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23 Sep Methodology of the class 23 Sep Methodology of the class

23 Sep Methodology of the class - PowerPoint Presentation

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23 Sep Methodology of the class - PPT Presentation

23 Sep Methodology of the class   30 Sep What is the religion Theories on origin of the religions animism hedonism revelation etc Basic features of major religions   7 Oct Classification of Religions ID: 765360

path god life christianity god path christianity life jesus religion world judaism religions means church roman hinduism jews holy

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23 SepMethodology of the class 30 SepWhat is the religion?Theories on origin of the religions: animism, hedonism, revelation etc.Basic features of major religions 7 OctClassification of ReligionsHistory of JudaismBasic teachings of Judaism: Testament, Holy Ground, Sin and Suffering, Salvation, Myths and Rituals 14 OctSacred texts of JudaismConcept of God in JudaismMain sects of Judaism  21 OctHistory of ChristianityBasic teachings of Christianity: Sin and Suffering, Salvation, Myths and Rituals 28 OctSacred texts of ChristianityConcept of God in ChristianityMain sects of Christianity 4 NovWhat is the comparative method?Comparative approach: Judaism, Christianity and Islam 11 NovTerm of Indian ReligionsHistory of HinduismBasic teachings of Hinduism: samsara, karma, moksha, avatara, Myths and Rituals 2 Dec Sacred texts of HinduismConcept of God in HinduismMain sects of Hinduism Hinduism in today’s world 9 DecHistory of BuddhismBasic teachings of Buddhism: samsara, karma, nirvana, Myths and Rituals 16 DecSacred texts of BuddhismDoes Buddhism accept concept of God?Main sects of Buddhism  23 DecSikhism and Jainism: their history and basic beliefs  30 DecReading on Hindu Muslim Interaction in medieval period“Amrakunda” (Havdu’l Haya) and “Macmuat’ul Bahrayn”   Cemil Kutluturk , Asist . Prof., “History fo Religions ” – 2016-2017 academik year , I. smester

What is the history and religion?«deen, dharma, tao, religion»

In brief,A chronological record of events, as of the life or development of a people or institution, often including an explanation of or commentary on those eventsThe branch of knowledge that records and analyzes past eventsThe past events relating to a particular thinga continuous, systematic narrative of past events as relating to a particular people, country, period, person, etc., written as a chronological account

Definition of the Word Deen Deen is a word in Arabic roughly meaning "creed" or "religion" that features heavily in Islam. The term is loosely associated with religion, but in the Qur'an, it means the way of life in which righteous Muslims must adopt to comply with divine law (Quran and sunnah), or Shari'a, and to the divine judgmentt.The Hebrew term transliterated as "dīn", means either "law" or "judgement.In Judaism, the word Dīn appears inthe Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) which occurs 24 times. It often means "to judge", "judgment" and "to vindicate". The transitive verb usage denotes "requite, compensate, rule, govern, obedience, abasement, recompense, requiter, governor.

“1:4 مَٰلِكِ يَوْمِ ٱلدِّينِ transliterated as "Maliki yawmi ad-Dīni," and (usually) translated as "Master of the Day of Judgment".”What is the meaning of “deen” in Quran ?Some Qur'anic scholars have translated Dīn in places as "faith"[ Others suggest that the term "has been used in various forms and meanings, e.g., system, power, supremacy, ascendancy, sovereignty or lordship, dominion, law, constitution, government, realm, decision , definite outcome , reward and punishment . On the other hand , this word is also used in the sense of “ obedience , submission and allegiance ". [9 that the term Dīn is also widely used in translations of the Qur'an in a third sense. Most famously in its opening chapter , al- Fātiḥah , the term is translated in almost all English translations as " judgment ": The well-known Islamic scholar , Fazlur Rahman Malik, suggested that Dīn is best considered as " the way - to -be- followed ".

What is the meaning of 'millah‘?Milel and Nihal”

What is the meaning of the work 'millah', and how does its meaning differ to that of 'deen'?Millah and dîn are two words that are quite close in their meaning. We can refer to the millah of Islam or to the dîn of Islam. Both words are mentioned in Qur’ân in this context. Allah say: “And the Jews will not be pleased with you, nor the Christians, until you follow their religion (millah).” [Sûrah al-Baqarah: 120] He says says: “And that is the religion (dîn) right and straight” [Sûrah al-Bayyinah: 5] This does not mean that these two words are identical in meaning. Each has its separate meaning but they also converge in a shared general meaning. If one of these words is mentioned on its own, it will indicate the other. If they are mentioned together in one context, the word millah will mean the community of people following the religion and the whole of the message brought by the Messengers, while the word dîn will mean the religious devotion and conviction of the people.

