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Electronic copy of this paper is available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=950428 Persians,demonstratedapatternofdeliberateandsystematictargetingofChristiansassuch,includingAssyrians,formurder,maiming,enslavement,rape,dispossession,impoverishment,andculturalandethnicdestruction.Nevertheless,governmentsandhistorianshavenotbeenaswillingtorecognizetheAssyrianexperienceduringandafterWorldWarIasaformofgenocide,oreventoacknowledgetheexistenceandcriminalityoftheOttomanatrocitiesagainstAssyrians,astogivesuchrecognitiontotheOttomangenocideoftheArmenians.Generallyspeaking,recognitionofthelatterbybothgovernmentsandhistorianshasbeenmorerapid,official,anddetailed.ThisarticlewillarguethatthehesitationtorecognizetheAssyriangenocideisunjustified,fortheevidenceisoverwhelmingthatTurksandtheirKurdishalliesmassacredtens,andmorelikelyhundreds,ofthousandsofAssyriansinordertoexterminatetheChristianpopulation;rapedandenslavedhundreds,andmorelikelythousands,ofAssyrianwomeninasystematicfashion;anddeportedtheAssyriansenmassefromtheirancestrallandsunderconditionsthatledtofamineandwidespreaddeath.IwillmaintainthatthemorerapidlegalrecognitionandestablishmentofcompensationmechanismsfortheOttomangenocideofArmeniansareattributabletothelargernumbersofArmenianvictimsandsurvivors,aswellastomorecopiousevidenceofanintentiononthepartoftheYoungTurkstowipeouttheArmenianpeople.Inconclusion,IwillcontendthatthelegalandhistoricalrecognitionoftheAssyriangenocideatthehandsoftheOttomansisvitaltofocustheworld’sattentionontheAssyrianremnantinIraq.Thatremnanthasbeendispersedbymorethanacenturyofmassacre,discrimination,andreligiouspersecutionintonon-viablecommunitiesthatmustberestoredtotheirhomelands,andtotheirrightsofself-determination,ortheywillscatteraroundtheglobe,refusedasylumtoooften.TheAssyriansandtheTurksinMesopotamiaandPersiaTheAssyrianhomelandisinnorthernMesopotamia,present-dayIraq,wheretheancientcitiesofAssurandNinevehwerebuilt.For300years,Assyriankingsruledthelargestempiretheworldhadyetknown.TheAssyrianChurchoftheEastrecordsthattheApostleThomashimselfconvertedtheAssyrianstoChristianitywithinagenerationafterthedeathofChrist.Christianitywas‘‘wellestablishedandorganized’’inMesopotamiabythethirdcenturyCE.The(Assyrian)ChurchoftheEastbecameindependentfromtheRomanCatholicChurchinthefifthcenturyCE,afterthePatriarchofConstantinople,Nestorius,refusedtoassenttotheconceptof,ortheideathatMarywasthemotherofGod,andnotmerelyofJesus’humanform.BythesixthcenturyCE,theChurchoftheEasthadpreachedChristianitytothePersians,Medes,Huns,andBactrians—indeed,throughouttheMiddleEast,fromthePersianGulftotheCaspianSea,andevenasfarasIndia,Tibet,China,Korea,andJapan.Onemillenniumlater,theethnicAssyriansofMesopotamiaandPersiaremainedChristians,andsomeofthemhadenteredintocommunionwithRomebyfoundingtheChaldeanCatholicChurch.AlthoughsomeauthorsdoubtthatanAssyrianpeoplecouldhavesurvivedfrom600BCEtothenineteenthcentury,manyofthefactorsthatjustifyrecognizingArmenians,Jews,andothergroupsascontinuouslyexistingsinceancienttimesalsoapplytotheAssyrians:commonpatternsofworship,consistentself-identification,andgeneticcontinuity.AstheearlyChristianchurchwasgrowingandevange-lizingdistantlands,AssyrianidentitysurvivedthedestructionofNineveh.AssyrianscontinuedtopracticetheirancientreligionandinhabitedtheirancientGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 OttomanforceskilledtensofthousandsofdefenselessChristiansinthecapital,Constantinople,andinthe‘‘provincialtownsoftheEmpire.’’In1895,theFrenchvice-consulforthesoutheasternAnatoliancityofDiyarbekirreportedacampaignofterroragainsttheArmeniansandAssyrians.HisdescriptionremindsusofinNaziGermany:hundredsofChristiansweremurdered,hundredsofChristianhomesransacked,andhundredsofChristian-ownedshopslootedandInnearbyUrfa,theEdessaofChristianlearning,thepogromlaunchedbytheSultanledtothemassacreof3,000womenandchildreninsidethecity’sTheFrenchambassador,PaulCambon,wrotethatAsiaMinorwas‘‘literallyinflames,’’with‘‘massacreseverywhere’’andKurdsandotherMuslims‘‘massacringallChristianswithoutdistinction.’’AFrenchvice-consulwrotetotheFrenchambassadortoConstantinoplethattheOttomangovernmenthad,‘‘forthelastfewyears,beenpursuingitsgoalofgraduallyannihilatingtheChristianelement’’by‘‘givingtheKurdishchieftainscarteblanchetodowhatevertheyplease,toenrichthemselvesattheChristians’expenseandtosatisfytheirmen’swhims.’’TheHamidiye,thevice-consuldeclaimed,was‘‘abandofofficialhighwayrobbersspreadingterrorthroughoutthis[provinceoradministrativedivision]andmanyothers.’’The‘‘impunitytheyenjoyforthecrimestheycommiteveryday’’was‘‘ampleproof’’ofanOttomanpolicyofannihilatingtheChristiansoftheEmpire.OttomanChristiansfoundthemselves‘‘dispersed’’tootherregionsandlivingin‘‘deplorableconditions.’’Theirreligiousleaderspredictedthat‘‘theChristianelementwillslowlydisappear,eitherbyapostasy,emigration,ormassacre.’’TheOttoman-instigatedatrocitiesoftheKurdishHamidiyepromptedtheleadersoftheEasternChristiandenominationswithintheEmpiretoexpectthe‘‘completedisappearanceoftheChristianelement.’’TheSultanhad‘‘consentingawareness’’ofthemassacresoftheAssyriansandArmenianswithinhisempire,anawarenessofthesamecharacterusedtoindictheadsofstatesandarmiesforwarcrimesandgenocide.AccordingtoareportbytheBritishconsul,theOttomanleadershiphadgrantedtheKurdishhorsemenguaranteesagainstprosecutionformurdersoftheSultan’sChristiansubjects.massacresofArmeniansandotherChristiansspreadtoSasunin1904,andAdanaandCiliciain1909.TheBritishandRussiansthreatenedmilitaryinterventionunlesstheOttomansreformedtheirpatternofpersecutingtheirChristiansubjects.ButtheSultanneverimplementedproposedreformstoprotectminorities.TheOttomanEmpire’scampaigntoexterminateitsChristianshadbegun,asformerBritishprimeministerWilliamEwartGladstonerecognizedinapublicspeechin1896.EyewitnessAccountsoftheOttomanGenocideoftheAssyriansduringWorldWarIIntheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcentury,theOttomanEmpiresufferedastringofsetbacksthatsetitsleadersonamuchmoreviolentandfanaticalcourse.AcoalitionofAustrian,Greek,Bulgarian,andSerbianforcesdrovetheTurkishoccupiersoutoftheirerstwhileimperialprovincesinEurope,routingtheirarmiesandinflictingthousandsofcasualties.AnultranationalistgroupcalledtheCommitteeofUnionandProgress(CUP),or‘‘YoungTurks,’’emergedafter1905andsteadilygainedcontrolovertheOttomangovernmentandlegalsystem.TheYoungGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 thewomen.’’TurkishforcesdirectlymassacredtheChristianpopulationandfailedtopreventmanyothermassacres,leadingtothemurderofoveronethousandpeople—men,women,andchildren;theoutragingofhundredsofwomenandgirlsofeveryage—fromeightornineyearsoldtooldage;thetotalrobbingofaboutfive-sixthsoftheChristianpopulation;andthetotaldestructionofaboutthesameproportionoftheirhouses.Atleast4,000perishedfromdiseasewhileorafterbeingdrivenfromtheirhomesorlands.KidnappingandsexualslaverywereusedtodestroytheChristiancommunity:‘‘Overtwohundredgirlsandwomenwerecarriedoffintocaptivity,tobeforcedtoembraceIslamandtoacceptMohammedanhusbands.’’AnothereyewitnessaccountrecordedintheBlueBookstatesthatinthelargest‘‘Syrian’’orAssyrianvillageinUrmia,allthemenwerehauledovertothecemeterytobemurdered,whilethe‘‘womenandgirls[were]treatedbarbarously,’’andsixtymenwereremovedfromtheFrenchMissionandsummarilyshot.IntheCatholicMissioninUrmia,dozensofChristians,includinganEpiscopalbishop,‘‘wereboundtogetheronenight,takentoGagainmountainandthereshotdown.’’AministeraffiliatedwiththeChurchofEngland’smissiontoAssyriansreportedthat‘‘thosewhodiedfromtheslaughterandraidingofvillagesnumbered6,000.’’Anotherreportestimated8,500deathsinandaroundUrmiainfivemonthsin1915.ManyotherAssyriansinPersiasufferedasimilarfateundertheTurks.InSalmas,atowninPersiainhabitedbymorethan2,000Assyrians,theTurksgatheredtogetherandmassacredabout800Christians,mostlywomenandoldermen,priortotheTurkishwithdrawalfromthearea.SomeChristianmen‘‘weretiedwiththeirheadsstickingthroughtherungsofaladderanddecapitated,othershackedtopiecesormutilatedbeforedeath.’’InDiliman,Persia,‘‘allthemalesabovetwelveyearsofage...weretakentotwoneighboringvillages,torturedandshot.’’InGulpashan,Persia,dozensofmenweretiedtogethertobeshotoutsidethevillage,their‘‘wivesanddaughtersdistributedamongtheTurks,Kurds,andPersianMohammedans.’’Aboutone-fifthofthe30,000AssyrianslivinginUrmiaanditssurroundingvillagesdied,andtheirvillageswerethemostparttorched,withtheirculturalproperty,theirchurches,reducedtoruin.accountsfromtheBlueBookarecorroboratedbyAmericandiplomaticfiles,whichdocumentthatDuringtheperiodofTurkishoccupation[ofnorthwesternPersia],fromJanuary1sttoMay24th[1915],alltheChristianvillagesandalltheChristianslivinginMoslemvillageswerecompletelylooted,menwerekilled,womenwereviolatedandsometwohundredgirlstakenawaycaptive....thousandsdiedofdisease.AmericanmissionaryWilliamA.SheddreportedtotheUSministertoPersiathatone-fifthofthetotalpopulationofChristiansintheUrmiaregionhadperishedinthefirstfivemonthsorsoof1915aloneandthatthevastmajorityoffamilieshadhadalltheirpropertystolen.InTurkeyitself,theAssyrianswerecaughtupwiththeArmeniansinacommongenocidalcampaignagainstChristians.ThousandsofAssyriansandChaldeanswerecaughtupwithnearlyhalfamillionArmeniansinmassacres,widespreadassaultsagainstwomanandgirls,andpillagingofimmeasurableamountsofproperty.ReferringtosoutheasternTurkey,GermanmissionaryJohannesLepsiuswrote,GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 