DALAL University of Allahabad India Abstract Disability attitudes are major barriers in improving life conditions of physically challenged people in developing countries Studies have shown that people in general harbour negative and paternalistic at ID: 48467
Download Pdf The PPT/PDF document "Socialinterventionstomoderatediscriminat..." is the property of its rightful owner. Permission is granted to download and print the materials on this web site for personal, non-commercial use only, and to display it on your personal computer provided you do not modify the materials and that you retain all copyright notices contained in the materials. By downloading content from our website, you accept the terms of this agreement.
Correspondence:AjitK.Dalal,DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofAllahabad,AllahabadÐ211002,India.915322465371.E-mail:ajitkdalal@gmail.comPsychology,Health&MedicineAugust2006;11(3):374Ð382 ISSN1354-8506print/ISSN1465-3966online2006Taylor&FrancisDOI:10.1080/13548500600595392 Thequestionis:inwhatwaysareattitudestowardsdisabilitychangingindevelopingcountries?Thereisnosimpleanswertothisquestion,asthereisarealdearthofresearchonthisissue.Mallory(1993)observedthatindevelopingcountriestraditionalattitudesofpityandcharityarechangingslowly.Miles(1996),onthebasisofhisstudyinPakistanandotherstudiesin30countries,notedthattheprogressivedevelopmentisfromnegative,stigmatizingandrejectingattitudes,throughpityandcompassiontowardswillingnesstoacceptthephysicallychallengedpersonsonequalterms.However,anysuchgeneralconclusionneedstobetestedwithsomestandardizedmeasuresofattitudesandbeliefs.Inthelastfewdecades,manydevelopingcountrieshaveenactedlawstocurbdiscriminatorypracticesinemployment,healthandeducation,andtoequalizeopportunitiesforthephysicallychallenged.ThePeoplewithDisabilitiesAct(1995)inIndia,theDisabilityDiscriminationAct(2002)inKoreaandtheHumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommissionAct(1986)inAustraliaaresomeoftheexamplesofcomprehensivelegislativemeasures.Indeed,morethan70%ofthedisability-relatedlawsinAsianandAfricancountrieshavebeenenactedinlastquartercenturyonly.Inspiteoftheselegislativemeasures,fullparticipationandequalityofopportunityforpersonswithdisability,especiallyintheÞeldofhealth,educationandemployment,isstilladistantdream.Thesocialandphysicalenvironmentisstilldesignedwithoutconsideringthespecialneedsofpersonswithdisabilities.Physicalobstaclesandsocialbarrierspreventthesepeoplefromparticipatingincommunityandsociallife.AstheESCAPReport(1993)statesinthecontextofAsianandPaciÞcregion,ÔÔThisislargelybecausenegativesocialattitudesexcludepersonswithdisabilitiesfromanequalshareintheirentitlementsascitizens.SuchattitudesalsocurtailtheopportunitiesofpeoplewithdisabilitiesfromsocialcontactandclosepersonalrelationshipswithothersÕÕ(p.5).Thereportfurtherstatesthat,ÔÔWithimprovedattitudes,increasedawarenessandmuchcare,wecanbuildsocialandphysicalenvironmentthatareaccessibletoall,i.e.,wemustworktowardsasocietyforallÕÕ(p.5).Itisthereforeimportanttounderstandtheseattitudesmorecloselytoexaminetheirimplicationsforrehabilitationactivities.Helander(1994)alsostated,ÔÔPerhapsthemostimportantreasonforthedifÞcultiesdisabledpeoplearefacingliesinthenegativeattitudetowardsthem,anattitudebasedonignoranceandprejudiceÕÕ.Wright(1964)foundthatanegativeevaluationoftheconditionofdisabilityspreadstoinßuencetheevaluationofothernon-impairedcharacteristics.SuchspreadeffectÑthepowerofsinglecharacteristictoevokeinferencesaboutapersonÑwasdemonstratedinmanystudies(Hewstone,1994).ThesestudiesevidencedthatthetermÔÔdisabilityÕÕcanevokemanyresponsesaboutvariouspresumeddispositionsofapersonwithdisability.Theseresponsesarenotcasual;theyindicatetherespondentÕsgeneralizedviewsaboutdisability.Peoplegeneralizefromthephysicalcharacteristictoaffectiveandbehaviouralcharacteristics.SuchstereotypescouldbecoherentandÞtinpeopleÕsownnaivetheories.Thesearebasedonculture-speciÞcpopularmisconceptionsampliÞedbyliterature,poetry,paintings,music,andsoon.Wright(1983)hasstatedthatbecauseofthespread,thedegreeofdisabilityisoftenperceivedasmoresevereanddisablingthanitactuallyis.Anotherrelatedissueisthemeaningofpositiveattitude.TheresearchsuggeststhatpeoplewithdisabilityandthosewhodonothaveanydisabilitydiffersigniÞcantlyintheirperceptionregardingwhatconstitutesapositiveattitude.Forpersonswithdisability,positiveattitudewouldmeaneitherdispensingawaywiththespecialcategoryofdisabilityentirely,orpromotingattitudesthatdefendtheircivilandspecialrights.Foranon-disabled,positiveattitudewouldreßectadesiretobenice,helpfulandplacethepersonwithdisabilityinasituationthatcangivethespecialattentiontheyrequire(Makas,Finnerty-Fried,Sigafoos&Reiss,1988).Thereforeitispossiblethat,inbeingnice,caringandhelpful,thePhysicallychallengedinIndia information.Sincetheseattitudesbecomefunctional,ournaturaltendencyistopaymoreattentiontotheconÞrmatoryinformationthantothediscrepantone.Thus,thediscrepantinformationhastobesufÞcientlystrongandcompellingtocreatesomedissonanceinthemindoftheperson.FestingerÕscognitivedissonancetheory(1957)arguesthatpeoplemaybeforcedtobringsomechangeintheirattitudeinthefaceofdiscrepantinformation.Morethan2000studieshavesupportedthepredictionsderivedfromthistheory(Cooper,1999).Anattitudeissimultaneouslyapersonaldispositionandasocietalproduct.Italwayshasasocialreference.Ourallattitudeshavetheirbasisinsocialcommunicationandlearning,whichwesharewithothermembersofourgrouporcommunity.Insomesocieties,attitudesarecloselylinkedwithgroupgoalsorgroupidentityandtherearepressurestowardsuniformity.Insuchcases,attitudechangeistypicallyrootedintheprocessofcommunicationwithinthegroup,thetermsofwhicharesetbytheopinionleaders.Theattitudechangeprocess,whetherittakesplaceatthelevelofcompliance,identiÞcationorinternalization,islikelytoevolvetoasigniÞcantdegreeoutofsuchsocialinteraction.Finally,foreachindividual,agivenattituderepresentsarangeofcommitment.Thisreferstobothpositiveandnegativeassociationsandactions;bothapproachandavoidancetendencies.AttitudesdeÞneourrelationshipswithpeople,groupsandobjects.Aneventorexperiencewillbringchangeinattitudeifitpresentsopportunitiesthathavenotbeenpresentedbefore.Peoplemayhavebeenreadyforthischangeinthesensethatitwaswithintheirrangeofcommitmentandpartoftheirpotentialrepertoire.AttitudestowardsthephysicallychallengedAnumberofstudiesconductedintheAsianregionshowsthatpeopleexperiencewidediscriminationbecauseoftheirphysicaldisability.Literatureinthisareaprovidessubstantialevidencethatthephysicallychallengeddofeeldiscriminatedinallsocieties(Lang,1998).InaNationalSurveyconductedinKorea(2002),about85%ofthepopulationwithdisabilitiesfeltthattheyarediscriminatedagainstbecauseoftheirphysicalcondition(Kim,2004).SimilarÞndingswereobtainedinIndiaalso.IntwostudiesconductedintheruralareasinNorthernIndia,Dalaletal.(Dalal,2000;Dalal,Pande,Dhawan,Dwijendra,&Berry,2000)foundthattheprevailingdisabilityattitudesoflocalcommunitiesandfamiliesofpersonswithdisabilitieswerenegativeandpatronizing.Itwasfoundinthiscomprehensivesurveythat50%ofthefamiliesintheruralsectorfeltthattheirmembershavingdisabilitiescoulddonothingintermsofcontributingtofamilyincome.Thesenegativeattitudesareconsideredmajorsourcesofsocialdiscriminationintermsofdelayedtreatmentandrehabilitation,schooldrop-outandforgivinglowprioritiestodisabilityservices.ConductingasurveyusingthesamemeasuresinSouthIndia,Paterson(2000)foundthattheattitudesofCBRworkerstowardspeoplewithdisabilitieswerenotaffectedbyage,gender,maritalstatus,CBRworkexperienceandcontactwithapersonwithadisability.Theirattitudesareslightlymorepositivetowardsthosewithorthopaedicdisabilitiesandmorenegativetowardspeoplewithavisualimpairment.TheonlysigniÞcantinßuenceonattitudeswastheoverallyearsofschoolattended.NowickiandSandieson(2002)meta-analysed20studiesspanningtheperiod1990Ð2000whichmettheinclusioncriteria,allowingfor65comparisonsacross2240participantsfromdifferentcountries.Factorsofinterestwereattitudinalcomponents,typeofdisability,ageandgenderofrespondents,androleofinclusion.ThemajorityofresearchÞndingsrevealedthatchildrenpreferredtargetchildrenwithoutdisabilitiescomparedtotargetswithphysicalorintellectualdisabilities.Attitudinalhandicapsarepervasiveandoftenfarmoredevastatingthantheenvironmentalhandicaps.Whetherthenegativeattitudesareofaversion,fear,guilt,anger,pityorPhysicallychallengedinIndia Thiscommunityinterventionprogrammeenvisionedanattitudechangethroughsuchactionprogrammesthatcreatedissonanceinthemindsofpeoplebydemonstratingstrengthsofpersonshavingdisabilities,whowereotherwiselookeddownuponasunproductivemembersofthecommunity.Socialinterventionsforattitudechange(a)Rolereversal:FrombeneÞciariestoprovidersThegovernmentofIndiahaslaunchedanumberofschemesforthewelfareofpeoplewithdisabilityinlastÞvedecades.Manygovernmentschemes,suchastravelconcessions,scholarships,disabilitypension,bankloansforself-employment,andsoon,werenotaccessibletothetargetedgroups,partlybecauseofbureaucratichassles,corruptionandcallousness.AdisabilitycertiÞcate,whichonlytheChiefMedicalOfÞcerofthedistrict,ortheHeadsofDepartmentsoftheMedicalCollegeinAllahabadcitywereauthorizedtoissue,wasneededtoavailgovernmentschemes.Forpoorvillagers,itwasnearlyimpossibletoprocurethesecertiÞcates,andonlyÞvetosixphysicallychallengedpeopleinthesevillageshadthecertiÞcate.TheÞrstmajorventureoftheCBRVillageCommitteewastoorganizethreecertiÞcatecamps.Toorganizethesecamps,theCommitteeconductedasurveyandidentiÞedabout350physicallychallengedchildrenandadultsintheregion.ThesepersonsassembledatacommunitycentreonthedaywhenmedicalofÞcials,whowereauthorizedtoissuedisabilitycertiÞcates,visitedtheprojectarea.Theteamconductedthemedicalcheck-upsandissuedmedicalcertiÞcatestothedeservingthenandthere.Ithelped122personstogetthecertiÞcateintheÞrstphase.ThiscertiÞcatecouldbeusedbythephysicallychallengedpersonsandtheirfamiliestoavailtravelconcession.Forexample,personswithdisabilitygot75%concessioninrailandbustravel,andoneoftheaccompanyingpersonswasalsoentitledtothesameconcession.Thiswasasubstantialsavingandmanylookedforopportunitiestotravelwiththephysicallychallenged.OnthebasisofthisdisabilitycertiÞcate,afewphysicallychallengedpersonsgotsmallloansfrombankstostarttheirownbusinesses,whichoftenbeneÞtedthewholefamily.AvailingthesegovernmentbeneÞtsindeedmadethephysicallychallengedprovidersofcertainbeneÞtstotheirfamilyandfriends.Anotheractivitythatfacilitatedattitudechangewasaninitiativetakenbythechildrenwithdisabilitytocollectpublicdonationsforthereliefoftheßoodvictims.Thesechildrenwentfromdoortodoorintheirneighbourhoodappealingpeopletohelpvictimsoftheßoodthatravagedthenearbyregion.Thephysicallychallengedchildrenpreparedtheirownbandandtheytookoutprocessionstocollectpublicdonations.Thoughthemoneycollectedwasnotabigamount,childrenwithdisabilitywereseenfortheÞrsttimeduringthesecampaignsascontributingtoasocialcause,ratherthanbeingatthereceivingend.Thisinitiativebythephysicallychallengedchildrenwaswidelycoveredbylocalnewspapers.(b)BreakingmentalbarriersAsurveyhadshownthatthephysicallychallengedandtheirfamiliesbelievedthatdisabilityseverelyrestrictsoneÕsabilitytobeaproductivememberofthefamily(Dalal&Pande,1995).Itwasalsofoundthatpeopleoftendescribedisablementintermsoftheactivitiesthatthephysicallychallengedcannotdo.Peopleoftenshooktheirheadsandcommented,ÔÔHowcanpeoplewithdisabilitydoanything?