History of history of religions in islamic WorldThree types1. the books related with other religions and sectsAbdülkerim Şehristanî (ö. 479 h.k.) "Milel ve Nihal«,İbn Hazm (ö. 456 h.k.) "el-Faslu fi’l-Milel ve’l-Ehva ve’n-Nihal«2. the books related with religions / sects which were occured only in Islamic landscape. Ebu’l-Hasan Eş’arî, «Makalâtu’l-İslâmîyyin ve İhtilâfu’l-Musallîn»Abdulkahir Bağdadî (ö. 429 h.k.), «el-Farku Beyne’l-Fırak»3. focused on only a specific islamic sectNevbahtî, "Fıraku’s-Şia” Saad b. Abdullah Eş’arî , “el-Makalât ve’l-Fırak«

JUDAISM –Ihistory, basic terms

Basic termsHebrew means “From across”- name given to Abraham and his followers Israelites: Abraham’s grandson Jacob renamed Israel which means “he who has wrestled with God”. His descendants were called “Israelites”Jews: named after Jacob’s son Judah (Yahuda), ancient father of tribe of King David’s dynastyPopulation of J.That's a difficult question to answer, because not every country keeps track of such things, and not every Jew chooses to admit such things, particularly in countries where Jews are persecuted. Most estimates I have seen suggest that there are about 14 million Jews in the world. The vast majority of these Jews live in either the United States and Israel; Israel with over 6 million Jews and America with about 5.5 million. There are about 2.5 million Jews in Europe (a third of them in France), 400,000 in Latin America and 400,000 in Canada. In Africa, there are less than 75,000 Jews, about 90% of whom live in the country of South Africa. There are about 125,000 Jews in Australia and New Zealand combined. There are about 40,000 Jews in Asia (not including Israel), half of them in former Soviet Union countries.

13 Principles of Faith- Essence of J.The closest that anyone has ever come to creating a widely-accepted list of Jewish beliefs is Rambam’s thirteen principles of faith. These principles, which Rambam thought were the minimum requirements of Jewish belief, are: God exists God is one and unique God is incorporeal God is eternal Prayer is to be directed to G-d alone and to no other The words of the prophets are true Moses’ prophecies are true, and Moses was the greatest of the prophets The Written Torah (first 5 books of the Bible) and Oral Torah (teachings now contained in the Talmud and other writings) were given to Moses There will be no other Torah God knows the thoughts and deeds of men God will reward the good and punish the wicked The Messiah will come The dead will be resurrected

The Nature of GodCovenants with good peopleResponds to their needsdeliveranceGuides & directs His peopleCompassionate Controls with justiceSource of forgiving, redeeming loveEstablishes peace on earth

Next class: Sacred TextsThe Hebrew Bible or TanakhKnown by Christians as "Old Testament“contains the same books as the Christian version but in a different order after the first five Considered revealed and inspired by GodInterpretation of early history of the Hebrew people, establishment of a nation Story of God’s interaction with His "Chosen People" (His-Story) Foundation of Jewish lifeCalled the Bible (Biblia) means "little books“Actually a library of 39 independent books divided into 3 categories:

The 3 CategoriesTorahMost important textDivine instruction and guidance or "Written Law”Books are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, DeuteronomyCovers history from creation through the Exodus and wandering in the desert 613 commandments from God

Continued…2. Prophets: Words and revelations of the minor and major prophets Ezekiel, Isaiah, Amos, Jonah, etc.3. Writings: poetic and devotional material written and used during the same time as the Prophets, words and works of the sages Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Ruth, Esther, Daniel, etc. The TalmudOral tradition passed to Moses and beyondFinally written down in the 2nd centuryContains info on rituals, marriages, agricultural laws, festivals, etc.

Ten CommandmentsI am the Lord your GodYou shall have no other gods before meYou shall not make for yourself an idolDo not take the name of the Lord in vainRemember the Sabbath and keep it holyHonor your father and motherYou shall not kill/murder†You shall not commit adulteryYou shall not steal††You shall not bear false witness against your neighborYou shall not covet‡ your neighbor's wifeYou shall not covet‡ anything that belongs to your neighbor

Chosness, Casiye, 16 (blessings, boons)Bakara, 40 (essence of covinent, ahit)Bakara, 83-84 / maide 12 (what were the ahits)

Please write the concept of «chosenness» and «promised land» according to Quran?