thedeportationsoftheArmeniansasanotherdecreeagainstallChristians.’’TheBlueBookstatesthatfortyvillagesinonedistrictoftheHakkariregionhadonlyseventeensurvivorsbetweenthem.WhentheTurkswereforcedoutofPersiabytheRussiansinMay[1915],theTurksturnedontheirAssyrians.Inmid-JuneanattackwaslaunchedonthemountainousdwellingsoftheAssyrians,initiallyintheHakkiaridistrict,theseatoftheirspiritualleader,whosetitleisMarShimun....TheTurkstriedtostarvethem[inwhatwas]onlythebeginningoftheupheaval,dispersionandmassacrethatcharacterizedthehistoryoftheAssyriansthroughoutthewarandintotheAssistedbyOttomantroops,KurdsenteredGoele,avillageof300AssyrianCatholicandProtestantfamilies,andmurderedthemen,enslavedthewomenandchildren,andpillagedthehousesinthevillage.InanotherAssyrianvillageoffiftyhouses,Kurdsattackedandkilledtheentiredefenselesspopulation.Lepsiusreportedamassacreof250ChaldeansinJazirah(Djesire),innorthwesternBythesummerof1915theKurdshadcarriedoutthe‘‘proclamationofJihad’’andhad‘‘ravaged’’AssyrianvillagesofMesopotamia,drivingtheAssyriansintoadesperateflighttoUrmia.AftertheRussianrevolutionandthedissolutionoftheczaristarmy,theAssyriannationembarkedupona‘‘routed,headlong,andmassacre-hauntedstraggle’’outofnorthernPersiaandoverthemountainsbackintoBritish-controlledMesopotamia.In1916,sixteenbishopsoftheProtestantEpiscopalChurchoftheUnitedStatesissuedanappealdeclaringthatAssyrianrefugeesfromtheHakkarimountainswere‘‘livinginbarns’’andwere‘‘soleanandemaciatedthatdeathwillgetatthemwholesale.’’‘‘WiththelossoftheHakiari,theAssyrianslostnotonlytheirhomelandbutalsomorethanhalftheirpopulation.theApostolicChurchoftheEastappearedtohavebeenentirelywipedout.’’AstheEarlofListowel,speakingintheHouseofLordson28November1933,stated,‘‘theAssyriansfoughtonoursideduringthewar,’’andmade‘‘enormoussacrifices,’’having‘‘lostaltogetherbytheendoftheWarabouttwo-thirdsoftheirtotalnumber.’’TheBritishacceptedthe‘‘remnant’’oftheAssyrianpopulationintorefugeecamps,onlyone-thirdhavingsurvivedthedepredationsoftheTurksandKurds.AfterWorldWarI,theTurkspreventedtheserefugeesfromreturningtotheHakkariandforcesloyaltoMustafaKemal‘‘Atatu¨rk’’murderedmanyofthesurvivingAssyrianmennotunderBritishorSovietprotection;rapedmanyyounggirlsandsoldothersintoharemslavery;anddeported8,000ChristiansfromMesopotamiaintotheinteriorofTurkey.In1925,theTurksorderedKurdishchiefstomassacretheAssyrians;TurkishsoldiersandKurdsmurderedmanyAssyrians,rapedandkidnappedwomen,plunderedhouses,anddeportedpopulationsinawaythatensuredmanydeathsfromstarvationanddisease.Tensofthousandshaddiedfrom‘‘perpetualattacksonallsidesfromtheTurks,KurdsandPersiansalike’’andfromsmallpox,otherdiseases,andtheheat,whichcombinedtoclaimchildrenandtheelderlyinparticular.Onlyabout20,000AssyrianslivedinIraqbythe1940s,anumberthatwasequaledoreclipsedbythenumberlivingintheSovietUnion(20,000)andinChicago(30,000).TheTurksextendedtheirpolicyofexterminatingtheChristiansoftheempiretotheArmenians,Greeks,Syrians,andLebanese.Morethan1.5millionArmeniansperishedinapremeditatedcampaignofdisarmament,assassinationofpoliticalGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 theorderandpossiblyeventheJews.Theycry‘TurkeyfortheMoslems’AnAmericanconsularagentinUrfa,southeasternTurkey,documentedhow,throughoutthesummerof1915,thousandsofChristianrefugeeshadpassedthroughthecity,allrelatingthesamesequenceofevents:themurderofallthemenontheroadsouttheircities,the‘‘criminalabuse[]’’andkidnappingofthewomenandgirls,thetheftofall‘‘money,bedding,andclothing.’’Hisreportadds,‘‘Thepoorweakwomenandchildrendiedbythousandsalongtheroadsandinthekhanwheretheywereconfinedhere.’’AnotherAmericandiplomatreportedthattheAssyriansandArmeniansofHarput,Turkey,weredeportedbyapubliclyannouncedordercoveringbothgroupsinthesummerof1915.InthecontextofthegrindingpovertyandwartimedeprivationsinTurkey,suchdeportationordersmeant‘‘alingeringandperhapsevenmoredreadfuldeathfornearlyeveryone’’thanamassacre,withprobablylessthanonein100deporteessurviving,astheAmericanconsulwrotetotheUSTheroadswerealreadypopulatedbyrovingbandsofmaraudingKurdsreadytorobandmurderthedeportees.InJuly1915,theGermanambassadorinConstantinopledescribedtotheGermanImperialChancellorhowtheOttomangovernorofDiyarbekir,ReBey,hadsupervisedthesystematicextermination(systematischenAusrottung)oftheChristianpopulationofhisdistrict,withoutregardtoethnicityorcreed(derRasseundderKonfession),butincludinginparticularChaldeansandAssyrians(non-uniateSyrians,GermannichtuniertenSyrerTheGermanconsulinMosulhadblamedReidBeyforthemassacreoftheexclusivelyChaldeanpopulationofthevillageofFayshKhabour()nearJazirah(TheGermanvice-consulinMosulhadreportedinJuly1915thattheChaldean,Syrian,andArmenianmenofthetownsofSeert,Mardin,andFayshKhabourhadbeenmassacred),with1,200oftheirfemalerelativesandchildrenarrivingorabouttoarriveinMosulin‘‘indescribable’’()conditions;thewomenandchildrenweredyingofhunger‘‘daily.’’Similarly,anOctober1915dispatchfromtheGermanconsulinSyriatotheGermanambassadorinConstantinoplestates,Furtherevidencehasbeenfoundthatthemeasures[i.e.,exterminationanddeportation]Idescribedinmyreportdated3September–B.No.1950–whichweretobetakenagainsttheArmeniansintheeasternVilayetshavenowbecomesuchagainsttheChristians.TheactingSyrian(SyrianCatholic)bishoptoldmethatatotalof300childrenandolderwomenfromhisdenominationhavearrivedherefromKharput,Diarbekr,WeranscheherandMardin.TherestoftheparishionershasprobablybeenkilledorkidnappedTheChaldeansin[Seert](VilayetBitlis)and[Jazirah](VilayetDiarbekir)andalloftheChristiansinDjebeletTornorthofMardinhavebeenexterminated.Apreviousreportfromthesamediplomathaddeclaredthat,intheeasternprovincesoftheOttomanEmpire,AssyriansandChaldeanshad‘‘alreadyforalongtime’’beenreportedeither‘‘killed’’(¨tet)or‘‘banished’’(Germanmilitaryofficers,diplomats,andciviliansalsowitnessedtheplanningandexecutionofthegenocideofArmenian,Assyrian,andGreekChristiansasitunfolded.TheaccountsofGermanambassadorsandotherofficialsdealingwiththeOttomanEmpirearerepletewithsuchtermsas‘‘extermination,’’‘‘massacre,’’‘‘destruction,’’‘‘slaughter,’’‘‘systematicbutchery,’’and‘‘murderofthousandsofhumanbeings.’’AstheOttomans’mainallyinWorldWarI,theGermanshadmilitaryofficers‘‘stationedthroughouttheEmpire’’;theytrainedandledGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 localdoctorsrealizedwhatwashappening.AbouthalfoftheAssyriannationdiedofmurder,disease,orexposureasrefugeesduringthewar,accordingtotheheadoftheAnglicanChurch,whichhadamissiontotheAssyrians.Famineandwantwerethefateofthesurvivors,whosehomes,villages,churches,andschoolshadbeenwipedWashingtonPostreportedinMarch1915that‘‘TurkishregulartroopsandKurdsarepersecutingandmassacringAssyrianChristians.’’AccordingtoaletterfromanAmericaneyewitness,manyofthethousandsofChristianrefugeesinUrmiawere‘‘murderedincoldbloodandwithcrueltorturesbytheKurds,’’with‘‘womenandchildrencarriedoff’’intoslavery.InthevillageofDiza,southofUrmia,Kurdishforceshadburied3,000Christiansuptotheirchins,ridingonhorsebackoverandcrushingtheskullsofthosewhosurvivedthefirstdayofthisalsodescribedhowrampagingKurds,spurredonbytheOttomanEmpire’sdeclarationofthepreviouswinter,exterminatedthelocalpopulationofChristiansunabletofleebecausetheyweretooold,sick,orincapacitated.Kurdscarriedflagsproclaimingthe‘‘holywar.’’AsthousandsofAssyriansfledUrmiathroughthesnowyfieldstoavoidbandsofKurdsontheroads,themenweremassacredandmanygirlsasyoungassevenoreightyearsold‘‘wereopenlyInGulpashan,Kurdstoresixty-fiveChristianmenoutofmissions,towhichtheyhadfledforsafety,andhangedthem.AccordingtooneAmericancitizenengagedinmissionaryworkinPersia,TurksandKurdskillednearlyeveryAssyrianChristiantheyfoundinthetownofKochanis,onTurkishterritory,andintheChristianvillagesandtownsinthesurroundingarea,anddestroyedmostorallofthechurchesandreligiousbuildings.ThisaccountaddsthatbyOctober1914,theTurkishgovernmenthadimpelledanorganizedarmyofKurdsto‘‘expel[]severalthousandChristians’’fromTurkishvillagesadjoiningPersiaandto‘‘plunderandburntheChristianvillages’’inPersiaadjoiningeasternTurkey.OntheroadnorthtoRussia,thismissionaryandanothereyewitnesssawthousandsofChristiansstarvingtodeathinthefields,childrendyingbythehundreds,aswellasdozensofabandonedorphans.Thesediplomaticandjournalisticaccounts,aswellastheaccountscollectedintheBlueBook,establishaseriesofcriticalfactsabouttheOttomangenocideoftheAssyrians.First,theTurksandtheirKurdishalliesmassacreduntoldthousandsofAssyriansaspartofacampaignto,inAmbassadorBryce’swords,‘‘exterminate[]Christianity,rootandbranch,’’intheempire.Second,reputablepublicationssuchastheofLondonandtheLosAngelesTimesthat200,000to250,000AssyriansandChaldeanslosttheirlivesintheOttomanChristiangenocide.Third,therape,kidnapping,andenslavementofAssyrianwomenweresystematicandempire-wide,ratherthanbeingthefaultofafewscatteredcriminalsorunrulymobs.Fourth,theAssyrianswere‘‘equally’’(inthewordsofAmbassadorBryce)andbythe‘‘samemethods’’(inthewordsofAmbassadorMorgenthau)subjecttotheOttomanTurkishplantowipeouttheArmenianpeople.Fifth,theTurksdeportedtheAssyriansenmassefromtheirancestrallands,confiscatingthousandsofhomesandotherpropertythatwouldbeofaninestimablylargevaluetoday(asingleapartmentinpresent-dayTurkeymaybeworthmorethanUS$100,000,whileasinglevillamaybeworthmorethanUS$200,000).Finally,thispatternofdeportationsanddenialofhousingcausedthousandsofAssyrianstodieofotherpoliticalandcriminalviolence,aswellasofhunger,disease,exhaustion,andexposuretotheelements.GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 