The development of mathematical and computational methods along with the emergence of cyberspace demonstrates the need for innovative degree programs that focus on computational criminology The purpose of this article is to highlight the significanc ID: 23913
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Throughacomputationallens:usingdual computer-criminologydegreeprogramsto advancethestudyofcriminologyandcriminal justicepractice ColbyLValentine 1* ,CarterHay 2 ,KevinMBeaver 2 andThomasGBlomberg 2 Abstract Computationalcriminologyseekstoaddresscriminologicalandcriminaljusticeproblemsthroughtheuseof appliedmathematics,computerscience,andcriminology.Thedevelopmentofmathematicalandcomputational methodsalongwiththeemergenceofcyberspacedemonstratestheneedforinnovativedegreeprogramsthat focusoncomputationalcriminology.Thepurposeofthisarticleistohighlightthesignificanceofdual computer-criminologydegreeprograms.Thearticlefirstdiscusestwomajorshiftsinthestudyofcriminology:the facilitationofnewmethodologiesanddatatechniques;and,thedevelopmentofnewtypesofcrimeand delinquencythroughadvancementsincomputertechnology.Next,thearticledescribestheneedfordual computer-criminologydegreeprogramsandemploysFloridaStateUniversity sprogramasanexampleofwhat theseprogramsofferaspiringcriminologists.Finally,thearticleconcludeswithdiscussionoffutureplansforthe FloridaStateUniversitydualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogramthatareapplicabletoothercriminology programsbothwithintheUnitedStatesandalsointernationally. Keywords: Computercriminology,Degreeprogram,Cybercrime,FloridaStateUniversity Introduction BeginningFall2007,FloridaStateUniversity(FSU) offeredaninterdisciplinaryundergraduatedegree programinComputerCriminologyandinFall2011, FSUbeganofferingstudentstheopportunitytopursuea Master sofScienceinComputerCriminology.TheFSU DepartmentofComputerScienceandtheCollegeof CriminologyandCriminalJusticejointlydevelopedthese andcomputationalshiftsthathaveemergedinthefield ofcriminologyandcriminaljustice.Specifically,these degreeprogramsrelatetothespecializationofcomputa- tionalcriminology,whichseekstoaddresscriminological problemsthroughtheuseofappliedmathematics, computerscience,andcriminology.Degreesthatfocus onmathematicalandcomputationsciencearecrucialto preparenewstudentsandfutur escholarsforthechanging subjectmatterinthefieldasresearchisadvancingand newareasoffocusareunravelingeverydayaswellas preparingcriminaljusticepr actitionersintheireffortsto effectivelyconfronttheemergingcyberaspectsofcrime. Computationalcriminologyisanemergingfieldthat hasdevelopedprimarilyfromtwoareasoverthepast30 years.First,thedevelopmentofcrimesimulationmodels andrelatedcomputermethodologieshasemergedasa newwaytostudycrime.Computationalcriminologyhas beenpioneeredinthefieldofen vironmentalcriminology. LiuandEck(2008)describeartificialcrimeanalysesand simulationasmethodstorevealhiddenprocessesofurban crimesbycombiningcriminology,computersimulation, andgeographicinformationsystems[1].Twoother prominentresearchersinthisarea,PatriciaandPaul Brantingham,havefocusedtheirresearchonenviron- activity.Theirresearchinitiatedthedevelopmentofthe ComputationalCriminologyInitiative(CCI),which *Correspondence: colby.valentine@dc.edu 1 DominicanCollege,470WesternHighway,Orangeburg,NewYork10962, USA Fulllistofauthorinformationisavailableattheendofthearticle ©2013Valentineetal.;licenseeSpringer.ThisisanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommons AttributionLicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproduction inanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited. Valentine etal.SecurityInformatics 2013, 2 :2 http://www.security-informatics.com/content/2/1/2 