RitualsJewish calendar based on lunar monthSabbath/ShabbatObserved each weekSundown on Fridaysundown on SaturdayRosh HashanahNew yearBegins the Days of AweConcentrate on prayer, contemplation, self-searchingYom Kippur10th day (of awe)Holiest day observedRepentance: 24 hours of atonement and fasting

Rise and Spread of Christianity

Attention!!Today, Christianity is the largest world religion, with about 2 billion adherents. It is the majority religion of Europe and the Americas, and there are churches in almost every nation in the world. There are perhaps thousands of Christian denominations, all of whom believe in the basic doctrines established at the Council of Nicea but differ in other matters of doctrine and practice. In recent years, there has been a growing movement among these denominations to work together in unity for the good of the world. In 1948, the World Council of Churches was founded to that end.

MAIN IDEASChristianity built upon the Jewish belief in one God and the concept of a Messiah.The disciples of Jesus came to believe that he was the Messiah.According to the Gospels, Jesus was executed but rose from the dead. Christians believe that this makes freedom from sin and death possible for everyone.Christianity emerged at a time of widespread unrest in the Roman province of Judaea (Palestine). Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of NazarethChrist comes from the Greek word “christos” which means “messiah” or “anointed one”

Looking for a MessiahChristianity grew from Judaism and ideas of Jesus—a Jewish teacherRomans conquered Jewish kingdom of Judah (Judea) in 63 B.C.Jewish kings had to be approved by RomeMany Jews sought freedom from foreign rulersSacred writings promised a Messiah who would free themSome believed the ruler would be descended from King David

REVIEW QUESTIONWhat event made Jesus’ followers believe their leader was divine?

The Early Christians & The New FaithRomans followed a number of religions and also allowed a great deal of freedom to other religions. Jews and Christians began to disagree on religious grounds, and Christianity slowly became a separate religion. Jews and early Christians shared the same basic beliefs, but differed on the idea of the messiah. At first, Christians concentrated on trying to convert other Jews. After serious debate, the early Christians decided to preach Christianity to the Gentiles.

How did the Roman Empire help spread Christianity?During Pax Romana, missionaries traveled safelyRoman Roads helped to spread quicklyConstantine convertedConstantine built churches in Rome and JerusalemReligious freedomChristianity becomes official religion of the Roman Empire

The Spread of ChristianityAfter Jesus’s death, his disciples began teaching that all people could achieve salvation—the forgiveness of sins and the promise of everlasting life.Apostles: Jesus’s 12 disciples worked to spread messageEarliest Christian missionariesApostles traveled widely, teaching mostly in Jewish communitiesPaul, originally known as Saul, born in Tarsus, in Asia MinorHad actively opposed those teaching that Jesus was the MessiahPaul had conversion on way to Damascus, became ChristianIf not for his work, Christianity might have remained a branch of Judaism

Then,What helped spread Christianity through the Roman world?

Answer(s): Paul of Tarsus and other disciples; Constantine’s conversion; outlawing of public non-Christian sacrifices by Theodosius (d. 395)

Converting the GentilesPaul believed God sent him to convert non-Jews, or GentilesPaul helped make Christianity broader religion, attracted many new followersHelped establish Christian churches throughout eastern MediterraneanPaul’s epistles, or letters, to those churches later became part of the New TestamentPaul found some Jewish customs hindered missionary work among non-Jews, dispensed with those requirements for ChristiansPaul emphasized new doctrines that helped distinguish Christianity from JudaismChristianity spread; message of love, eternal life after death found appealingBy AD 300, some 10 percent of Roman people were Christian

What is the difference between Christianity and Judaism?