asaUNreporthasdescribedit,arecenttermfor‘‘anoldcrime.’’InadditiontointernationaltreatiessuchastheUNCG,internationallawacknowledgesthebindingcharacterofgeneralpracticesandprinciplesoflawadoptedbycivilizednations,asillustratedbynationalandinternationaljudicialdecisionsandtheteachingsofexpertsoninternationallaw.Massacringcivilians,astheOttomansdidinWorldWarI,hadbeenrecognizedasawarcrimeforcenturiesandhadformedthebasisforhistoricnationalandinternationalcriminaltribunals.Bythefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,internationaltreatylawspecificallyprohibitedwartimeviolationsagainst‘‘thelivesofpersons,’’‘‘familyhonourandrights,’’and‘‘privatepropertyaswellasreligiousconvictionsandpractice.’’HisMajestytheEmperoroftheOttomanswasamongthesignatoriestothistreaty,andthusagreedtoitspreamble,whichdeclaredthat,incasesnotspecificallyprovidedfor,‘‘thelawofnations’’and‘‘thelawsofhumanity’’protecttheinhabitantsofwarzones.AsNurembergestablished,violationsofthistreaty,knownastheHagueConventionRespectingtheLawsandCustomsofWaronLand,wererecognizedascrimesfrom1907on.Withinternationalcustomarylawontheirside,Britain,France,andRussia,theEntentepowers,issuedajointdeclarationinMay1915characterizingthe‘‘connivanceandoftenassistanceofOttomanauthorities’’inmassacresofArmeniansoverthepreviousmonthas‘‘newcrimesofTurkeyagainsthumanityandBythatdeclarationtheEntenteannouncedpublicly‘‘thatthey[would]holdpersonallyresponsible...allmembersoftheOttomangovernmentandthoseoftheiragentswhoareimplicatedinsuchmassacres.’’ThedeclarationrecognizedtheOttomanauthorities’prosecutionofthewarascriminalandconstituted‘‘apublicandjointcommitmenttoprosecuteafterthewarthoseresponsibleforthecrimesperpetrated.’’Afterlosingthewar,Turkeycommenceditsownprosecutionsofthoseresponsible.AninterimOttomangovernmenttriedandconvictedministersEnver,t,andCemalofwidespreadmassacres,warcrimes,andatrocitiesandsentencedthemtodeathinabsentiaThecourt-martialconcludedthatallthetestimonyanddocumentsshowthatbandsofbrigandswereformedforthesolepurposeofmassacringanddestroyingthecaravansofthe(Armenian)deportees.ItisfullyproventhatthesemassacresweretakingplaceontheimmediateordersandfullknowledgeofTalat,Enver,andCemal.AstheNewYorkTimesreportedinmid-July1919,thetriumviratewere‘‘condemnedtodeath’’bythecourt-martial‘‘forjoininginthewarandfortheArmenian,Greek,andSyrianatrocitiesanddeportations.’’ATurkishtribunalfoundthattheordersfortheArmenianmassacresinparticularhadissueddirectlyfromIstanbul.founderofmodernTurkey,MustafaKemal‘‘Atatu¨rk,’’latercapturedthesentimentsinTurkeythatledtothetrialsofthoseYoungTurksresponsiblefortheOttomangenocideoftheChristianpopulation:Theseleft-oversfromtheformerYoungTurkParty,whoshouldhavebeenmadetoaccountforthelivesofmillionsofourChristiansubjectswhowereruthlesslydrivenenmasse,fromtheirhomesandmassacred,have...hithertolivedonplunder,robberyand...AfterthedefeatoftheOttomanEmpireinWorldWarI,theTreatyofSerecognizedthatthe‘‘terroristregime’’oftheYoungTurkshadvictimizedtheir‘‘subjectsofnon-Turkishrace’’withmassacres,disappearances,forcibleconversionstoGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 AbsentagovernmentalintentiontoexterminatetheChristiansoftheempire,itwouldbenearlyimpossibletoexplainhowthemassacres,rapes,deportations,anddispossessionsoftheArmenian,Assyrian,andGreekChristianslivingintheOttomanEmpireatthetimeofWorldWarIcouldhavetakenplaceonsuchavastscale.Howcouldsucharemarkabledegreeofcoordinationandcommonpurposeinslaughteringcivilians,ravagingwomen,orphaningchildren,andstealingmoneyandpropertyhaveemergedwithoutorganizationanddirectionfromabove?Indeed,ittakeslittlesearchingtouncoverabundantevidenceofplanningforgenocide.InteriorMinisterTalat,initiallythemostpowerfulmemberoftheCUP,believedin‘‘TurkeyfortheTurks,’’orgettingridoftheancientChristianpeoplesstrandedintheOttomanEmpire.Afterthe1908coupthatpropelledtheYoungTurkstopositionsofpowerintheOttomangovernment,theGermanambassadortoAthensreportedaconversationwiththeTurkishprimeministerinwhichhelearnedthat‘‘TheTurkshavedecideduponawarofexterminationagainsttheirChristianIn1910,theleadersoftheCUPheldapartyconferenceduringwhichtheydiscussedhow‘‘thecompleteOttomanizationofallTurkishsubjectsmustbeeffected,butitwasbecomingclearthatthiscouldneverbeachievedbypersuasion,andrecoursemustbehadtoforceofarms.’’In1911,aprominentYoungTurkdeclaredthatthe‘‘nationsthatremainfromtheoldtimesinourempireareakintoforeignandharmfulweedsthatmustbeuprooted.’’WhentheRussiansadvancedintheCaucasus,andtheBritishmarchednorthfromMesopotamia,theOttoman‘‘policyof[Christian]oppressionbroadenedacrosstheempireandincreasedtogenocidalproportions.’’SoonaftertheSultan’sdeclarationofin1914,theOttomans,seizedwith‘‘anti-Christianchauvinism,’’deportedintootherpartsofAnatoliatheentireChristianpopulationoftheGallipolipeninsulaandtheareaaroundtheSeaofMarmora,morethan60,000people.werecastascollectivetargetswhenTalatandCemalthreatenedreprisalsagainstthem’’foranyMuslimwardead.Thecentralgovernmentdisseminatedwartimepropagandaofaconsistentlyanti-Christiantheme,which,surprisingly,wasoftenwrittenorinspiredbyGermans:AttheoutbreakofhostilitiestheGermansworkedwithalltheirpowertoincitetheMohammedanworld....Theplanwastostartaholywar,asinthatwayitwouldbepossibletostirintoactionmillionsofMoslemsfromPersia,India,Afghanistan,Baluchistan,Arabia,Turkestan,andotherMohammedancountries.WithaforceoffromtentofifteenmillionarmedMussulmanstheyplannedtomarchagainstRussiafirst.Naturally,theRussiansbeingoccupiedinfightingsuchanarmy,thiswouldgivetheGermansbetteropportunitiesontheWesternfrontsTheablestGermanwriterswereenlisted.ItwasreportedthattheEnglishweredestroyedandtheirgreatestgeneralscaptured.[ProclamationsreportedthetotaldefeatoftheFrenchandtheRussians,andthedeathsofmostoftheEnglisharmies.]TheMoslemcrusade,theysaid,wasbeingcarriedoninEgypt,Tunis,Algeria,Afghanistan,Baluchistan,India,theSudan.TheseutterlyfalsereportsconstituteoneoftheprincipalreasonswhytheMohammedans,inTurkeyandinsomeotherpartsoftheMoslemworld,havebeenledtotakesidesagainstthecauseoftheAllies.AnAmericanmissionarytaskedbytheUSministertoPersiawithprovidingacompleteaccountofthemassacresinthatcountrycorroboratedthisaccount,statingthattheuseoftheKurdishtribeswasapartoftheTurkishplanofcampaign,andtheywereurgedandsentbyresponsibleTurkishofficers,military,civilandconsular.ItwasmademoredangeroustoChristiansbythecryof(orholywar),whichwasGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 thepolicyseemstobe,ifnotquitetostiritup,torestrainitnotveryenergetically.’’Lepsiusaddedthat‘‘allChristianshavesufferedthesamefatewithoutdifferentiationastoraceordenomination.’’AlongwiththeArmenians,theAssyriansweretargetedasagroupofnon-TurkishChristiansinawaythat‘‘canonlybeexplainedbytheCUP’sincreasinglyradicalideologyofethnic[andreligious]exclusivity.’’AsPeterBalakianhasdemonstrated,by1915onemillionpeoplehaddiedin‘‘theexterminationofinnocentciviliansinTurkey(theArmenians,butalsoSyrianandAssyrianChristiansandlargeportionsoftheGreekpopulationSuchaspeedyandwell-organizedannihilationoftheindigenousChristiansoftheOttomanEmpirecouldscarcelyhavetakenplaceotherthanasaresultofintentionalplanningandexecution.Inanyevent,theintentiononthepartofOttomanofficialstoexterminatetheirArmenianandAssyriansubjectsneednotbeprovenexclusivelybymeansofconfessionsoradmissions.AstheInternationalCriminalTribunalsfortheFormerYugoslaviaandforRwandahavemadeclear,‘‘genocidalintent[may]beinferredfromthephysicalactsandspecifically‘theirmassiveand/orsystematicnatureoftheiratrocity.’’’TheTribunalshaverecognizedthateven‘‘intheabsenceofaconfessionfromtheaccused,hisintentcanbeinferredfrom...theperpetrationofotherculpableactssystematicallydirectedagainstthatsamegroup,whethertheseactswerecommittedbythesameoffenderorbyothers.’’Thus,theelementofspecificintenttocommitgenocidemaybebaseduponthetestimonyofthevictimsanddirectphysicalevidence,suchthataconfessionoradmissionofgenocidalintentisnotnecessary.Evidenceofmany‘‘culpableacts[that]wereperpetratedsystematicallyagainstthesamegroup,’’includingthosecommittedby‘‘otherperpetrators,’’maysufficeasevidenceofintent.MassrapetargetingAssyrianwomenandchildren,andtheconsequentinterferencewithbirthswithinandreproductivesurvivalofthegroup,alsomanifestedagenocidalintent.deportationoftheAssyrians,andtheconsequentdeprivationoftheirestablishedmeansofsustenance,shelter,anddignifiedliving,wasagenocidalpolicy.dispossessionoftheAssyriansfromtheirhomesandagriculturallands,moreover,tendedtodeprivethemoftheconditionsnecessaryforbarelife,letaloneacivilizedordignifiedlife,andthereforeservedtodestroythegroupassuch.Insum,the‘‘inhumantreatment,torture,rape,sexualabuseanddeportation’’oftheAssyrians,alongwiththe‘‘deliberatedestruction’’oftheirhousesandplacesofworship,establishesanintentionbyOttomanofficialstoexterminatethemasagroup.Somemayarguethatitmatterslittletothevictims,ortous,whethertheOttomanscommittedgenocide,crimesagainsthumanity,warcrimes,extermination,‘‘ethniccleansing,’’persecution,‘‘atrocities,’’orsimplemurder.Itisnotclear,however,thateachoftheseothercrimesoutlawsconductshortofmurderthatcausesdeathsorpreventsbirthswithinanethnicorreligiousgroupwiththeintentofdestroyingallorpartofthegroup,suchas‘‘causingseriousmentalharmtomembersofthegroup,’’‘‘deliberatelyinflictingonthegroupconditionsoflifecalculatedtobringaboutitsphysicaldestructioninwholeorinpart,’’or‘‘imposingmeasuresintendedtopreventbirthswithinthegroup.’’Moreover,theconceptandlegalcategoryofgenocidemustbeinvokedforthesakeofapplyingaconsistentstandardofinternationallawandinordertograspthefullimplicationsandseriousnessofwhathappenedtotheAssyriansfrom1914to1918,nottomention1844to1846,1896to1904,and1918to1933.AsRaphaelLemkinwroteincoiningtheterm,‘‘genocide’’wasintendedtocoverjustsuchasituation,inwhich‘‘aco-ordinatedplanofdifferentactionsaimingattheGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 