allowsfornewvisualizationtechniquesforunderstandingcrimepatterns.Anotherareaofcomputationalcriminologythathasemergedincriminologicalandcomputerscienceresearchisthedevelopmentofcomputercrimesandrelatedcriminalactivityincyberspace[2].However,thedevelopmentofresearchincomputerandcybercrimewithinthefieldofcriminologyhasjustbeguntodevelopoverthepastfewyears.ThefirstconferencedevotedtocyberandcomputercriminologywastheCyberCriminologyandDigitalForensicsInitiativeConferencewhichwasheldinSpokaneValley,WashingtoninOctober2006.Thenin2007,theInternationalJournalofCyberCriminology(IJCC)beganpublicationasapeerreviewedonline(openaccess)interdisciplinaryjournaldedicatedtothestudyofcybercrime,cybercriminalbehavior,cybervictims,cyberlaws,andcyberinvestigations[3].Thedevelopmentofmathematicalandcomputationalmethodsalongwiththeemergenceofcyberspaceasanewlocusforcriminalactivitydemonstratestheneedforinnovativedegreeprogramsthatfocusoncomputationalcriminology.Thetwopurposesofthisarticleare:first,todescribefromacriminologicalperspectivethetechno-logicalandcomputationalshiftinthestudyofcriminologyandcriminaljustice,andsecond,tohighlighthowdualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogramsadvancethestudyofcrimeinwaysthataddressneedsforbothresearchersandpractitionersinthefieldofcriminaljustice.Thearticlebeginswithadiscussionoftwomajorshiftsinthestudyofcriminology:thefacilitationofnewmethodologiesanddatatechniques;and,thedevelopmentofnewtypesofcrimeanddelinquencythroughadvancementsincomputertechnology.Next,thearticledescribestheneedfordualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogramsandemploysFSUprogramasanexampleofwhattheseprogramsofferaspiringcriminologists.Finally,thearticleconcludeswithdiscussionoffutureplansfortheFSUdualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogramthatareapplicabletoothercriminologyprograms.ThetechnologicalshiftinthestudyofcriminologyandcriminaljusticeComputationalcriminologyisanemergingfieldthatisgeneratingnewandinnovativemethodologies.Theseincludenewcriminologicalmodels,calculatedalgorithms,spatialandtemporaldynamicsofcrimeandterrorism,co-offendingnetworkanalysis,datastructuresandsoft-waredevelopment,andtheminingofcrime,offenderandcriminaljusticesystemsdata.Forexample,advancementsincomputationalpowerandtheavailabilityofnewdatahaveallowednewtypesofmethodologiestoevolvewithinthestudyofcriminology.Brantinghamandcolleagues(2009)describesonenichecomputationalcriminologyaddressesregardingcrimeanalysesanddataforstudyingcrimepatterns:Therecentemergenceofcomputationalcriminology,groundedonimprovementinthecomputationalpoweravailabletoresearchers,provides,potentially,awaytolinktheoryandresearchatamicrolevelwiththeoryandreassertatthemesolevelsofanalysis(p.90).Theauthorsfurtherexpandonthisconceptbypresentinganalgorithmbasedonanalysisoflandunittounitsimilaritytodemonstratehowcrimespatternsdevelopinandaroundcertainneighborhoods[4].Thefindingsofferaninnovateddatatechniquethatmayaidinthecomputationalexpansionofcrimepatternresearchthatcanguidemoreeffectivegeographictargetingofcrimecontrolefforts.AdditionalworkpioneeredbyBrantinghamandcollegues(2005;2009)demonstratehowmathematicalandcomputationalmethods,suchasthosebasedontheabstractstatemachine(ASM)paradigm,allowforthemodelingandsimulationofcrimepatterns.Thesemethodsaimtoadvancecriminologicalapproachestowardcrimereductionandprevention.Forexample,someofthepurposesofmathematicalcomputationmodelsincludehelpingpredictthelikelihoodofcriminalactivityoccurringincertainplaces,creatingscenariosincrimeanalysisandsimulatingpreventiontechniquestoprovideabasisforexperimentalresearchthatisdifficulttoproduceinreal-worksettings,anddesigningcriticalinfrastructureprotection[5,6].Artificialcrimeanalysisandcrimesimulationisanemergingareathathighlightstheadvancementincomputationcriminology.LiuandEcks(2008)editedbookthataddressesanumberofissuesrelatingtocrimeanalysesusingcomputersimulationsandgeographicalinformationsystems.