judgments about the dataData displays link various codes and help to build themes
Slide47Displays
Source: http://journals.culture-communication.unimelb.edu.au/platform/yecrea_2011_kaprans.html
Thematic network of YouTube comments about Borat
Slide48Displays
Such arrangements help researchers:
“
dimensionalize,” or recognize dimensions of similar thoughts or E.g., thoughts about how to appear masculine:
Clothes PresenceShort hair -- ConfidencePlain shoes -- Taking up spaceShirt with collarConnect codes in more sophisticated waysDocument patterns in “user-friendly” ways (never rely on memory)
Slide49Displays
Relationships between codes become more apparent as codes are grouped
Themes should be explored
Why do some codes co-occur?
Why are some dimensions related to other codes while others are not?Are some codes linked to particular emotions?Exploration of themes is analysis. The discoveries should be written down. These eventually (with very heavy and serious editing) turn into your written text.
Slide50Analysis
Process of Qualitative Analysis:
Data Reduction
Data DisplayConclusion Drawing and Verification
Slide51As one creates and views displays, the salient components of meaning and activities become apparent.
Research may be:
Descriptive
: Represents the data (meanings, observations) to readers in such a way that they will “
understand” what the researcher “sees” in the data.Causal: Links concepts in the data together to explain observed meanings or phenomena, and to write in such a way that readers will “understand” what the researcher “sees.”This stage relies very heavily on logical evaluation and systematic descriptionDrawing Conclusions and Verification
Slide52The researcher WRITES what he or she sees as logical descriptions of themes
The researcher always refers back to the data displays and raw data as descriptions or causal statements are made.
Systematic, organized, and good coding and notes will really pay off at this point, allowing efficient, accurate access to data
Conclusions are made through this process
Drawing Conclusions and Verification
Slide53Drawing Conclusions and Verification
Articles and reports often include quotes. They are not the text
“
speaking for itself.”Quotes are used for:Evidence Explanation
IllustrationDeepening understandingGiving participants a voiceEnhancing readability
Slide54Drawing Conclusions and Verification
In the end, like good quantitative research, good qualitative research gives a portrayal of the human experience that is as accurate as possible, but which always has limitations.
Slide55Slide56Qualitative Methods
It is often difficult to plan qualitative research
Group Discussion:
Spend several minutes generating ideas for a qualitative research study. What are you going to study and why?
Create a plan for:SamplingHow will you determine whether your sample is representative of a target group?Data CollectionData AnalysisHow will you evaluate causality?How will you write about or present your findings?Introduction