livinginbutlargelyexcludedfrompoliticalpowerintheirtraditionalMesopotamianTheestimatedonemillionArmenianslivingintheUnitedStates,concentratedinsouthernCalifornia,alsoexercisedramaticallymorepoliticalcloutthanthe350,000marginalizedAssyriansdispersedacrosscentralCalifornia,Michigan,andIllinois.PreventingGenocideandEthnicCleansingagainsttheAssyriansinPresent-DayIraqPresent-dayIraqisastateathighriskofgenocide,accordingtoamodelforearlywarningofgenocidalviolencedevelopedfortheUSgovernment.Manyofthewarningsignsofpreviousgenocides,suchasthoseinTurkey,German-occupiedEurope,Yugoslavia,andRwanda,arepresentinIraq,includingdemonizationofminoritygroups,unfairscapegoatingofminoritiesfortheproblemsofthemajoritypopulation,andrefugeeflight.ThiswouldbethemostrecentsuchgenocidalassaultagainsttheAssyrians,aftertheOttomangenocideofChristians,themassacreofupto3,000AssyriansbyIraqiarmedforcesandKurdishmilitiain1933,andthedisappearanceof1,000AssyriansduringtheBa’athist‘‘Arabization’’and‘‘Anfal’’campaignsofthe1970sand1980s.‘‘MilitaryforcesdestroyedmanyAssyrianchurchesduringtheAnfalCampaign,andreportedlytorturedandexecutedmanyAssyrians.’’AssyrianssufferedfromchemicalweaponsattacksinHalabjaandelsewhere.WidespreaddiscriminationagainstIraqiChristiansandKurdsinthenameof‘‘Arabization’’continuedinto2001,especiallyintheareaaroundKirkuk,anddrove100,000peoplefromtheirhomesandvillages.Between1963and1987,theIraqigovernmentdestroyedabout200majorityAssyrianvillagesintheprovincesofNineveh,Dohuk,andArbil.Manyofthesevillageshoused100to200familieseach.TheIraqigovernmentrazedalmosttwenty-fivechurches,monasteries,andreligious-runorphanagesduringthisAssyrianpoliticalactivistshavealsoclaimedthatupto40,000Assyrianswereconscriptedandkilled,wounded,takenprisoner,orwentmissingduringtheIran–IraqWar.HundredsofthousandsofAssyriansfledIraqduringSaddamHussein’srulefrom1979to2003.UptohalfoftheAssyrianpopulationhasfledIraqsince1991.BritishpoliticaljournalistAlastairBrutonhaspointedoutintheNewYorkTimestheKurdishregionsofIraqandTurkeyweresubjectto‘‘ethniccleansing’’foroveradecade,as‘‘theKurdshavedriventensofthousandsofAssyriansandChaldeansintoexile,andyetWesterncommentatorspersistintheirnaivebeliefthattheKurdsaretheonlyoppressedpeopleintheregion.’’MillionsofAssyriansandChaldeansnowliveinexile,includingabout400,000intheUnitedStatesandhundredsofthousandsmoreintheEuropeanUnion,Russia,Canada,Australia,NewZealand,andothernationsofferingasylumtovictimsofreligiouspersecution.Thevice-chairoftheUSCommissiononInternationalReligiousFreedomhaswarnedofanew‘‘ethnic-cleansingcampaign’’againstAssyrians,withviolenceagainstAssyriansintensifyingsincethe2003wartodeposeSaddamHussein.rightsreportsissuedintheyearsimmediatelyprecedingthe2003warbytheUnitedNationsandthegovernmentsoftheUnitedStatesandtheUnitedKingdomcitedisolatedkillingsandwidespreadethnicandreligiousdiscriminationagainstBycomparison,similarreportsissuedsincethe2003waracknowledge‘‘systematicattacks’’againstAssyrians.Amongotherincidents,‘‘morethan100ChristianshadbeenmurderedaftertheU.S.-ledwar,’’includingelevenpeopleGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 Itisbeyondthescopeofthispaper,butafertilegroundforfurtherresearch,toaskwhethertheAssyriansofIraq,whohavebeendispersedintonon-viableminoritycommunitiessincetheOttomangenocide,wouldbebetterservedbyliberalizingrefugeeandasylumlawstofacilitatetheirresettlementintheWest,orwhether,inadditiontoorinlieuofsuchliberalization,theyrequiretheestablishmentofasafehavenfromreligiouspersecutioninsideIraq.TheglobalasylumsystemisnotcurrentlyadequatetodealwiththefloodofAssyrianrefugeesoutofIraq,whooftenendupdyingenroutetotheWest,orbeingimprisonedforillegalentry.AsafehaveninsideIraqforAssyriansunabletoresettleintheWestwouldfindamplesupportinAssyrians’righttoself-determinationunderinternationallaw,whichlongpredatedIraq’snew‘‘permanent’’constitution.WithoutinternationalsupportforsuchanAssyriansafehaven,tensofthousandsofChristianrefugeesmaycontinuetofleeIraqeachyear.Whetherthesolutiontotheirplightliesininternationalimmigrationorinlocalautonomy,theAssyriansdesperatelyneedfinancialsupportforresettlingtheirrefugeesandreplacingthehomes,villages,andpersonalandculturalpropertydestroyedoverthepastcenturybytheTurks,Arabs,andKurds.Genocideandethniccleansinggiverisetolegallyenforceableclaimsforreparationandrestorationofpropertyandthevalueofliveslost.Perhapsbecausetheirgenocidehasrarelybeenrecognized,theAssyriansdrivenfromtheirhomesoverthepastcenturyhavereceivedrelativelylittlebywayofcompensationorassistancewithrebuilding.AlthoughtheUnitedStateshasspentcloseto$3billiononthereconstructionofnorthernIraq,itseemsthatlessthan$35millionhasgonetoAssyriantownsandvillages.IraqileadershavesystematicallyexcludedAssyriansfromthedistributionofreconstructionassistance.Bycomparison,theUnitedNationshasforcedIraqistopayover$19.2billionincompensationtothoseharmedbythe1991IraqiinvasionofKuwait,whichcausedfarfewerdeathsthaneventheAnfalcampaignofthe1980s,letalonetheOttomangenocideoftheArmeniansandAssyrians.TomakeanAssyriansafehavenaviableoptionforChristianrefugees,ajustproportionoftheIraqireconstructionspendingauthorizedbytheUnitedStatesandtheinternationalcommunitywouldneedtobespecificallyearmarkedtosecurity,resettlement,andrebuildingofatleastthoseAssyrianvillagesdestroyedintheethniccleansingcampaignsoftheSaddamHusseinregime.IndependentAssyrianadministratorscouldbechargedwithspendingthesefunds,topreventtheircontinuingtobedivertedtootherIraqis.Withthisinternationalsupport,AssyrianvictimsofreligiouspersecutioninIraqandneighboringstatessuchasSyria,Jordan,Turkey,andIranwhoaredeniedentryintoEurope,NorthAmerica,andsooncouldrebuildtheirlivesinasafehaven.Conclusion:RecognizingaLegacyManyanalogiesmaybedrawnbetweentheexperienceoftheAssyriansduringWorldWarIandotheracknowledgedgenocides,includingnotonlytheArmenianGenocidebutalsotheHolocaustofJews,Slavs,Roma,leftists,homosexuals,andotherminoritiesunderNazioccupationduringWorldWarII.TheAssyriansandotherOttomanChristians,liketheJews,hadsufferedfromcenturiesofdiscriminationandofficialsegregation;werechargedwithbeingagentsofforeignpowersandscapegoatedformilitarydefeatsandloomingthreatsinarhetoricofethnicelimination;andwerephysicallyandculturallyexterminatedinlargenumbersbymeansofmassacres,GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 1.See,e.g.,C.J.Chivers,‘‘UprootedIraqisSeeWarasPathtoLostHomes,’’NewYorkTimes5December2002,A1;DavidRohde,‘‘ViewfromAncientMonasteryasYetAnotherWarNewYorkTimes,10April2003,B6;CraigS.Smith,‘‘Teacher,aSurvivor,FondlyRecallsLifeinHussein’sIraq,’’NewYorkTimes,19April2003,B2;SabrinaTavernise,‘‘InaMuslimCityinIraq,aChristianGroupEnjoysItsLivelyQuarter,’’NewYorkTimes,23May2003,A2;PaulMarshall,‘‘ElsewhereinIraq,’’WallStreet,22August2003,http://www.opinionjournal.com/taste/?id110003917(accessed11October2006);LeelaJacinto,‘‘IsJesus’LanguageatDeath’sDoor?IraqiAssyriansSpeaktheLanguageJesusSpoke—ButForHowLong?’’ABCNews.com,6November2003,1(accessed11October2006);KatherineZoepf,‘‘ManyChristiansFleeIraq,withSyriatheHavenofChoice,’’NewYork,5August2004,A11;KatherineZoepf,‘‘TurkeyAllowsaFirstNewYearforaTinyNewYorkTimes,4April2005.Priortothe2003war,thevastmajorityofarticlesintheAmericanpressconcernedancientAssyriancivilizationorartifacts,notmodernAssyrianlife.Longbeforethelatestwar,however,theCatholicwireserviceZenitandtheCatholicNewsServiceprovidedconsistentlyhigh-qualityreportingonthesituationofIraqiChristians,especiallyChaldeanCatholics.See,e.g.,‘‘PatriarchofIraqMakesaPleaforPeacetoTheAmericanPeople,’’,18February1998,http://www.zenit.org/english/archive/9802/zw980218.htm#a1(accessed11October2006);JohnThavis,‘‘Modern-DayExodus:FlightofCatholicsfromIraqTroublesVatican,’’CatholicReporter/CatholicNewsService,28February2003,http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1141/is_17_39/ai_98541113(accessed11October2006).2.Inthisessay,IwillrefertotheAssyrians,Nestorians,Chaldeans,andSyrian/SyriacChristianscollectivelyasAssyrians.AlthoughthisusageiscontroversialamongChaldeanCatholicsinparticular,itaccuratelyconveysthefactthat‘‘Nestorian,’’‘‘Syrian/Syriac,’’and‘‘Chaldean’’arereligiousdenominationswhosemembersaredescendedprincipallyfromtheinhabitantsofancientAssyria,whoconvertedtoChristianitystartinginthefirstorsecondcenturyCE.GeorgeM.LamsaandWilliamChaunceyEmhardt,TheOldestChristianPeople(NewYork:Macmillan,1926),20–22,49,78–79,92–95;JackieLyden,‘‘DespiteTurmoil,ChristiansPlaceFaithinNewIraq,’’AllThingsConsidered,NPR,13August2005,http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId4799390(accessed17February2006).Assyrians,Chaldeans,andSyriacsalsosharedanancestry-groupdesignationinthe2000USCensus,eventhoughChaldeansareincreasinglydescribingthemselvesaspartofadistinctethnicgroupfromtheAssyrians.NicholasKulish,‘‘Chaldeans,AssyriansVexedbyCount,’’WallStreetJournal,18March2001,C8;‘‘U.S.JudgeRejectsAssyrianProtest,’’RiskMonitorBriefing,22October2000.3.SarahC.Melville,‘‘Neo-AssyrianRoyalWomenandMaleIdentity:StatusasaSocialTool,’’JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety124,1(2004):37–57;PaulineAlbenda,‘‘WesternAsiaticWomenintheIronAge:TheirImageRevealed,’’TheBiblicalArchaeologist(1983):82–88;KhaldunS.Husry,‘‘TheAssyrianAffairof1933(I),’’InternationalJournalofMiddleEastStudies5(1974),164–76;GibsonMcGuire,‘‘StudiesintheAncientHistoryofNorthernIraq(Review),’’JournalofNearEasternStudies31(1972):42–46.4.Forits300yearsasthe‘‘firstrealworldempire,’’Assyria’s‘‘serviceinforwardingtheprogressoftheworldwasimportantandindispensable’’—forexample,indeveloping‘‘politicalorganizationonalargescale’’anddistributingtechnology,trade,civilization,andculturethroughoutWesternAsiaandGreece.GeorgeS.Godspeed,‘‘ASketchofAssyrianTheBiblicalWorld9(1897):401–14,414.Assyrian,alsoknownasAkkadian,servedasthedominantlanguageoftheMiddleEastformorethan2,500years;usingit,law,science,religion,andpoetryweredeveloped.WolfgangSaxon,‘‘EricaReinerIsDeadat81:RenownedAssyrianScholar,’’NewYorkTimes,22January2006,1–32.5.WilhelmBaumandDietmarW.Winkler,TheChurchoftheEast:AConciseHistory(London:RoutledgeCurzon,2003),11–15.GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 Syria:Synonyms,’’JournaloftheNearEastSociety51(1992):281–85;E.W.MacDowell,‘‘TheAncientNestorianChurchandItsPresentInfluenceinKurdistan,’’JournalofRaceDevelopment2(1911):67–88,77.12.MichaelG.Morony,IraqaftertheMuslimConquest(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1984),336,345;GeorgeE.Kirk,‘‘AShortHistoryoftheMiddleEast,’’TheMiddleEastYesterdayandToday,ed.DavidW.MillerandClarkD.Moore,105–11(NewYork:BantamPathfinder,1970),106;DeLacyO’Leary,HowGreekSciencePassedtotheArabs(London:Routledge&KeganPaul,1949;reprint,London:Routledge&KeganPaul,2001),ch.1,http://www.aina.org/books/hgsptta.htm(accessed12October2006).13.ThelanguageofthemodernAssyriansis‘‘extraordinarilysimilar’’totheAramaiclanguageoftheAssyrianempire.J.G.Browne,‘‘TheAssyrians,’’JournaloftheRoyalSocietyofArts85(1937):170–82,172.SeealsoMichaelD.Coogan,ed.,TheOxfordHistoryoftheBiblical(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2001),279;J.F.Coakley,TheChurchoftheEastandtheChurchofEngland(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1992),366;Jacinto,‘‘AtDeath’sDoor?’’14.Coakley,TheChurchoftheEast,65,89,99,149,366–67,382,411.TheChurchofEnglandestablishedamissiontotheAssyriansbythe1870sor1880s,longbeforeanindependentAssyriannationbecameaninternationallegalandpoliticalissueafterWorldWarI.15.Specifically,theideathatthemodernAssyriansaredescendedfromtheancientAssyriansfindssomesupportinageneticstudyconductedbyresearchersfromtheUniversityofNewcastleuponTyne,England,andtheUniversityofTehran,Iran,whichfoundthattheAssyriansofUrmiainparticular,andofTehrantoalesserextent,weregeneticallysimilartooneanotherandsupportedtheoraltraditionofAssyriansbeinga‘‘closed’’populationwithlittle‘‘intermixture’’withtheMuslimIranianpopulation.M.T.Akbari,SunderS.Papiha,D.F.Roberts,andDaryoushD.Farhud,‘‘GeneticDifferentiationamongIranianChristianCommunities,’’AmericanJournalofHumanGenetics38(1986):84–98.ThisresultissomewhatanalogoustotheresultsofastudyfindingsubstantialgeneticcontinuityamongArmenians,Jews,andKurdsdespitecenturiesofArabrule.SeeAlmutNebel,DvoraFilon,BerndBrinkmann,ParthaP.Majumder,MarinaFaerman,andAriellaOppenheim,‘‘TheYChromosomePoolofJewsasPartoftheGeneticLandscapeoftheMiddleEast,’’AmericanJournalofHumanGenetics69(2001):1095–1112,www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid1274378(accessed12October2006).16.ChristopherJohnston,‘‘TheFallofNineveh,’’JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety(1901):20–22.17.Waterfield,ChristiansinPersia,33;Gibbon,DeclineandFall,vol.9,ch.51,s.V,http://0214.09(accessed12October2006).18.AbrahamYohannan,TheDeathofaNation,Or,TheEverPersecutedNestoriansorAssyrianChristians(NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1916),95–98.TheCaliphOmarI,whoruledforadecadestartingintheyear634CE,decreedthatallpropertyintheArabs’empirewouldhenceforthbeownedbytheMuslimcommunity.SeeAlfredGuillaume,‘‘Islam,’’inTheMiddleEastYesterdayandToday,ed.DavidW.MillerandClarkD.Moore,100–103(NewYork:BantamPathfinder,1970),101.Oneroustaxesleviedonnon-MuslimsledmanyChristianstoconverttoIslamandtobecomeArabsbythefictionofadoptionbyanArabtribe.Ibid.‘‘InthetenyearsoftheadministrationofOmar,the[Arabs]...destroyedfourthousandchurchesortemplesoftheunbelievers.’’Gibbon,DeclineandFall,vol.9,ch.51,http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/0214.09.The‘‘confiscationofwholeorpartof[Christian]propertythatalmostinvariablytookplace’’promptedeither‘‘wholesalesecessionstoMuhammedanism,oremigrationtootherlands.’’JohnStewart,MissionaryEnterprise:TheStoryofaChurchonFire(London:T&TAllen,1928),215.TheCaliphMutawakkilorderedchurchesbuiltaftertheMuslimconquesttobetorndown,andthehousesofrichChristiansconvertedintomosques.Ibid.,218.GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 (NewYork:HumanRightsWatch,2004),http://hrw.org/reports/2004/sudan0504(accessed12October2006);AmnestyInternational,‘‘Sudan:ArmingthePerpetratorsofGraveAbusesinDarfur’’(AIDocumentAFR54/139/2004,16November2004),http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engafr541392004(accessed12October2006);USDepartmentofState,DocumentingAtrocitiesinDarfur(StatePublicationNo.11182,21September2004),http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/36028.htm(accessed12October2006).29.SeeJoseph,ModernAssyrians,124–25.30.ChristopherJ.Walker,Armenia:TheSurvivalofaNation(NewYork:St.Martin’s,1980),134.31.ArnoldToynbee,‘‘ASummaryofArmenianHistoryuptoandincludingtheYear1915,’’TheTreatmentofArmeniansintheOttomanEmpire,1915–1916,byJamesBryceandArnoldToynbee,ed.AraSarafian(Reading,UK:TaderonPress,2000),623.32.GustaveMeyrier,DiplomaticDispatch#44,18December1895,L.J.,‘‘CompleteReportontheEvents,’’quotedinSebastiendeCourtois,TheForgottenGenocide:TheEasternChristians,theLastArameans(Piscataway,NJ:GorgiasPress,2004),106.During,thenightof9–10November1938,somewherebetweenseveraldozenand200Jewswerekilled;morethan200synagogueswereburnedordestroyed;815shopsweredestroyed;and20,000Jewswerearrested.WilliamL.Shirer,TheRiseandFalloftheThirdReich(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1960),581–82.33.VahaknN.Dadrian,WarrantforGenocide:KeyElementsoftheTurko-Armenian(NewBrunswick,NJ:TransactionPublishers,1999),85.‘‘ThecathedralofUrfa,theEdessaoftheCrusaders,wasthesceneofahumanholocaust,inwhichnearly3,000personsperished.’’WilliamMiller,TheOttomanEmpire,1801–1913CambridgeUniversityPress,1913),429.34.PaulCambon,TomePremier(1870–1908):L’etablissementdealRepublique–LeProtectoratTunisien–LaregenceenEspagne–LaTurquied’AbdUlHamid,vol.1ofCorrespondance,1870–1924(Paris:Grasset,1940),395,quotedindeCourtois,,110.35.DiplomaticDispatch#2,Vice-ConsulofDiyarbekirtoMr.Constans,FrenchAmbassadortoConstantinople,9January1901,quotedindeCourtois,ForgottenGenocide,138.36.Ibid.37.Ibid.Amongothercrimes,KurdishchieftainshadledHamidiyeinthepillageofChristianvillagesinhabitedbyAssyrians.SeeDiplomaticDispatch#17,Vice-ConsulofDiyarbekirtoMr.Constans,FrenchAmbassadortoConstantinople,13August1902,quotedindeCourtois,ForgottenGenocide,144;DiplomaticDispatch#10,Vice-ConsulofDiyarbekirtoMr.Constans,FrenchAmbassadortoConstantinople,2June1904,quotedindeCourtois,ForgottenGenocide,137;DiplomaticDispatch#12,Vice-ConsulofDiyarbekirtoMr.Constans,FrenchAmbassadortoConstantinople,27July1904,quotedindeCourtois,ForgottenGenocide,145.38.DiplomaticDispatch#6,Vice-ConsulofDiyarbekirtoMr.Constans,FrenchAmbassadortoConstantinople,9August1903,quotedindeCourtois,,143.39.DiplomaticDispatch#2,Vice-ConsulofDiyarbekirtoMr.Constans,FrenchAmbassadortoConstantinople,9January1901,quotedindeCourtois,,145.40.DiplomaticDispatch#21,M.Constans,FrenchAmbassador,toM.Declasse,MinisterofForeignAffairs,14February1902,quotedindeCourtois,ForgottenGenocide,145.41.DonaldBloxham,‘‘TheArmenianGenocideof1915–1916:CumulativeRadicalizationandtheDevelopmentofaDestructionPolicy,’’PastandPresent181(2003):141–91,149.42.Balakian,BurningTigris,51.43.Bloxham,‘‘ArmenianGenocide,’’149.44.Ibid.,151.GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 71.Y.M.Nisan,‘‘Urmia,’’inTheTreatmentofArmeniansintheOttomanEmpire,1915–1916byJamesBryceandArnoldToynbee,ed.AraSarafian,187–89(Reading,UK:TaderonPress,2000),187.72.Sargis,‘‘Urmia,’’191.73.Shedd,‘‘Urmia,’’137–39.74.F.N.Jessup,‘‘Tabriz,’’inTheTreatmentofArmeniansintheOttomanEmpire,1915–1916byJamesBryceandArnoldToynbee,ed.AraSarafian,149–54(Reading,UK:TaderonPress,2000),153.75.Labaree,‘‘Azerbeijan,’’146.76.Sargis,‘‘Urmia,’’189.Gulpashanwas‘‘whollyransacked,’’themenslaughteredandtheattractivewomenkidnapped.Yohannan,DeathofaNation,127.77.Jessup,‘‘Tabriz,’’152–53.78.AraSarafian,ed.,UnitedStatesOfficialDocumentsontheArmenianGenocide,vol.2(Watertown,MA:ArmenianReviewPress,1994),144.79.Sarafian,USOfficialDocuments,vol.2,135.80.EugeneGriselle,SyriensetChaldeens,LeurMartyre,LeursEspe(Paris:BloudetGay,1918),19–22;BasileM.Nikitine,‘‘Unepetitenationvictimedelaguerre,’’dessciencespolitiques44(1921):602–24;BasileM.Nikitine,‘‘LaViedomestiquedesensduPlateaud’Ourmiah,’’d’ethnographiedeParis.