ÕÕTheyattributedtheirconditiontotheirKarmaPhysicallychallengedinIndia ItisindeeddifÞcultobjectivelytoappraiseattitudechangeusingstandardmeasuresinsuchprojects.Ideally,thesecommunityinterventionsshouldhavebeenplannedinaccordancewiththebeforeÐafterquasi-experimentaldesignbutitisrarelyfeasiblewhileworkingwiththerealcommunities.InaCBRprogramme,planninganddecision-makingisoftenaprerogativeoftheparticipatinglocalcommunities,limitingtheroleofaresearcher.However,someindicatorsoftheefÞcacyofthisprogrammeinbringingaboutattitudechangeandawarenesswereunambiguous.First,wastheincreasedvisibilityandparticipationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesincommunityactivities.Theyactivelyparticipatedinvariousforums,thatis,inschools,healthcentres,communitymeetingsandsocialfestivities.ManyofthemsteppedoutoftheirhousesfortheÞrsttime.Theirpresenceandparticipationinpubliclifewasindicativeofthechangingpublicattitude.Itmadecommunitymembersawareofthephysicalbarriersandsocialbarriersfacedbythephysicallychallenged.Second,itwasalsonoticedthatthenumberofphysicallychallengedattendingthemeetingscalledbytheCBRCommitteegraduallyincreasedfromnoneto30Ð40%duringthe3years.Inthesemeetings,peopleweremoreactivelyinvolvedindiscussingthedirectionthatthisCBRprogrammeshouldtake.Third,recordsoftheprimaryhealthcentrerevealedthattherewasalmosta150%increaseinimmunizationagainstpoliointhethirdyear.Thatis,morefamilieswerebringingtheirchildrenforthepoliovaccinethaninthepast.Fourth,agreaternumberofpeoplefromthisregionwerereachingouttohospitalsandrehabilitationcentresinanearbycity,asreportedbythestaffoftheseinstitutions.Peoplewhoearlierthoughtthatnothingcouldbedonewerenowexploringthepossibilitiesofmedicalrehabilitationwithcommunitysupport.Theseoutcomes,thoughnotpreciselyquantiÞed,wereindicativeofthedeÞnitechangeofcommunityÕsattitudeinapositivedirection.ReferencesCooper,J.(1999).Unwantedconsequencesandtheself:Insearchofthemotivationfordissonancereduction.InE.Harmon-Jones&J.Mills(Eds.),Cognitivedissonance:Progressonapivotaltheoryinsocialpsychology.Washington,D.C.:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.Dalal,A.K.(2000).Socialattitudesandrehabilitationofpeoplewithdisability:TheIndianexperience.JournalofRehabilitation,15Ð21.Dalal,A.K.,&Pande,N.(1995).Acommunityinterventionprogrammeforchangingattitudetowarddisability.TheSocialEngineer,16Ð25.Dalal,A.K.,Pande,N.,Dhawan,N.,Dwijendra,D.,&Berry,J.(2000).TheMindmatters:Disabilityattitudesandcommunitybasedrehabilitation.Allahabad:UniversityofAllahabad,India.ESCAP.(1993).AsiaandPaciÞcdecadeofdisabledpersons,1993Ð2002:Thestartingpoint.NewYork:UnitedFestinger,L.(1957).Atheoryofcognitivedissonance.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.Helander,E.(February,1994).Policies,planningandresearchindevelopingcountries.PaperpresentedattheAsiaRegionalConferenceonResearchandEvaluationinCBR,Bangalore,India.Hewstone,M.(1994).Revisionandchangeofstereotypicbeliefs:Insearchofthesubtypingmodel.InS.Stroebe&M.Hewstone(Eds.),Europeanreviewofsocialpsychology,Vol.5.Chichester:Wiley.Holmes,G.E.,&Karst,R.H.(1990).Theinstitutionalizationofdisabilitymyths:Impactonvocationalrehabilitationservices.JournalofRehabilitation,20Ð27.Kelman,H.C.(1978).Attitudeandbehaviour:Asocial-psychologicalproblem.InJ.M.Yinger&S.J.CutlerMajorsocialissues:Amultidisciplinaryview.NewYork:FreePress.Kim,S.S.(2004).KoreaÕsstrategyforenactingdisabilitydiscriminationlegislation.Seoul:KoreanSocietyforRehabilitationofPersonswithDisability.Kraus,S.J.(1995).Attitudesandpredictionsofbehaviour:Ameta-analysisoftheempiricalliterature.PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin,58Ð75.PhysicallychallengedinIndia