Of the major world religions, Christianity and Judaism are likely the most similar. Christianity and Judaism both believe in one God who is almighty, omniscient, omnipresent, eternal, and infinite. Both religions believe in a God who is holy, righteous, and just, while at the same time loving, forgiving, and merciful. Christianity and Judaism share the Hebrew Scriptures (the Old Testament) as the authoritative Word of God, although Christianity includes the New Testament as well. Both Christianity and Judaism believe in the existence of heaven, the eternal dwelling place of the righteous, and hell, the eternal dwelling place of the wicked (although not all Christians and not all Jews believe in the eternality of hell). Christianity and Judaism have basically the same ethical code, commonly known today as Judeo-Christian. Both Judaism and Christianity teach that God has a special plan for the nation of Israel and the Jewish peopleRead more:

The all-important difference between Christianity and Judaism is the Person of Jesus Christ. Christianity teaches that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecies of a coming Messiah / Savior (Isaiah 7:14; 9:6-7; Micah 5:2). Judaism often recognizes Jesus as a good teacher, and perhaps even a prophet of God. Judaism does not believe that Jesus was the Messiah. Taking it a step further, Christianity teaches that Jesus was God in the flesh (Hebrews 1:8). Christianity teaches that God became a human being in the Person of Jesus Christ so He could lay down His life to pay the price for our sins (Romans 5:8; 2 Corinthians 5:21). Judaism strongly denies that Jesus was God or that such a sacrifice was necessary.

Jesus Christ is the all-important distinction between Christianity and Judaism. The Person and work of Jesus Christ is the one primary issue that Christianity and Judaism cannot agree upon. In Matthew 15:24, Jesus declared, "I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel.” The religious leaders of Israel in Jesus' time asked Him, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” Jesus replied, 'I am,' ... And you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven" (Mark 14:61-62). But they didn’t believe His words or accept Him as the Messiah.

DOCTRINES OF TRINITY

Trinity, in Christian doctrine, the unity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead.Neither the word Trinity nor the explicit doctrine appears in the New Testament, nor did Jesus and his followers intend to contradict the Shema in the Hebrew Scriptures: “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord” (Deuteronomy 6:4). The earliest Christians, however, had to cope with the implications of the coming of Jesus Christ and of the presumed presence and power of God among them—i.e., the Holy Spirit, whose coming was connected with the celebration of the Pentecost. The Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were associated in such New Testament passages as the Great Commission: “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Matthew 28:19); and in the apostolic benediction: “The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all” (2 Corinthians 13:14). Thus, the New Testament established the basis for the doctrine of the Trinity.

The doctrine developed gradually over several centuries and through many controversies. Initially, both the requirements of monotheism inherited from the Hebrew Scriptures and the implications of the need to interpret the biblical teaching to Greco-Roman religions seemed to demand that the divine in Christ as the Word, or Logos, be interpreted as subordinate to the Supreme Being. An alternative solution was to interpret Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three modes of the self-disclosure of the one God but not as distinct within the being of God itself. The first tendency recognized the distinctness among the three, but at the cost of their equality and hence of their unity (subordinationism); the second came to terms with their unity, but at the cost of their distinctness as “persons” (modalism). It was not until the 4th century that the distinctness of the three and their unity were brought together in a single orthodox doctrine of one essence and three persons.

The Council of Nicaea in 325 stated the crucial formula for that doctrine in its confession that the Son is “of the same substance as the Father,” even though it said very little about the Holy Spirit. Over the next half century, Athanasius defended and refined the Nicene formula, and, by the end of the 4th century, under the leadership of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus (the Cappadocian Fathers), the doctrine of the Trinity took substantially the form it has maintained ever since. It is accepted in all of the historic confessions of Christianity, even though the impact of the Enlightenment decreased its importance.

In 325 AD, Constantine called the Council of Nicea so that the bishops could work out their differences. They declared the Son (Christ) to be of "one substance" with the Father. We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen.  We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, light from light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with the Father; through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven, was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary and became truly human.   For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.  We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son], who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified, who has spoken through the prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.The Nicene Creed

Scriptures?Hebrew ScripturesThe Tanakh (TNK) is an acronym of the initial Hebrew letters of the Tanakh's three traditional subdivisions: Torah (Law) Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). According to Jewish tradition, the Tanakh consists of twenty-four books.“Protestant” OT: 39 books“Catholic” OT: 46 books add 1,2 Maccabees; Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus; Baruch (Deutero-canonicals)

Old Testament, New TestamentJewish Scholars have no issue with this nomenclature.The Christian Old Testament (39, 46 books) is not the same as the Hebrew Scriptures (24 books)The structure of the Jewish Sacred Writings is not the same as that of the Christian Old Testament.The Jewish Texts are structured so as to point to reconstruction and renewal of Israel. While all Christians agree there are 27 books in the New Testament, Catholics (46)and Protestants (39) disagree on the number of books of the Old Testament. Protestant scholars follow Martin Luther who accepted only those texts originally written in Hebrew, rejecting the texts first recorded in Greek. Hence seven Deutero- (extra)canonical books of the Catholic Bible (Septuagint)