(1925):356–81;Browne,‘‘TheAssyrians’’;JosephAlichoran,‘‘Assyro-Chaldeansinthe20thCentury:FromGenocidetoDiaspora,’’JournalofAssyrianAcademicStudies8(1994):45–79.81.JohannesLepsius,DeutschlandundArmenien,1914–1916(Potsdam:Tempelverlag,1919),quotedinGabrieleYonan,EinvergessenerHolocaust:DieVernichtungderchristlichenAssyrerinderTu¨rkeittingen:Gesellschaftfu¨rbedrohteVolker,1989),270.82.BryceandToynbee,TreatmentofArmenians,ch.2,http://www.lib.byu.edu/1915/bryce/a02.htm#II(accessed12October2006).83.Ibid.,ch.3,http://www.lib.byu.edu/rdh/wwi/1915/bryce/a04.htm(accessed12October2006);SyriensetChalde,23–26;‘‘TheAssassinationofaRace,’’TheIndependent18October1915.84.BryceandToynbee,ibid.85.SeeGriselle,SyriensetChalde,23–26.86.Labaree,‘‘Azerbeijan,’’147.87.Ibid.88.JosephTfinkdji,TheVictimsoftheChaldeanNationduringtheMassacresinArmenia:ReportofaChaldeanClergyman(St.Pichon,1918),quotedinYonan,Einvergessener,309–12;FatherDakras,‘‘WhatFatherDakrasSawofMassacresinTurkey,’’WashingtonPost,28November1915,M5.89.Dakras,ibid.90.YusufMalek,TheBritishBetrayaloftheAssyrians(WarrenPoint,NJ:KimballPress,1936),ch.18,http://www.aina.org/books/bbota.htm(accessed12October2006).91.Longrigg,,97;Coakley,ChurchoftheEast,337.92.Sarafian,USOfficialDocuments,vol.2,137.93.Ibid.94.H.P.Packard,lettertotheeditor,NewYorkTimes,18September1916,12,http://(accessed19October2006).95.Sarafian,USOfficialDocuments,vol.2,142–43.96.BaumandWinkler,ChurchoftheEast,137.97.PaulShimmon,‘‘Hakkiari,’’inTheTreatmentofArmeniansintheOttomanEmpire,,byJamesBryceandArnoldToynbee,ed.AraSarafian,200–203(Reading,UK:TaderonPress,2000),201.GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 Morgen24.htm(accessed19October2006).122.Ibid.123.‘‘MorgenthauUrges,’’I-1.124.AraSarafian,ed.,UnitedStatesOfficialDocumentsontheArmenianGenocide,vol.1(Watertown,MA:ArmenianReviewPress,1993),54.125.Ibid.,48–49.126.Ibid.127.LeslieA.Davis,TheSlaughterhouseProvince:AnAmericanDiplomat’sReportontheArmenianGenocide(NewRochelle,NY:Caratzas,1990),144–45.128.Ibid.129.Ibid.130.DE/PA-AA/R14086,1915-A-23244,No.477,reportfromErnstLangenburgHohenlohe,GermanAmbassadorinConstantinople,toChancellorBethmannHollweg,dated31July1915,http://www.armenocide.de/armenocide/armgende.nsf/3f23b353912a55f8c1256ad7006edaff/333eb1a5ff7f9ebec12568f30059b1d5?OpenDocument(accessed19October2006).131.DE/PA-AA/Bo.Kons./Band169,No.11,telegramfromWalterHolstein,Vice-ConsulofMosul,toGermanEmbassyinIstanbul,dated15July1915,http://www.armenocide.de/(accessed19October2006).132.DE/PA-AA/Bo.Kons./Band169,No.14,telegramfromWalterHolstein,Vice-ConsulofMosul,toGermanEmbassyinIstanbul,dated21July1915,http://www.armenocide.de/157fa8e809878c2cc12568f30059b1cd?OpenDocument(accessed19October2006).133.DE/PA-AA/Bo.Kons./Band170,A53a/1915/5779,reportofRossler,GermanConsulinAleppo,toErnstLangenburgHohenlohe,AmbassadoronExtraordinaryMissioninConstantinople,,dated27September1915,http://www.armenocide.de/armenocide/OpenDocument(trans.VeraDraack;accessed19October2006).134.DE/PA-AA/R14087,K.No.90/B.No.1950,telegramfromRossler,GermanConsulinAleppo,toGermanChancellorBethmannHollweg,dated3September1915,http://www.f6d8f87cf678fb7bc12568f30059b207?OpenDocument(accessed19October2006).135.VahaknN.Dadrian,‘‘DocumentationoftheArmenianGenocideinGermanandAustrianSources,’’inTheWideningCircleofGenocide:ACriticalBibliographicReview,ed.IsraelW.Charny,77–126(NewBrunswick,NJ:TransactionPublishers,1994),100,101,124.136.YairAuron,ZionismandtheArmenianGenocide:TheBanalityofIndifference(NewBrunswick,NJ:TransactionPublishers,2003),49.137.Ibid.,50.TheGermanscondemnedthe‘‘massiveandindiscriminateexpulsions...accompaniedbyactsofviolencesuchasmassacresandpillages.’’Dadrian,‘‘Documentation,’’98.138.Dadrian,‘‘Documentation,’’100.139.JohannesLepsius,ReportontheConditionoftheArmenianPeople(Potsdam,1916),andJohannesLepsius,CollectionofDiplomaticFiles(Potsdam,1919),bothcitedinGabrieleYonan,‘‘HolyWarMadeinGermany:NewLightontheHolocaustagainsttheChristianAssyriansduringWorldWarI,’’paperpresentedattheinternationalconferenceAssyriansAfterAssyria:PersecutionsandMassacresofSyriac-speakingChristians,UniversityofSydney,Australia,2July2000,http://www.nineveh.com/Holy%20War%20Made%20in%20Germany.html(accessed13October2006).140.VahaknN.Dadrian,GermanResponsibilityintheArmenianGenocide:AReviewoftheHistoricalEvidenceofGermanComplicity(Cambridge,MA:BlueCraneBooks,1996).141.‘‘SyrianTellsofAtrocities,’’LosAngelesTimes,15December1918,I-1.GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 167.See‘‘CheapatthePrice,’’(London),26May2006,http://property.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,14052–2193897,00.html(accessed19October2006).168.RepublicofTurkey,DirectorateGeneralofPressandInformation,‘‘TheArmenianAllegationofGenocide:Facts’’(2001),http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/newspot/2001/mar_apr/n5.htm(accessed17February2006).169.HasanKoniandKemalC¸ic¸ek,‘‘TheRelocationoftheArmeniansduringtheWWI’’(April2005),http://www.ttk.gov.tr/ingilizce/armenian_studies/april2005-2.pdf(accessed13October2006),5.170.Ibid.171.Ibid.172.Ibid.173.‘‘ArmenianMassacresof1915,’’ParliamentaryDebates,Lords,6thser.,vol.599(29March–22April1999),col.1212,answerbyLordTriesman,ParliamentaryUnder-SecretaryofState,ForeignandCommonwealthOffice,toquestionbyBaronessCoxtothegovernment,http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldhansrd/vo050714/text/50714-01.htm(accessed19October2006).ConventiononthePreventionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide,9December1948,78U.N.T.S.277,http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm(accessed13October2006),art.2.175.Ibid.,emphasisadded;YoramDinstein,War,AggressionandSelf-Defence,3rded.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),108.TrialoftheMajorWarCriminalsbeforetheInternationalMilitaryTribunal,Nuremberg,14November1945—10October1946,vol.1(1947),43–44,citedinElizabethBorgward,‘‘Re-examiningNurembergasaNewDealInstitution:Politics,CultureandtheLimitsofLawinGeneratingHumanRightsNorms,’’BerkeleyJournalofInternationalLaw(2005):42–68,401.177.‘‘ReservationstotheConventiononthePreventionofGenocide’’(advisoryopinion),ICJReports1951:15–55,21–22,23–24.178.BenjaminWhitaker,‘‘RevisedandUpdatedReportontheQuestionofthePreventionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide,’’E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6(UNEconomicandSocialCouncil,CommissiononHumanRights,Sub-commissiononPreventionofDiscriminationandProtectionofMinorities,2July1985).StatuteoftheInternationalCourtofJustice,24October1945,59Stat.1031,1060;T.S.No.993,25,arts.36(2)(a-d),38(1)(a-d),http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicstatute.htm(accessed13October2006),art.36(2)(a–d),art.38(1)(a–d);PeterMalanczuk,sModernIntroductiontoInternationalLawRoutledge,1997),39,statesthatsourcesofinternationalcustomarylawinclude‘‘newspaperreportsofactionstakenbystates,andstatementsmadebygovernmentlawsandjudicialdecisionsextractsfrom[ForeignMinistry]thewritingsofinternationallawyersjudgmentsofnationalandinterna-tionaltribunalsnonbindingresolutionsanddeclarations.’’180.Forexample,asearlyasthefourteenthcentury,anEnglishcourttriedandconvictedtheScottishrebelWilliamWallaceforwagingwarinanillegalmanner,‘‘sparingneitheragenorsex,monknornun.’’TimothyL.H.McCormack,‘‘SelectiveReactiontoAtrocity:WarCrimesandtheDevelopmentofInternationalCriminalLaw,’’AlbanyLawReview60(1997):681–732,689.Inthefifteenthcentury,awarriorintheserviceoftheDukeofBurgundywastriedandconvictedformurderandrapecommittedduringtheoccupationofAustria,inviolationofthe‘‘lawsofGodandman.’’Ibid.,690.Intheseventeenthcentury,theKingofSwedendecreedArticlesofWarthat,amongotherthings,declaredthatanyattemptto‘‘tyranniseover’’unarmedmen,women,orchildren,particularlyclergyandagedpeople,wouldbemadeunderpainof‘‘punishmentatthediscretionoftheJudges.’’KennethOgren,‘‘HumanitarianLawintheArticlesofWarDecreedin1621byKingGustavusIIAdolphusofSweden,’’InternationalReviewoftheRedCross313(1996):438–42,http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList154/GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 ‘‘MisplacedCredulity:ContemporaryTurkishAttemptstoRefutetheArmenianGenocide,’’ArmenianReview45(1992):185–213.TreatyofPeaceBetweentheAlliedPowersandTurkey(TreatyofSevres),10August1920(unratified),arts.142,144,reprintedinAmericanJournalofInternationalLaw(Supplement:OfficialDocuments,1921):179–295.193.Ibid.,arts.27,140–41,145,147–50,reprintpp.182–84,208–9,211–12.194.Ibid.,art.230.195.Shamsey,‘‘80YearsTooLate,’’271–72.196.Dadrian,‘‘TurkishMilitaryTribunal’sProsecution,’’51–52.197.Dadrian,HistoryoftheArmenianGenocide,332–35,340–41.198.MerrillD.Peterson,StarvingArmenians:AmericaandtheArmenianGenocide,1915–1930andAfter(Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginiaPress,2004);134–35;HansKoGlobalJusticeorGlobalRevenge?InternationalCriminalJusticeattheCrossroads(NewYork:Springer-Verlag,2004),58;Dadrian,HistoryoftheArmenianGenocide,333,341;M.CherifBassiouni,‘‘FromVersaillestoRwandainSeventy-FiveYears:TheNeedtoEstablishaPermanentInternationalCriminalCourt,’’HarvardHumanRightsJournal10(1997):11–62,17.199.RepublicofTurkey,‘‘ArmenianAllegationofGenocide.’’200.Ibid.201.