Theirbookisfocusedaroundfoursectionsexploringsuchtopicsasusingsimulationtounderstandcrimepatternsandcriminaljusticeprocesses,ananalysisofconditionsthatmightinfluencecrimepatterns,crimeeventandpatternsimulation,andcriminaljusticeoperationsimulations.Severalchaptersprovideexamplesthatdemonstratehowsimulationsareusedasatooltounderstandcrimepatterns[1].Thebookalsosummarizesfourpurposesofartificialcrimeanalysis:theorizing,estimating,testing,andplanning[7].Someoftheresearchoncrimeanalysisandsimulationspecificallyillustratethepurposesforusingcrimesimulations.Forinstance,agent-basedmodelsforcrimesimulationscanbeparticularlyusefulfortheorizing.Specifically,spatialadaptivecrimeeventsimulations(SPACES)canbeusedtoexploretheory.Theoreticalexperimentsorscenarioscandeterminehowelementsofatheoryworktogetherandwhetherthetheorycanhelpproducecrimepatterns.Ifso,thenSPACESmaybeetal.SecurityInformaticsPage2of7http://www.security-informatics.com/content/2/1/2 abletoproducehypothesesthatcanbetestedusingempiricaldata[8].Further,simulationscanbeimplementedtotestpolicies.Szakas,Trefftz,Ramirez,andJefferis(2008)usesimulationstotestvariouspolicepatrolsmethods.Thesemethods,forexample,canassistwithgeographicalprofilesofsuspectsorparoleesathomeand/oratwork[9].Simulationscanalsobeusedinpredictingandunderstandingtheeffectofchangeswithinthecriminaljusticesystem[10].Theseexamplesdemonstratehowadvancementsincomputationandsimulationmodelsyieldnewmethodsandtechniques,whichcanadvanceinsightsonavarietyofissuesrelatingtocrimeandjusticepractices.Therapidgrowthincomputationalsimulationsinthefieldofcriminologyandcriminaljusticeisfurtherdemonstratedbyresearchthatfocusesonavarietyofissuesandcomplexitiesrelatedtoapplyingthesemathematicalmodels.TheJournalofExperimentalCriminologypublishedaspecialissuerelatingtosimulatedexperimentsincriminologyandcriminaljustice.Thespecialissuefocusedonsimulationmodelsandtheircontributionstocriminologyregardinguniquetechniquesusedtotestinterventionpracticesandmodeloutcomes.Forexample,Auerhahn(2008)useddata-validateddynamicsystemssimulationmodelingtoexaminetheeffectofCaliforniasThreeStrikeslawonthestatesprisonpopulation.Thesimulationmodelallowedforaprospectiveanalysisofthefutureeffectsofthelegislation.Therefore,whenevaluatingpolicy,thesimulationmodelhasanadvantageforcriminologistsbylookingbothretrospectivelyatthelegislationandalsoformulatingfutureeffectsandforeseeingtheconsequencesofthoseoutcomes[11].Anotherinnovativestudydevelopedanagent-basedmodeltotesttheeffectsofthreedifferentpolicestrategies(i.e.,randompatrol,hot-spotpolicing,andproblem-orientatedpolicing)onastreet-leveldrugmarket.Theauthorssimulatedadisruptionintheheroinsupplychaintoattempttobetterunderstandthevariouspoliceinterventions[12].Bothoftheabovecomputationalmodelsillustratehowtheuseofsuchmethodsfurtherdevelopscriminologicalthoughtandpracticerelatedtoprovidingusefulsimulationscapableofgeneratingcom-prehensibleempiricaldescriptionfromwhichgroundedexplanationsandpredictionscanbederived.Computationalmethodshavetheabilitytoenhancethestudyofcriminologybuttheyalsocanposeanumberofchallengesforresearchers.Berk(2008)examinesthecomplexitiesofmodelvalidation,specificallydegreesofcredibility,forcomputationalmodelsandfurtherconcludesthatsimulationmodelscanbenefitthedevelopmentandrefinementoftheory.However,criminologistsmustcontinuetotestcomputermodelsagainstdata[13].Further,TownsleyandBirks(2008)discusstheneedforreplicationofcomputationalmodeltoenhancetheirvalidity[14].Despitethesechallenges,simulationshavegreatpromiseinthefieldofcriminologyandareyetanothertoolforcriminologiststousethatcancomplementtraditionaldata-drivenmethods.NewtypesofcrimeanddelinquencyBeyondmathematicalandcomputationalmethods,thedevelopmentofcyberandcomputercrimehasalsotransformedthewaycriminologistsstudycrimeanddelinquency.Historically,criminologistshavefocusedontraditionalformsofcrime(e.g.,murder,assaults,kidnap-ping,etc.);however,duringthepastfewdecades,crimehasmovedtotheInternet,openingthedoortonewtypesofcrimeanddelinquency,aswellas,newmethodsofengagingincrime.ThissectionbrieflydescribeshowthestudyofcriminologyhasshiftedtoincludetheInternetthroughadvancementsintechnologyandtheuseofcomputers.Althoughcybercrimeresearchisrelativelynewtocriminology,thisareaofresearchisgainingmomentum[15].Asaresult,theliteratureonthistopicisextensiveandsummarizingitisbeyondthescopeofthisarticle.Asaresult,weprovideonlyasnapshotoftheresearch,takenfromthejournalthatpioneeredthefield,todemonstratethisnewavenueofresearchemergingfromthedevelop-mentandgrowthofcomputerandcybercrime.Thus,thepurposeofthissectionistoclarifythewayinwhichcomputershavebecomecentraltothecommissionofmanycategoriesofcrime.Specificallywereviewanddiscussthreecategoriesofcomputercrimesthatillustratethisemergingpatternandpointtotheneedtoprioritizetheintersectionofcomputerscienceandthetraditionalstudyofcriminologyandcriminaljustice.Cyberandcomputercrimehaveemergedasnewareasofresearchforcriminologistsandindoingsohaveprovidednewopportunitiestoapplytheorytohelpexplainsuchcrime.Crimesthatareassociatedwiththeprevalenceofcomputerstargetthetechnologicalindustry,itscustomers,andothers[16].Someofthecrimesthatareincorporatedintothiscategoryincludecounterfeiting,identitytheft,corporatetheft,componenttheft,andpiracy.Digitalpiracyistheactofcopyingdigitalgoods(i.e.,software,documents,audio,andvideo)withoutpermissionfromandcompensationtothecopyrightholderusingcomputertechnology[17-19].Digitalpiracyisoneareaofresearchthathasemergedwithincybercriminologyandcoverstopicssuchasmusic,gaming,andothercomputerprograms.Empiricalresearchonpiracyhasfocusedonsomeofthecorrelatesthatmaybeassociatedwithdigitalpiracy,inadditionto,examiningcriminologicaltheoriesinthecontextofdigitalpiracy.Forexample,MooreandMcMullan(2009)conductedqualitativeinterviewswithuniversitystudentstodeterminewhetherneutralizationtechniqueswereemployedbyfilesharersandfoundthateachparticipantindicatedsupportforatleastoneetal.SecurityInformaticsPage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techniqueofneutralizationinjustifyingtheirpiracyactivities[20].Alsofocusingonneutralizationtheory,Higgins,Wolfe,andMarcum(2008)examinedthetrajectoriesofdigitalpiracyamongcollegestudentsandfoundthatthelevelofneutralizationutilizedbyapotentialmusicpirateaffectsthepiracythatactuallyoccurs[21].Inaddition,Higgins(2007)examinedothercriminologicaltheories,self-controlandrationalchoice,toexplaindigitalpiracyandfoundthatlowself-controlandsituationalfactorshaddirectandindirecteffectswithintentionstoengageindigitalpiracy[22].Theaboveresearchdemonstrateshowthemergingofcomputertechnologyandcriminologyhascreatedanewresearchareaforscholars.Advancementsintechnologyhavecreatednewtypesofcrime,suchasdigitalpiracy,forresearcherstoexamineusingcriminologicaltheories.Inaddition,acomputationalunderstandingofpiracycangivescholarsauniqueunderstandingofthecrime.Dualcomputer-criminologydegreeprograms,thus,facilitatethemergingoftwodisciplinesthatcanaidfutureresearchonpiracyandothercomputerrelatedcrimesand,also,aidinthepreventionandcontroloffurtherillegaldigitaltransmissions.Otherformsofcybercrimes,thatusethecomputerasaninstrumentofthecrimeorareincidentaltothecrime,haveillustratedtheshiftincrimesfromsocietytocyberspace.Forexample,crimesthatusethecomputerasaninstrumentofthecrimeincludeoffenseswhenthecomputerisusedtogainsomething.Therefore,thecriminalusesthecomputerorthenetworktoperformcrimessuchastheft,fraud,exploitation,threats,orharassment[16].Cyberbullingandcyberstalkinghasbecomeahottopicamongschools,parents,themedia,politicalforumsand,morerecently,amongcriminologists.Theempiricalresearchoncyberbullyingisextensiveandrevealsthehighprevalenceamongadolescentsofinternet-basedharassmentthatincludesabusivee-mails,insultingmessagesorpicturespostedononlinemessageboards,andWeb-sitesthatdisseminatedisparaginginformationaboutanindividual[23-25].Onespecialconcernaboutcyberbullyingisitspotentiallyrelentlessnature.BecausemanyadolescentsforlegitimatereasonsfrequentlyusetheInternet,theycanbeexposedtocyberbullyingevenwhenphysicallyremovedfrombullies.Thus,asMason(2008:324)notes,withcyberbullying,homemaynolongerbeaplaceofrefugerefugeWiththeseissuesinmind,cyberbullyinghasattractedsignificantlyattentioninmanydisciplines,andtheInternationalJournalofCyberCriminologyhaspublishednumerousarticlesonthistopic,whichincludeaninternationalstudyofbullyinginwebforums[27],anexaminationofpolicesandlegalobligationsassociatedwithcyberbullying[28],andtheeffectivenessofcyberbullyingpreventionstrategies[29].Comparedtocyberbullying,lessresearchhasbeenconductedoncyberstalking.Pitarro(2007)conductedananalysisoncyberstalkingandexaminedthedeviantbehaviorsandtacticsassociatedwithcyberstalkingcrimes,legislativeinterventionmeasures,andpreventativeinitiatives[30].AnotherdescriptivearticleappearedintheInternationalJournalofCyberCriminologyprovidinganoverviewofthecurrentstateofknowledgeoncyber-stalkingandexaminedthedifficultiesininvestigatingandprosecutingcyber-stalkers.Roberts(2008:281)concludesherarticlebyarguingforthe...continuedtrainingoflawenforcementandlegalofficerstoincreasetheirtechno-logicalsophisticationandunderstandingofcyber-stalkingbehaviours[31].Adualcomputer-criminologydegreetacklesboththeunderstandingandtechnologicalelementsofthiscrime.Priorresearchoncyberbullyingandcyberstalking,demonstratehowspecifictypesofcrimeshaveevolvedthroughadvancementsintheInternet;thereby,providingnewwaystoengageindeviantbehaviors.Cyberbullying,threats,harassment,andstalkinghavedevelopedasnewresearchareasfocusingonthewaysomeindividualsmisusetechnology.Consequently,theincreasingprevalenceofthistypeofcrimeshouldbefurtherintegratedintothestudyofcriminologyanddualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogramareanecessarymediumtoadvancesuchresearchandsubsequentlyguidepolicesaimedatpreventingandreducingtheseparticularcrimes.Further,crimesthatfocusoncomputersasatargetexemplifytheneedforanunderstandingincomputationtechnologyandmathematicalmethodologiestoemployeffectiveinvestigationandpreventionstrategies.Forexample,crimesthatfocusonthecomputerasatargetincludesuchactsas,denyingtheuserorowneraccesstotheircomputerordata,alterationofdataonthecomputer,networkintruding,andcomputervandalism[16].Acommonexampleofsuchacrimeishacking.iscommonlydescribedasactofre-designingtheconfigurationofhardwareorsoftwaresystemstoaltertheirintendedfunction[32].Bachmann(2010)examinedtheriskpropensityandrationalityofcomputerhackers.Theauthorusedanumberofcriminologicaltheoriestoexplainthefindingsofthestudyincludingrationalchoice,self-control,and,relatedspecificallytocybercrime,spacetransitiontheory[32].Thistypeofcomputerrelateddevianceisanexampleofhowcriminologistscanbenefitfromindividualswithaneducationalbackgroundinbothcriminologyandcomputerscience.Scholarswithadegreeincomputercriminologyhaveanunderstandingofhowcomputersfacilitatethestudyofcrimeandhowcrimesareaccomplishedthroughtheuseofcomputers.Further,toaidinthepreventionandinterventionofsuchcrimes,individualsneedtounderstandthemethodsofsuchcrimesandtheelementsofcomputersystemsthatanetal.SecurityInformaticsPage4of7http://www.security-informatics.com/content/2/1/2 