The Great Schism of 1054

What was the Big Deal?There was already tension between the Byzantine and old Roman Empire.The Eastern priests could marry before they became priests. Rome didn’t agree.The Roman church used unleavened bread in their mass. The east thought this was too “Jewish”.The Eastern church had Greek mass. The Roman Church used Latin.The Eastern churches did not like how the Pope of Rome claimed himself to be the head of the Christian church. If anyone, the Eastern church believed the patriarch (bishop) of Constantinople should be the head.In 1054, the final straw came when the Western Church added the filioque to their creed which included the “Holy Spirit” in the Christian Trinity.

In 1054, Pope Leo IX of Rome and the Patriarch/Bishop of Constantinople decided to excommunicate each other.Excommunication is the worst punishment a member of the Christian Church can receive.They are not allowed to receive sacraments and have no hope of entering heaven, according to Christian beliefs.The result of the 1054 Schism is the division between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Church.The word Orthodox means dedication to the traditional faith.The Eastern church believed that they followed traditional Christian beliefs and unlike the Roman church with they viewed as greedy and too close to Judaism.Divided church for 100 years; final straw in the splitSome believed icons to be worshipped, some saw them as symbols of God’s presence. AD 726 – Byzantine Emperor Leo III ends use of icons in church.Followers known as iconoclasts = image breakers.Many refused to follow; AD 787 church appeals decision

Roman Catholicism v. Eastern OrthodoxRoman Catholicism – In WestCentered in RomePriests were celibateLatin used in servicesSupported use of iconsHeaded by PopeBecomes Roman Catholic ChurchEastern Orthodox – In EastCentered in ConstantinoplePriests could marryGreek used in servicesForbid use of iconsHeaded by PatriarchBecomes Eastern Orthodox Church

Protestantism It is one of the three major branches of Christianity, along with Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. It shares with all other Christians core beliefs in the doctrines of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, the necessity of grace to save humans from the consequences of sin, and the centrality of Jesus' death and resurrection for salvation. Composed of hundreds of denominations with an expansive variety of doctrines, rituals, and religious practices, Protestantism formed from the split with Roman Catholicism during the Reformation in the 16th century. Led by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others, the reformers broke from the Roman Catholic Church due to abusive ecclesiological structures and theological differences. Protestants share an adherence to the centrality of scripture (both the Hebrew scriptures and the New Testament) as well as a doctrine of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ. Different Protestant denominations have to varying degrees maintained or rejected Roman Catholic forms of worship. Anglican and Lutheran churches have maintained liturgies and rituals similar to those of the Roman Catholic Church, whereas other denominations, such as Baptists, Presbyterians, Pentecostals, and United Church of Christ, have developed less liturgical forms of worship. Most Protestants practice baptism and communion as key rites of Christian initiation and ongoing devotion. Though originating in Europe, Protestant Christianity has spread across the globe through missionary activity and now has members from nearly every country, race, and ethnicity.

Core of his teachings rest in three “alones” or “onlys.”Sola Fide—Salvation is “by faith alone.” Faith is free and is a gift from God. (Erasmus—an exercise of free will, people could choose to believe);Sola Gratia—salvation depends on the grace of God alone—his gift is independent of human action—it is because of Christ’s death on the Cross—man need only have faith, believe, accept, and ask …3) Sola Scriptura—the “Bible alone” teaches all we need to know and is the single source of authority—Popes, councils, and traditions were sinful man-made inventions to keep people loyal to a human endeavor—not to God as it should be …

SacramentalismSacramentalism is a central and vital component within Catholic theology. For Catholics, sacraments are “effective signs” of grace instituted by Christ. Catholicism’s seven sacraments (baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, extreme unction[last rites], holy orders[ordination into the priesthood], and matrimony) both signify grace and cause it to happen ex opere operato (“they work by their own working”). While various evangelical denominations differ in their acceptance and approach to sacraments (or ordinances), generally speaking evangelicals differ with the Catholic view in number, nature, and operation of the sacraments. The Eucharist and the sacrificial nature of the mass in particular engender great dispute between Catholics and evangelicals. Both of these areas of concern have direct Christological implications

The Eucharist is the celebration of the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus.In the Bible, it is called the Lord's Supper. Christians are invited to celebrate the Eucharist every week during Mass. Children usually make their First Holy Communion at the age of 7 or 8.This is a formal affair, and children completing their First Holy Communion wear formal attire.…Water baptism makes believers a part of the church. It is a custom of the Catholic Church to baptize infants.

The term of Indian ReligionsIndian religions, also termed as Dharmic faiths or religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent; namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism that follow the rules of Dharma. These religions are also classified as Eastern religions. Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities, and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent

History of HinduismHinduism is a term for a wide variety of related religious traditions native to India. Historically, it encompasses the development of Religion in India since the Iron Age traditions, which in turn hark back to prehistoric religions such as that of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization followed by the Vedic religion. According to historians, the origin of Hinduism dates back to 5,000 or more years. The word "Hindu" is derived from the name of River Indus, which flows through north-western India. In ancient times the river was called the "Sindhu", but the Persians who migrated to India called the river "Hindu," the land "Hindustan" (Sanskrit, Hindi), and its inhabitants "Hindus". Thus the daily life practices evolved as the religion followed by the Hindus came to be known as "Hinduism

Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world, with approximately 900 million adherentsIt is also the oldest known religion in the world todayThe origins cannot be ascribed to any single founder or a specific time or a single place

Hinduism is Sanatana DharmaHinduism is often referred to as Sanatana Dharma meaning 'the eternal path'. The belief is a conglomerate of religious, philosophical and cultural ideas characterized by the belief in reincarnation, the path to righteousness, and the desire to liberate from the cycle of births and deaths.

Caste ???

The Development of the Caste System:The term caste—a social class of hereditary and unchangeable status—was first used in India by Portuguese merchants and mariners during the 16th century CE when they observed sharp social distinctions among the Indian people.The Aryans used the term varna, a Sanskrit word meaning “color,” to refer to their social classes.

Brahmins: the highest social classes were the priests and scholars, who sprang from Purusha’s mouth, and represented intellect, knowledge, and wisdom.Brahmins were the “lightest” in skin color.Kshatriyas: the warrior-aristocracy, the rulers and government officials who came from the arms of Purusha.

SCRİPTURES OF HİNDUİSMSruti in Sanskrit means "that which is heard." Thus the Vedas are the eternaltruths that the Vedic seers, called rishis, are said to have heard during their deepmeditations. The Vedas are not considered the works of the human mind, but anexpression of what has been realized through intuitive perception by Vedic rishis,who had powers to see beyond the physical phenomena. As such, Vedas areconsidered of divine origin. The Vedic truths were originally transmitted by the rishisto their disciples over thousands of years. At a later date, these were compiled bySage Vyasa for the benefit of future generations. India's teachings are notspeculative. They are based on divine revelations. Indeed, the revelations are socosmic that they approach more closely the findings of physics and astronomy thanthe pious pronouncements of preachers. The rishis made claims so cosmic that evenmodern physics seems only to be catching up with them and realizing, after everyscientific breakthrough, that the ancients were there long before them. Sruti includethe Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva) and the Bhagavad Gita. The Vedas are theprimary scriptures of Hinduism. Each of the four Vedas consists of four parts:Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

Smriti means "that which is remembered." Smriti scriptures are derived from theVedas and are considered to be of human origin and not of divine origin. They werewritten to explain and elaborate the Vedas, making them understandable and moremeaningful to the general population. All authoritative writings outside the Vedas arecollectively referred to as Smriti. Smriti inlcude the Dharma Shastras, Nibhandas,Puranas, The Epics, Agamas or Tantras, Darshanas and Vedangas (Upa Vedas).According to Alain Danielou distingused Orientalist, " The Puranas providegenealogies, which go back to the sixth millennium B.C. E. and are probably largelyauthentic. The stories and descriptions of the various regions of the earth and thevarious civilizations living on the "seven continents" provide pricelessdocumentation on the world's oldest civilization.«The Smriti are considered the secondary scriptures of Hinduism. These scriptures are classified in the following diagram:

Dharmaśāstra (धर्मशास्त्र) is a genre of Sanskrit texts, and refers to the treatises (shastras) of Hinduismm on Dharma. There are many Dharmashastras, variously estimated to be 18 to about 100, with different and conflicting points of view.The textual corpus of Dharmaśāstra were composed in poetic verses, are part of the Hindu Smritis, constituting divergent commentaries and treatises on duties, responsibilities and ethics to oneself, to family and as a member of society. The texts include discussion of ashrama (stages of life), varna (social classes), purushartha (proper goals of life), personal virtues and duties such as ahimsa (non-violence) against all living beings, rules of just war, and other topics.Bhagavadgita, 18:42śamo damas tapaḥ śaucaṁ /kṣāntir ārjavam eva cajñānaṁ vijñānam āstikyaṁ / brahma-karma svabhāva-jamPeacefulness, self-control, austerity, purity, tolerance, honesty, wisdom, knowledge, and religiousness-these are the qualities by which the brāhmaṇas work.