‘‘ArmenianMassacre,1915,’’ParliamentaryDebates,Lords,6thser.,vol.599(29March–22April1999),col.826,answerbyBaronessRamsayofCartvaletoquestionbyBaronessCoxtothegovernment,http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199899/ldhansrd/vo990414/text/90414-09.htm(accessed13October2006).202.‘‘Genocideasaformofstatecrimehasrequiredacooperativeendeavorbyindividualsoperatingonmanydifferentlevelsofthestate,withdramaticallydifferentorientations,objectivesandmotivations.’’DavidO.Friedrichs,‘‘TheCrimeoftheCentury?TheCasefortheHolocaust,’’Crime,LawandSocialChange34(2000):21–41,29.203.Morgenthau,AmbassadorMorgenthausStory,10,20,34.204.Halo,NotEvenMyName,126.205.PanayiotisDiamadis,‘‘TheAssyrianintheChristianAsiaMinorHolocaust,’’paperpresentedattheinternationalconferenceAssyriansAfterAssyria:PersecutionsandMassacresofSyriac-speakingChristians,UniversityofSydney,Australia,2July2000,http://aanf.org/America/assyrians/assyrian_christian.htm(accessed13October2006).206.Ibid.207.Bloxham,‘‘ArmenianGenocide,’’156–57.208.Ibid.,157.209.Ibid.210.Shahbaz,TheRageofIslam,51–53.211.Sarafian,USOfficialDocuments,vol.2,137.212.JamesL.Barton,StoryofNearEastRelief(1915–1930)(NewYork:Macmillan,1930),91.213.Bloxham,‘‘ArmenianGenocide,’’152.214.Ibid.215.Ibid.216.Dadrian,‘‘DocumentationoftheArmenianGenocide,’’99.217.Morgenthau,AmbassadorMorgenthau’sStory,34.218.Ibid.,193.219.DE/PA-AA/R14086,A-19743,reportfromWangenheim,AmbassadorinConstantinopletoReichskanzlerBethmannHollweg,24June1915,http://www.armenocide.de/ecd802ded50a4089c12568f30059b196?OpenDocument(accessed13October2006).220.JohannesLepsius,BerichtuberdieLagedesArmenischenVolkesinderTurkei1916),quotedinYonan,EinvergessenerHolocaust,248;seealsoMorgenthau,Morgenthau’sStory,243;BryceandToynbee,TreatmentoftheArmenians,ch.2,http://rdh/wwi/1915/bryce/a03.htm(accessed13October2006).GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 ReviewoftheIndictmentsPursuanttoRule61oftheRulesofProcedureandEvidence,IT-95–5-R61-TandIT-95–18-R61-T(16July1996),para.94.Thus,‘‘attacksontheculturalandreligiouspropertyandsymbolsofthetargetedgroup...maylegitimatelybeconsideredasevidenceofanintenttophysicallydestroythegroup.’’Prosecutorv.Krstic,Judgment,IT-98-33-T(2August2001),para.580,http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html(accessed13October2006)[KrsticTrialJudgment].236.KrsticTrialJudgment,para.513.237.UNCG,art.2.238.RaphaelLemkin,AxisRuleinOccupiedEurope:LawsofOccupation,AnalysisofGovernment,ProposalsforRedress(Washington,DC:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,1944),79.239.Ibid.240.OnlyReagan,Ford,andBushactuallyusedtheterm‘‘genocide,’’Carterpreferringtospeakof‘‘eliminat[ion].’’Rep.MichaelBilrakis,‘‘CommemoratingArmenianGenocide,’’107thCong.,1stsess.,CongressionalRecord147(24April2001):H1518–19;PresidentRonaldReagan,‘‘DaysofRemembranceofVictimsoftheHolocaust,’’101stCong.,2ndCongressionalRecord136(22April1981):S1438–39;FergalKeane,‘‘ArmeniansSayUSFailedThem,’’BBCNews,26January2003),http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/correspondent/2572667.stm(accessed13October2006);ArmenianNationalCommitteeofAmerica,‘‘Quotes,’’2004,http://www.anca.org/genocide/quotes.php(accessed13October2006).241.WarrenTolmanandDikranKaligian,‘‘It’sElementary:TurksCommittedGenocide,’’BostonHerald,9December2005,33.242.JasonWermers,‘‘MassacresGenocide?23StatesHaveLegislationThatRecognizesStanceofArmenians,’’RichmondTimesDispatch,2April2001,B1.243.‘‘ArmenianMassacre,1915,’’ParliamentaryDebates,Lords,6thser.,vol.599(29March–22April1999),col.811,questionbyBaronessCoxtothegovernment,http://(accessed13October2006);‘‘TurkeyProtests‘Genocide’Reference,’’CatholicInsight9,10(December2001):23.244.‘‘Turkey‘MustAdmitArmeniaDead,’’’BBCNews,13December2004,http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4092933.stm(accessed13October2006).245.Ibid.246.‘‘ArmenianMassacre,1915,’’ParliamentaryDebates,Lords;‘‘USHouseCommitteetoDiscussGenocideResolution,’’TurkishDailyNews,9September2005;‘‘SwissAcceptArmenia‘Genocide,’’’BBCNews,16December2003,http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3325247.stm(accessed13October2006).247.AframBarryakoub,‘‘AcademicConferenceonSeyfoHeldinSweden,’’ZindaMagazine19November2005,http://www.zindamagazine.com/html/archives/2005/11.19.05/index_sat.php(accessed13October2006).248.AsaprominentscholaroftheArmeniangenocidestateduponbeingaskedwhethertheArmenianparliamentshouldrecognizetheAssyriangenocide,‘‘wedonotknowmuchaboutyourexperience.’’Ibid.249.VahaknDadrianhascompiledmuchoftheextantevidenceofOttomanadmissionsofgenocidalintenttoexterminatetheArmeniansinparticular,althoughmuchofthisevidencealsosupportsanintentiontowipeoutor‘‘cleanse’’OttomanChristiansmorebroadly.Dadrian,HistoryoftheArmenianGenocide,219–48;Dadrian,Warrantfor,85–105,123–33;Dadrian,GermanResponsibility;Dadrian,‘‘DocumentationoftheArmenianGenocide,’’98–101;Dadrian,‘‘TurkishMilitaryTribunal’sProsecution,’’35,38–39,43,48,54,51–52;Dadrian,‘‘ArmenianGenocide’’;VahaknN.Dadrian,‘‘TheNaim-AndonianDocumentsontheWorldWarIDestructionofOttomanArmenians:TheAnatomyofaGenocide,’’InternationalJournalofMiddleEastStudies18(1986):311–60;VahaknN.Dadrian,‘‘TheDocumentationoftheWorldWarIArmenianMassacresintheProceedingsoftheTurkishMilitaryTribunal,’’InternationalJournalGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 255.‘‘Iraq,Afghanistan,11OtherStatesAtRiskofGenocide:Expert,’’AgenceFrance-Presse27January2004,http://www.keepmedia.com/pubs/AFP/2004/01/27/361322(accessed16October2006).256.Ibid.257.Tripp,HistoryofIraq,79–81;UNOfficefortheCoordinationofHumanitarianAffairs,‘‘Iraq:FocusonMassGraves,’’IRINMiddleEast,7January2004,http://IRAQ(accessed16October2006);USDepartmentofState,‘‘IraqHumanRightsPractices,1994’’(February1995),http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/democracy/1994_hrp_report/94hrp_report_nea/Iraq.html(accessed16October2006);InternationalFederationofHumanRights[FIHR]andAllianceInternationalepourlaJustice[AIJ],Iraq:ContinuousandSilentEthnicCleansing(January2003),http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/iq350a.pdf(accessed16October2006),16;HumanRightsWatch,‘‘ReversingEthnicCleansinginNorthernIraq,’’ClaimsinConflict16,4(August2004),http://hrw.org/reports/2004/iraq0804(accessed16October2006);Siemon-Netto,‘‘AttacksDefy’’;KenJoseph,Jr.,‘‘Iraq’sSecretDocuments,’’WashingtonTimes,23July2004,http://washingtontimes.com/upi-breaking/20040723-123038-6416r.htm(accessed1March2006).258.USDepartmentofState,‘‘IraqHumanRightsPractices.’’259.Dr.KatrinMichael,aChaldeanAssyrianwhometwithPresidentGeorgeW.BushandVicePresidentDickCheneyon14March2003,wasavictimofthechemicalweaponsattackonHalabjain1988.TheWhiteHouse,‘‘NewsandPolicies’’(newsrelease,March2003),http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/03/images/20030314-26_p27771-07a-515h.html(accessed16October2006);KatrinMichael,‘‘TestimonyofSurvivorDr.KatrinMichael[beforetheUSHouseofRepresentatives],’’6March2003,http://www.house.gov/kirk/halabja_drmichael_testimony.htm(accessed16October2006);Lewis,‘‘IraqiAssyrians’’;PeterCarlson,‘‘GassedbyIraqiTroops,BlindsidedbytheINS:ExileLendsSupporttoBush,ThenFindsHerselfonImmigration’sDeportationList,’’WashingtonPost,9April2003,C01,http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?true(accessed19October2006).260.UKHomeOffice,‘‘IraqCountryAssessment’’(April2002),http://www.ecoi.net/pub/nz302_00978irq.htm(accessed1March2006),paras.6.13,6.71.261.FIHRandAIJ,‘‘Iraq:ContinuousandSilent,’’AppendicesA,H.262.Ibid.263.Ibid.264.MordechaiNisan,MinoritiesintheMiddleEast:AHistoryofStruggleandSelf-Expression(Jefferson,NC:McFarland&Co.,1991),166.265.Lewis,‘‘IraqiAssyrians.’’266.AlastairBruton,‘‘ChristianSectsinKurdishLandsDwindle,’’NewYorkTimes,24May1993,A14.267.Siemon-Netto,‘‘AttacksDefy’’;ElenaRyumina.‘‘AssyriansRinginYear6750,’’,1April2000,http://www.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2000/04/01/051.html(accessed16October2006);DavidClarke,‘‘AustralianAssyrianCommunity,’’LegislativeCouncilPapers,NewSouthWales,12May2004,http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LC20040512041(accessed16October2006),8846,art.41.268.NinaShea,‘‘CanaryinaCoalMine:Iraq’sFutureasaTolerant,DemocraticNationIsatStake,’’NationalReviewOnline,14October2004,http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/shea200410140830.asp(accessed16October2006).Ethniccleansingincludesnotsimplytheexterminationofanethnicgroupbutalso‘‘renderinganareaethnicallyhomogenousbyusingforceorintimidationtoremovepersonsofgivengroupsfromthearea.’’FinalReportofUnitedNationsCommissionofExpertstotheSecurityCouncil,S/1994/674(27May1994),s.III.B.GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 IraqAdministration:October,1920-March,1928,102,quotedinStafford,ibid.SeealsoBrowne,‘‘Assyrians,’’180–83.280.‘‘MemorandumforMr.StettiniusfromJohnW.Pehle,ExecutiveDirector,theWarRefugeeBoard,Aug.28,1944,’’reprintedinTheAmericanRoadtoNuremberg:TheDocumentaryRecord,1944–1945(Stanford,CA:HooverInstitutionPress,1982),22,quotedinIdaBostian,‘‘‘SpeakingabouttheDestructionoftheArmenians’:EarlyFailuresinInternationalCriminalJusticeandLessonsforToday,’’ExpressOPreprintSeriesPaper1471(24July2006),46,http://law.bepress.com/expresso/eps/1471.281.