educationincomputercriminologycanprovidethroughtheteachingofcriminologicalresearch,theory,computersystems,andprocedures.Dualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogramsGiventhesedevelopmentsincomputationalmodels,computertechnology,andcybercrime,itisnotsurprisingthatthereisagrowingrecognitionoftheneedanduseful-nessofstudyingcrimeatthecomputationallevelthroughdualcomputer-criminologydegreeprograms.Computercriminologyisarelativelynewfield,anddepartmentsarebeginningtoaddcomputercriminologyasamajorforcurrentandincomingstudents.Inparticular,theFSUdualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogrampresentswhatcouldbecomeastandardinthefuturetokeepupwiththerapidlygrowingareasofcybercrimeanditscontrol.TheFSUpro-gramfocusesonareassuchasinformation-relatedcrime,cyber-forensics,andcomputer/networksecurity.Computercriminologyincludesbothhowtousecomputerstofacili-tatethestudyofcrimeandthestudyofhowcrimesareaccomplishedthroughtheuseofcomputers.StudentsgraduatingfromFSUwillbepreparedtodograduateworkandresearchinthisarea,orhavetheopportunitytobe-comeeffectiveemployeesofgovernment,lawenforcement,orotherrelatedpublicandprivateagencies.sdualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogramispresentedasacaseexampletoillustratehowacomputercriminologydegreecanpreparestudentsforfuturegradu-ateworkand/oremployment.Tothisend,thenextsectionprovidesexamplesofcoursesfrombothcriminologyandcomputersciencesthatareavailabletostudentsatboththeundergraduateandgraduatelevel.UndergraduatedegreeprogramIn2007,FloridaStateUniversityfirstofferedanunder-graduatedegreeprogramincomputercriminologyforcurrentandincomingstudents.Thedegreeprogramisafour-yearprogramthatfocusesonacombinationofgeneraleducationrequirementsbasedonUniversitystandards,computersciencecourses,andcriminologycourses.Studentsmayelecttopursuethemajorbyeithergraduat-ingthroughtheDepartmentofComputerScienceswithintheCollegeofArtsandSciencesorthroughtheCollegeofCriminologyandCriminalJustice.Oneofthekeyhallmarksoftheprogramisthecloseconnectionbetweenthecomputerscienceprogramandthecriminologyprogram.Inshort,studentspursuingadegreeincomputercrimin-ologygetthebestofbothworldsbylearningfromworld-classresearchersincomputerscienceaswellasworld-classresearchersincriminology.Studentsmajoringincomputercriminologyarerequiredtotakecoursesthatfocusoncomputerscience,criminology,andmathematics.Someoftherequiredcoursesforcomputerscienceincludecoursesthatfocusonthefundamentalsofcomputerorganization,computerop-eratingsystems,andcomputerprogramming.Thecapstonecourseofferedinthecomputersciencedepartmentforthemajoriscybercrimedetectionandforensics.Thecoursesfocusonlearningtools,techniques,andproceduresfordetectingcybercrimeandanalyzingcollecteddatarelatedtopastandongoingcybercrimeoffenses.Thecoursealsoconcentratesonforensicapproachesthatpreservethelegalvalueofthecollectedevidence.Inadditiontotherequiredcomputersciencecourses,studentsarealsorequiredtocompleteanumberofcriminologycourses.Thecriminologycurriculumincludescoursesthatfocusoncriminologicaltheories,crimeinvestigationtechniques,andresearchmethodolo-giesincriminology.Thecapstonecourseofferedinthecriminologydepartmentforthemajoriscriminaljusticesystemresponsestocybercrime.ThiscourseexploresthevarioustypesofcriminalconductassociatedwithcomputersandtheWorldWideWeb.Additionally,itcoversdigitalforensics,theoriesofdigitalcrimeandterrorism,andpolicyimplicationsandlawsrelatedtocybercrime.Furthermore,thecriminologycapstonecoursecoversindetailtheprominentformsofcomputercrimeandthelegalissuesthatemergeinconfrontingthosecrimes.ThatclasshasbeenorganizedinpartaroundTayloretal.'s(2011)DigitalCrimeandDigitalTerrorism,andoneappealingfeatureofthattextisitsattentiontotheglobalandinternationalnatureofmuchcomputercrime[16].Manycomputercrimesinvolveactionsthatcrossinternationalboundariesandthistextmeticulouslydescribesthelegalissuesthatsurroundbothcomputerandcybercrimes.Forexample,thetextdedicatesanentiresectiontocontrollingdigitalcrimethroughlegislation,lawenforcement,andinvestigation.Further,studentscanchoosetotakeadditionalcourses,inbothmajors,tofocustheirstudiestotheirpersonalinterestswithinthefield.Incomputerscience,somethecoursesfocusonissuesrelatedspecificallytocomputerstructuressuchasethicalaspectsofcomputersecurity,fundamentaltheoriesincomputersecurity,andcomputeroperatingsystems.Withincriminologyandcriminaljustice,someofthespecializedcoursesconcen-trateonthecriminaljusticesystem,theoriesofcriminaljustice,thecourtsystem,corrections,andlawenforcement.Thewiderangeofcoursesofferedbybothprogramsallowsthestudenttofocusontheirparticularinterestswithinthefieldofcomputationcriminology.Studentsarealsorequiredtocompleteamathematicscourse,whichisofferedbytheDepartmentofMathematicsintheCollegeofArtsandSciences.Thepurposeofthecourseistodevelopknowledgeandskillsinfundamentalmathematicstopicsthatarerelevanttothecomputerspecializationpartofthedegree,particularlytothesystematicdevelopmentofsoftware.etal.SecurityInformaticsPage5of7http://www.security-informatics.com/content/2/1/2 Studentsobtainingabachelorsdegreeincomputercriminologyarealsogiventheopportunitytocompleteaninternshipbeforegraduation.Thisinternship,ifthestudentdecidestoenrollinthecourse,canprovidethestudentwithworkexperiencethatwillhelpinobtainingajobaftergraduationGraduatedegreeprogramIn2011,FSUextendedtheundergraduatedegreeprogramwiththeadditionofagraduatedegreeincomputercriminology.StudentspursuingaMastersofScienceincomputercriminologyareadmittedtoandgraduatefromtheDepartmentofComputerScience;however,thegraduatedegreefocusesoncoursesfrombothcriminologyandcomputersciences.Thedegreeprogramisacoursework-onlytrackandprovidesalargenumberofcoursesatthegraduatelevel.Forexample,coursesincriminologycovertopicssuchascrimesofthepowerful,theoreticalissuesandresearchonthelawandlegalcontrolofdevianceinsociety,criminologicaltheory,historicalreviewsofthoughtaboutcrimeandpunishment,andcomparativecriminologyandcriminaljustice.Inaddition,avarietyofcomputersciencescoursesarealsoofferedandincludetopicssuchascomputersecurity,networksecurity,active,andpassivedefenses,dataandcomputercommunications,computerandnet-workadministration,advancedoperatingsystems,anddatabasesystems.EmploymentandresearchopportunitiesComputercrime,aspreviouslydescribed,canbebroadlydefinedasanycriminalactivitythatinvolvestheuseofinformationtechnology,includingillegallyaccessinginformation,interceptingdata,damagingordeletingdata,interferingwiththefunctioningofacomputersystem,identitytheft,etc.Information-relatedcrimeandcomputer/networksecurityissuesarealreadymajorconcerns.Theseissuesaffectalllevelsofbusiness,government,andacademiaandhavegrowninimportanceasmostorganizationslinktheirnetworkedcomputerenvironmentstotheInternet.Acomputercriminologystudentwilllearnbothhowtousecomputerstofacilitatethestudyofcrimeandwillstudyhowcrimesareaccomplishedthroughtheuseofcomputers.Basedoncurrenttrends,weanticipatetherewillbeasignificantdemandforgraduatesofboththeunder-graduateandgraduatecomputercriminologyprogram.Itiswellknownthatthereisashortageofinformationtechnologyexperts.Similarly,thereisapressingneedforinformationtechnologyspecialiststohandleissuesrelatedtoinformationcrime,cyber-forensics,andcomputer/networksecurity.However,thereisalsoaneedforcomputerskillsfortheprevention,detection,andstudyofalltypesofcrime,whetherornottheyinvolvetheuseofinformationtechnology.Graduatesoftheprogramwillbepreparedtoworkeitherforlawenforcementagenciesasinformationcrimespecialists,withincompaniesororganizationsasnetworksecurityspecialists,orwithinacademiaandgovernmenttostudythecausesofcrimeandthebestmethodsforitspreventionandcontrol.Thepurposeofthisarticlewastodescribethetechno-logicalandcomputationalshiftsinthestudyofcrimin-ologyandcriminaljusticeaswellashighlightthesignificancesofdualcomputer-criminologydegreeprograms.TheFSUprogramdescriptionwasusedtoprovideanexampleofanongoingdualcomputer-criminologyprogramatboththeundergraduateandgraduatelevel.Itisanticipatedthatsomeofthemasterstudentsincomputer-criminologywilldecidetocontinuetheirstudiesforaPh.D.,giventhegrowingdisciplineandpolicyimportanceofcyber-crime.FSUiscurrentlyinvolvedindiscussionsonthestructure,content,andrequirementsforaPh.D.incomputercriminology.Theexpansionoftheprogramwouldpushfortheadvancementofresearchthatinformspublicpolicy.Forinstance,comparedtoamaster'sdegreethattrainsstudentstobeinformed,knowledgeableusersofscientificresearch,thePh.D.preparesstudentstoconducttheirownoriginalresearchtogeneratenewinsightsonissuesofscientificandpublicpolicyimportance.Thisnecessarilyemphasizescomprehensivetrainingintheory,researchmethods,andstatisticsthatwouldbespecifictothestudyofcyber-crime.Thus,thegoalofaPh.D.programincomputercriminologywouldbetoproducePh.D.graduateswhocouldgeneratethenewresearchneededtoinformpolicymakersandthescientificcommunityonthecausesandconsequencesofcybercrimeandtheappropriatelegalandextra-legalresponsestoit.InadditiontothePh.D.program,FSUisalsocurrentlyinvolvedisdiscussionsonincludingthedualcomputer-criminologydegreeprogramwiththeFSUdistancelearningprogramtoexpandthenumberofstudentswhoareabletolearnfromthebestresearchersandinstructorsinthefieldsofcriminologyandcomputerscience.TheanticipatedimplementationofboththePh.D.programandtheonlineprogramwillcontinuetoenhancethecomputer-criminologydegreeprogramandfurtherbenefittheexpandingfieldofcomputationalcriminology.CompetinginterestsTheauthorsdeclarethattheyhavenocompetinginterests.CVmadesubstantialcontributionstotheconceptionanddesignofthearticle,draftedthemanuscript,andformattedthemanuscript.CHprovidedinformationaboutthedegreeprograms,offeredimportantintellectualetal.SecurityInformaticsPage6of7http://www.security-informatics.com/content/2/1/2 content,revisedearlierdrafts,andofferedsuggestionsonearlierdrafts.KB providedinformationaboutthedegreeprograms,revisedearlierdrafts,and offeredimportantintellectualcontent.TBrevisedearlierdraftsandoffered importantintellectualcontent.Allauthorsreadandapprovedthefinal manuscript.Allauthorsreviewedandmadeeditstotherevisedmanuscript. Authors information ColbyValentine,PhD,isanassistantprofessorofCriminalJusticeinthe SocialSciencesDivisionofDominicanCollege.Hercurrentresearchfocuses oninmatemisconduct,officer-involveddomesticviolence,and neighborhoodpredictorsofintimatepartnerviolence.Shehasrecent publicationsin JournalofFamilyViolence,FamilyCourtReview, and Journalof HumanBehaviorintheSocialEnvironment. CarterHay,PhD,isanassociateprofessorintheCollegeofCriminologyand CriminalJusticeatFloridaStateUniversity.Hisresearchexaminesthecauses andpreventionofindividualinvolvementincrimeanddelinquency,with recentorforthcomingpublicationsappearinginsuchjournalsas Crime& Delinquency and YouthViolenceandJuvenileJustice . KevinM.Beaver,PhD,isanassociateprofessorintheCollegeofCriminology andCriminalJusticeatFloridaStateUniversity.Heispastrecipientofthe AmericanSocietyofCriminology sRuthShoneCavanYoungScholarAward andhisresearchfocusesonthegeneticandbiosocialfoundationsto antisocialbehaviors.Hisresearchhasproducedmorethan150articlesand bookchapterswhichappearinavarietyofinterdisciplinarypublication outlets. ThomasG.BlombergisDeanandSheldonL.MessingerProfessorof CriminologyatFloridaStateUniversity sCollegeofCriminologyandCriminal JusticeandEditorof CriminologyandPublicPolicy .Hehadpublished extensivelyintheareasofpenology,socialcontrol,andeducationand recidivism.Hisrecentbooksinclude PunishmentandSocialControl:Enlarged SecondEdition (2003 ) and AmericanPenology:EnlargedSecondEdition (2010). Authordetails 1 DominicanCollege,470WesternHighway,Orangeburg,NewYork10962, USA. 2 FloridaStateUniversity,CollegeofCriminologyandCriminalJustice, 634W.CallStreet,Tallahassee,Florida32306-1127,USA. 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SecurityInformatics 2013 2 :2. Valentine etal.SecurityInformatics 2013, 2 :2 Page7of7 http://www.security-informatics.com/content/2/1/2