The word Puranas (Sanskrit: पुराण, purāṇa) literally means "ancient, old", and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.They have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.

During the early classical period another of the world’s major religions developed, Buddhism.Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE), a member of a Kshatriya family in northeastern India.He led the life of a prince, comfortable and isolated. But he wanted to know the true meaning of existence, so he abandoned the life of pleasure.

The Buddha believed that “desire” was the root cause of all human suffering and that to end suffering, one must end desire.Once he attained “enlightenment,” the Buddha spent the rest of his life spreading his knowledge to others.The Buddha never claimed to be divine, but after his death some of his disciples elevated him to that status (Mahayana).Even though Buddhism spread, by the third century BCE, it looked as though it would remain a small regional religion.

I. Generalizations of Indian Religion It is complex and indefinable—no creeds 1. Indian religion is given to a functional definition of religion and emphasizes evolutionary change 2. Hinduism can be considered more of a league of religions, than a single religion 3. It seems not to want any boundary around it.

It is a highly inclusive religious system. 1. May believe anything or nothing 2. Room for all types of soulsIt is a system of rationalism and esoteric wisdom. 1. One must go to the wisdom of the ages, a metaphysical view of history. 2. Ultimately all is question of knowledge. 3. Sin is delusion, maya is sin or delusion.

Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa), means emancipation, liberation or release. In eschatological sense, it connotes freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth. In epistemological and psychological sense, moksha connotes freedom, self-realization and self-knowledge.

In Hindu traditions, Moksha is a central concept and included as one of the four aspects and goals of human life; the other three goals are Dharma (virtuous, proper, moral life), Artha (material prosperity, income security, means of life), and Kama (pleasure, sensuality, emotional fulfillment). Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism.[7]

Puruṣārtha (पुरुषार्थ:)Dharma: "law, religious duty"Artha: "prosperity"Kāma: "pleasure"Mokṣa: "(spiritual) liberation"

How do Hindus achieve Moksha?There are four different paths to achieve Moksha which a Hindu can take. The Hindu can choose one or all four of the paths they are: 1.The path of knowledge - Jnana-Yoga (Marga)Spiritual knowledge -leading to the knowledge of the relationship between the soul (atman) and God (Brahman) 2.The path of meditation - Dhyana-yoga The idea is to concentrate so you can reach the real self within you and become one with Brahman 

3.The Path of Devotion - Bhakti-yoga Choosing a particular god or goddess and worshipping them throughout your life in actions, words and deeds. 4.The path of good works - Karma-yoga This involves doing all your duties correctly throughout your life. 

Moksha is also a concept that means liberation from rebirth or saṃsāra. This liberation can be attained while one is on earth (jivanmukti), or eschatologically (karmamukti, videhamukti)Some Indian traditions have emphasized liberation on concrete, ethical action within the world. This liberation is an epistemological transformation that permits one to see the truth and reality behind the fog of ignorance

«Those whose conduct during the previous life has been good presently obtain good birth, such as the birth of a Brahmin, a Kshatriya, or a Vaisya; those whose conduct has been bad presently obtain some evil birth such as that of a dog or a pig.»Chandogya Upanishad V. 107

What is Karma Marga?Karma Marga, in Hinduism the way to Self-realisation through selfless action. The disciple surrenders his life to brahman (also called God), the Source of the manifest world; he acts in the consciousness that God is the doer, God the thinker and God the feeler. When he ceases to be possessive of body and ideas, he realises that everything,Real belief that he possesses nothing in this way means in Hinduism that he merges with God, and in Karma Marga his purified actions are then directed towards the service of mankind. The individual who has accomplished this is no longer discouraged by failure, for where there is no personal attachment to the results of deeds, there can be no swinging back and forth between the elation of achievement and the dejection of failure.