‘‘ContentsoftheSpeechbytheFu¨hrertotheChiefCommandersandCommandingGeneralsontheObersalzberg,Aug.22,1939,’’reprintedinKevorkB.Bardakjian,andtheArmenianGenocide(Cambridge,MA:ZoryanInstitute,1985),46–48,quotedinBostian,‘‘SpeakingabouttheDestruction,’’36.282.JosephGoebbels,TheGoebbelsDiaries,1942–1943,trans.LouisP.Lochner(GardenCity,NY:Doubleday,1948),240,quotedinBostian,‘‘SpeakingabouttheDestruction,’’51.283.Bass,StaytheHandofVengeance,40,quotedinBostian,‘‘SpeakingabouttheDestruction,’’47–48.284.SeeBenjaminA.Valentino,FinalSolutions:MassKillingandGenocideintheTwentieth(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,2004);AdamJones,ed.,Genocide,WarCrimesandTheWest:HistoryandComplicity(London:ZedBooks,2004).285.EdenNaby,‘‘TheAssyriansofIran:Reunificationofa‘Millet,’1906–1914,’’JournalofMiddleEastStudies8(1977):237–49,248.286.SeeBruton,‘‘ChristianSects,’’A14;SergioChapa,‘‘JudgeDeniesMotionbyIraqiChristians:AsylumSeekersStillHavetoServeSixMonthsinJail,’’BrownsvilleHerald,19May2006,http://www.brownsvilleherald.com/70850_0_10_0_C(accessed16October2006);EuropeanCouncilonRefugeesandExiles,‘‘GuidelinesontheTreatmentofIraqiAsylumSeekersandRefugeesinEurope,’’InternationalJournalofRefugeeLaw18(2006):452–74,http://www.ecre.org/positions/Iraq06.pdf(accessed16October2006);GovernmentofAustralia,HumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommission,‘‘SettingtheScene:ChildreninImmigrationDetention,’’inALastResort?TheReportoftheNationalInquiryonChildreninDetention(2004),ch.3,http://www.hreoc.gov.au/Human_Rights/children_detention_report/report/chap03.htm(accessed16October2006).287.In1961,theGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsdeclaredthat‘‘allpeopleshavetherighttoself-determination,’’includingto‘‘freelydeterminetheirpoliticalstatus’’anddeveloptheircultureandsociety,andthat‘‘subjectionofpeoplestoaliensubjugationconstitutesadenialoffundamentalhumanrights[and]iscontrarytotheCharteroftheUnitedNations.’’DeclarationontheGrantingofIndependencetoColonialCountriesand,UNGeneralAssemblyResolution1514,UNDoc.A/4684(1961),para.26.In1975,theInternationalCourtofJusticeheldthatcolonizedpeopleshavearighttoself-determination‘‘throughthefreeandgenuineexpressionofthe[ir]will.’’WesternSahara,advisoryopinionof16October1975,ICJReports1975:12–227,30.Thus,internationallawhasadoptedtherightofself-determination‘‘asanoperativenorm.’’RichardFalk,‘‘Essay:ProblemsandProspectsfortheKurdishStruggleforSelf-DeterminationaftertheEndoftheGulfandColdWars,’’MichiganJournalofInternationalLaw15(1994):591–603,598.288.‘‘Itisaprincipleofinternationallawthatthebreachofanengagementinvolvesanobligationtomakereparationinanadequateform.’’FederalRepublicofGermanyv.(CaseConcerningtheFactoryatChorzow),1927,P.C.I.J.,Ser.A,rulingno.9onjurisdiction,21.‘‘Reparationmust,asfaraspossible,wipeoutalltheconsequencesoftheillegalactandreestablishthesituationwhichwould,inallprobability,haveexistedifthatacthadnotbeencommitted.Restitutioninkind,or,ifthisisnotpossible,paymentofasumcorrespondingtothevaluewhicharestitutioninkindwouldbear;theaward,ifneedbe,ofdamagesforlosssustainedwhichwouldnotbecoveredbyrestitutioninkindorpaymentinplaceofit—sucharetheprincipleswhichshouldservetodeterminetheGenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 PeopleundertheNazisandinPost-WarRestitution,’’WhittierLawReview20(1999):294.ForafairlycomprehensiveaccountofthispatterninNazi-occupiedEurope,seeShirer,RiseandFall,872–78,1223–92.295.Bloxham,‘‘ArmenianGenocide,’’189;WilliamA.Schabas,‘‘Darfurandthe‘OdiousScourge’:TheCommissionofInquiry’sFindingsonGenocide,’’LeidenJournalofInternationalLaw18(2005):871–85,875.296.Inthe1850s,BritainactuallycommittedmilitaryforcesduringtheCrimeanWar,therebydefendingtheOttomanEmpireagainstaRussiancampaigntoprotecttheOttomanChristians.SnehMahajan,BritishForeignPolicy,1874–1914:TheRoleofIndiaRoutledge,2002),27;RobertB.Edgerton,DeathorGlory:TheLegacyoftheCrimeanWar(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1999),12–13.TheCrimeanWar‘‘wasduemainlytotheeffortsoftheCzarNicholastoextendhisprotectionovertheGreekChristiansinTurkey.’’JohnHollandRose,TheDevelopmentoftheEuropeanNations,1870–1914,5thed.(NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1915),http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14644/14644-h/14644-h.htm(accessed16October2006),161.Onanuncharitableview,BritainandFranceenteredthefrayonthesideoftheOttomanEmpirebecausethey‘‘wishedtoplayagreatpartintheworld’’and‘‘resentedtheencroachmentsofRussiaintheEast.’’Ibid.297.FrederickJonesBliss,‘‘TheOttomanEmpire,1801–1913[Review],’’AmericanHistorical19(1914):355–56.298.SuhaBolukbasi,‘‘BehindtheTurkish–IsraeliAlliance:ATurkishView,’’ofPalestineStudies29(1999):101–15.Inthe1950sand1960s,TurkishviolenceandpersecutionagainstGreekChristians,theforcibledeportationofGreekcitizens,andtheexpropriationoftheirpropertycontributedtodrivinganestimated97%ofGreeksinTurkey,morethan95,000people,toflee.StevenStavrosSkenderis,‘‘NoteandComment:TheEthnicGreeksofTurkey:ThePresentSituationoftheGreekMinorityandTurkey’sHumanRightsObligationsUnderInternationalLaw,’’St.ThomasLawReview16(2004):551–94,564–65,citingHumanRightsWatch,DenyingHumanRightsandEthnicIdentity:TheGreeksofTurkey(NewYork:HRW,1992),7–9,andLoucasTsilas,‘‘Greek–TurkishRelationsinthePost–ColdWarEra,’’FordhamInternationalLawJournal20(1997):1589–1605,1599–1600.Startingin1974,TurkeyinvadedandbeganillegallyoccupyingandcolonizingnorthernCyprus.Tsilas,‘‘Greek–TurkishRelations,’’1603–5.299.AsforTurkey,theUSCongresshasdebatedwhethercontinuingtoprovideaidtoTurkeyistoturnablindeyetoitspersecutionofChristiansandKurds,itsblockadeofArmenia,anditsoccupationofnorthernCyprus.‘‘HouseTablesForeignAidBill,’’UnitedPress,6June1996;‘‘PreparedStatementofEugeneT.RossidesonBehalfoftheAmericanHellenicInstitutePublicAffairsCommittee,Inc.,etal.,beforetheHouseAppropriationsCommittee,SubcommitteeonForeignOperations,ExportFinancingandRelatedPrograms’’(25April1996).AsforIraq,theReaganandGeorgeH.W.BushadministrationsofferedcriticalmilitaryandfinancialaidtoIraqafterithadembarkeduponcampaignsof‘‘Arabization’’andethniccleansinginnorthernIraq,inwhichtheAssyriansandotherChristianswerecaughtup.LewisM.Simons,‘‘GenocideandtheScienceofProof,’’NationalGeographic,January2006:28–32,32;CraigUnger,HouseofBush,HouseofSaud:TheSecretRelationshipBetweentheWorldsTwoMostPowerful(NewYork:Scribner,2004),75–82;ChristopherMarquis,‘‘RumsfeldMadeIraqOverturein’84DespiteChemicalRaids,’’NewYorkTimes,23December2003,http://(accessed16October2006);JoostR.Hiltermann,‘‘Halabja:AmericaDidn’tSeemtoMindPoisonGas,’’InternationalHeraldTribune17January2003,http://www.iht.com/articles/2003/01/17/edjoost_ed3_.php(accessed16October2006);TimReid,‘‘HowUSHelpedIraqBuildDeadlyArsenal,’’31December2002.GenocideStudiesandPrevention1:3December2006 ‘‘NativeChristiansMassacred’’:TheOttomanGenocideoftheAssyriansduringWorldWarIHannibalTravisFloridaInternationalUniversityCollegeofLawTheOttomanEmpire’swidespreadpersecutionofAssyrianciviliansduringWorldWarIconstitutedaformofgenocide,thepresent-daytermforanattempttodestroyanational,ethnic,orreligiousgroup,inwholeorinpart.OttomansoldiersandtheirKurdishandPersianmilitiapartnerssubjectedhundredsofthousandsofAssyrianstoadeliberateandsystematiccampaignofmassacre,torture,abduction,deportation,impoverishment,andculturalandethnicdestruction.EstablishedprinciplesofinternationallawoutlawedthiswarofexterminationagainstOttomanChristianciviliansbeforeitwasembarkedupon,andampleevidenceofgenocidalintenthassurfacedintheformofadmissionsbyOttomanofficials.Nevertheless,theinternationalcommunityhasbeenhesitanttorecognizetheAssyrianexperienceasaformofgenocide.TheAssyriangenocideisindistinguishableinprinciplefromitsArmeniancounterpart,however,anditsrecognitionbyscholarsandtheinternationalcommunitymayassistintheresettlementandreliefoftheAssyrianremnant,currentlyfleeingbythethousandsfromitshomelandsinIraq.SincetheinvasionofIraqbyacoalitionofdemocraticnationsin2003,theplightoftheChristiansofthatnationhascapturedtheworld’sattentioninamannernotseensinceWorldWarI.WhatwasasteadyflowofAssyrianrefugeesoutofIraq,aftertheGulfWarandthecomprehensiveeconomicsanctionsofthe1990s,hasacceleratedsincethe2003warintoatorrentofrefugeeflightintowesternAsia,Europe,theUnitedStates,andAustralia.TheinternationalpresscouldnolongerignoretheAssyrians’increasinglydesperatestraits.DuringandafterWorldWarI,newspapersinLondon,Paris,NewYork,andLosAngelesregularlyreportedonthedesperatestraitsimposedonAssyrians,Chaldeans,Nestorians,andSyriacChristiansintheOttomanEmpire.LiketheArmenians,theAssyrianslivinginMesopotamia,Persia,Azerbaijan,andTurkeybecamevictimsofagenocidal‘‘holywar’’declaredbytheOttomanSultanandcarriedoutbytheYoungTurkregimeofEnverPasha.ThatthiswaragainsttheindigenousChristiansoftheOttomanEmpirewasgenocidalincharacterismanifestnotonlyfromtheadmissionsofOttomanandTurkishofficialsatthehighestlevelsofgovernmentbutalsofromthoseoftheirGermanalliesinWorldWarI,AmericanandBritishofficials,legionsofforeignjournalistsandmissionaries,and,ofcourse,thecountlesscivilianvictimsofthewar’smassacresanddeportations.Asdescribedbythosewholivedthem,theeventsof1915–1916intheOttomanEmpirewereclearlyaformofgenocide,thecontemporarytermforanyattempttodestroyanational,ethnic,orreligiousgroupinwholeorinpart.Asinotherrecognizedgenocides,theOttomansandtheirlocalallies,theKurdsandHannibalTravis,‘‘‘NativeChristiansMassacred’:TheOttomanGenocideoftheAssyriansduringWorldWarI.’’GenocideStudiesandPrevention1,3(December2006):327–371.GenocideStudiesand