Bhakti MargaBhakti Marga is Sanskrit and means path (marga) of devotion (bhakti). It is a way of life, a path to the Heart and connection to the inner Self and Divine Love.When there is spiritual awakening within the soul, a deep desire for inner change surfaces, that “calling” can be overwhelming and seem intangible. The path of devotion offers a direct way to answer the “calling”.Bhakti is sometimes used in the broader sense of reverence toward a deity or teacher. Bhaktimarga is usually used to describe a bhakti path with complete dedication to one form of God

Bhakti MovementBhakti (Sanskrit: भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith or love, devotion, worship, piety". Bhakti, in Hinduism, refers to devotion and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee. In ancient texts such as the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the term simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor, while in the Bhagavad Gita, it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and moksha as in bhakti marga.Bhakti in Indian religions is "emotional devotionalism", particularly to a personal god or to spiritual ideas. The term also refers to a movement that arose between the 7th century and 10th century CE in India, focused on the gods Vishnu and Shiva, possibly in response to the arrival of Islam in India. The Bhakti movement reached North India during the Delhi Sultanate era and grew throughout the Mughal era. It evolved the characteristics of Hinduism as the religion of the general population as dhimmi under the Islamic rulers in parts of the Indian subcontinent.The Bhakti movement rose in importance during the medieval history of Hinduism, starting with Southern India, growing rapidly thereafter with the spread of bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India by the 12th-18th century CE. The Bhagavata Purana is a text associated with the Bhakti movement which elaborates the concept of bhakti as found in the Bhagavad Gita.

Soul’s Journey After Death1. THE PATH OF LIGHT (DEVAYANA)2. THE PATH OF DARKNESS (PITRIYANA)3. The Third Place

THE PATH OF LIGHT (DEVAYANA)The Uttara Marga or Devayana path or Northern path or the path of light is the path by which the Yogins go to Brahman. This path leads to salvation. This path takes the devotee to Brahmaloka. Having reached the path of the gods he comes to the world of Agni, to the world of Vayu, to the world of Varuna, to the world of Indra, to the world of Prajapati, to the world of Brahman.When the person goes away from this world he comes to Vayu. Then Vayu makes room for him like the hole of a wheel and through it he mounts higher till he comes to Aditya (last stage).From the moon to the lightning there is a person, not a man (Amanava Purusha), who leads him to Brahman.

THE PATH OF DARKNESS (PITRIYANA)The Pitriyana path or the path of darkness or the path of ancestors leads to rebirth. Those who do sacrifices to gods and other charitable works with expectation of fruits go to the Chandraloka through this path and come back to this world when their fruits of Karmas are exhausted.There are smoke and dark-coloured objects throughout the course. There is no illumination when one passes along this path. It is reached by Avidya or ignorance. Hence it is called the path of darkness or smoke. The dark path is to the Pitris or forefathers—Pitriyana or the Karmins who do sacrifices or charitable acts with expectation of fruits.After enjoying the fruits of his good actions he again descends to the earth with a remainder of the works, by the way he went and differently too.When the Karma, which gave the soul a birth as a god in heaven, is exhausted, the remaining Karma, good or bad, brings him back to the earth. 

It is not possible that in one life the entire Karma of the previous life is worked out. Because a man might have done both good and bad deeds, as a result of which he is born as a god, or an animal. The working out of both kinds of Karmas simultaneously in one birth is not possible. Hence although the result of virtuous actions is exhausted by the enjoyment of heaven, there are other Karmas in store according to which a man is born again in good or bad environments.

These two paths are not open to the whole world. The bright path is open to the devotees and the dark path to the Karmins. Samsara is eternal and so the paths also are eternal.The Jivanmuktas who have attained knowledge of the Self do not depart. They are absorbed in Brahman. The Jivanmuktas who attain Kaivalya-Moksha or immediate salvation have no place to go to or return from. They become one with the All-pervading Brahman.

The Third PlaceThe Sruti says that those who do not go by means of Vidya along the path of Devayana to Brahmaloka or by means of Karma along the path of Pitriyana to Chandraloka are born often in low bodies and die often. The evil-doers go to the third place (Tritiyam sthaanam). The Sruti passage says: “Now those who go along neither of these ways become those small creatures, flies, worms, etc., continually returning, of whom it may be said: ‘Live and Die’. Theirs is the third place. The sinners are called small creatures because they assume the bodies of insects, gnats, etc. Their place is called the third place because it is neither Brahmaloka, nor the Chandraloka.