2013 57 802 ID: 495431
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Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 807 Table1. Continued Edibleinsects(basedondrymatter)ProteinFatFiberNFEAshEnergyOrigin [%][%][%][%][%]content [Kcal/100g] Sphenariumhistrio 4 74.788.6310.532.593.47Mexico;wild Sphenariumhistrio (nymphs,adults) 9 71.156.7211.798.012.30376.43Mexico;wild Sphenariummexicanum S. 1 62.1010.804.0622.640.34Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpuracens 20 71.505.753.8916.362.50Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpurascens 3 56.0011.009.0021.003.00404.00Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpurascens 4 52.6019.5611.0414.492.31404.44Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpurascens Ch. 1 65.2010.809.4111.632.95Mexico;wild Sphenarium sp. 4 67.027.9110.678.126.28393.04Mexico;wild Sphenarium spp. 3 68.0012.0011.005.005.00390.00Mexico;wild Sphenariumspp. 1 67.8011.5010.514.654.87Mexico;wild Taeniopodaauricornis W. 1 63.0010.208.3414.523.97Mexico;wild Taeniopoda sp. 1 71.005.8510.569.592.95Mexico;wild Trimerotropispallidipennis 4 62.9322.207.632.634.79Mexico;wild Trimerotropis sp. 4 65.137.0210.2013.873.78379.06Mexico;wild Trimerotropis sp. 1 65.107.0210.2010.203.78Mexico;wild Zonocerusvariegatus (adult) 1 62.732.493.6129.404.11Nigeria;wild Zonocerusvariegatus 2 26.803.802.4063.201.20Nigeria;wild NFE,nitrogen-freeextract,i.e.,carbohydrates(NFE = 100%(protein + crudefat + ash + crude ber + moisture). 1[14],2[12];3[1];4[11];5[13];6[19];7[17];8[18],9[15],10[28];11[26];12[29];13[8];14[16];15[47];16[40];17[23];18[53];19[54]; 20[10];21[22];22[55];23[56],24[9];25[30];26[2];27[57];28[58];29[21];30[59];31[60];32[46];33[61];34[62];35[63];36[64];37[65]. tothesameunits(e.g.,nitrogencontentwasconvertedinto proteincontentbythefactor6.25).Inaddition,thecountryof theinsectsÕoriginanditsupbringing(collectedintheÒwildÓ orÒrearedÓ)isincludedinthetable.Forfurthervisualization ofthetremendousdataamount,theaveragevaluesofthe insectordersincludingtheirSDsareillustratedinavertical- barchartinFig.1. Itcanbasicallybeobservedthatthecompositionofedible insectsisgenerallysubjecttoalargevariation.Forexample, thespeciesoftheorderColeoptera(beetles,grubs)havean averageproteincontentof40.69%withproteincontentsof thespecieswithinthisorderrangingfrom8.85to71.10%. Itisassumedthatthisvariationnotonlyoriginatesfrom differencesbetweenspeciesanddevelopmentalstages[7]but alsofromdifferentfeed[8]andoriginsaswellasdifferences inmeasuringmethods. Consideringtheaveragecontentsofthedifferentorders ofinsecta,themaincomponentsofinsectsareproteinand fat,followedbyÞber,nitrogen-freeextract(NFE),andashin noparticularorder(seealsoFig.1). Figure1. Averagenutrient contents[%](basedondry matter)ofedibleinsects belongingtothesameorder. n,numberofinsectsamples obtainedfromliterature;NFE, nitrogen-freeextract.Insect orders:Blattodea(cockroaches), Coleoptera(beetles,grubs), Diptera( ies),Hemiptera (truebugs),Hymenoptera (ants,bees,wasps),Isoptera (termites),Lepidoptera(but- ter ies,moths),Odonata (dragon ies,damsel ies), Orthoptera(grasshoppers, crickets,locusts). C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 803 Table1. Nutritionalcomposition[%]andenergycontent[kcal/100g]ofedibleinsects(basedondrymatter) Edibleinsects(basedondrymatter)ProteinFatFiberNFEAshEnergyOrigin [%][%][%][%][%]content [Kcal/100g] Blattodea(cockroaches)57.3029.905.314.532.94 Blaberus sp. 1 43.9034.208.4410.093.33Mexico;wild Periplanetaamericana L. 1 65.6028.203.000.782.48Mexico;wild Periplanetaaustralasiae F. 1 62.4027.304.502.733.00Mexico;wild Coleoptera(beetles,grubs)40.6933.4010.7413.205.07490.30 Analeptestrifasciata 2 29.6218.391.9643.604.21Nigeria;wild Aplagiognathusspinosus 3 26.0036.0015.0019.003.00Mexico;wild Aplagiognathusspinosus 4 25.8036.3815.0119.533.28508.30Mexico;wild Arophalusrusticus 4 20.1056.065.1417.041.66652.30Mexico;wild Callipogonbarbatus 3 41.0034.0023.001.002.00Mexico;wild Coprisnevinsoni Waterhouse 5 54.4313.6115.157.639.18Thailand;wild Cybister avocicinctus 4 69.015.64Mexico;wild Holotrichia sp. 5 51.745.4119.3111.2012.34Thailand;wild Homolepta sp. 3 54.0018.0012.0010.007.00Mexico;wild Metamasiusspinolae 4 69.0517.443.659.240.62Mexico;wild Oileusrimator 3 21.0047.0013.0018.002.00Mexico;wild Oryctesboas (larvae) 2 26.001.503.4038.501.50Nigeria;wild Oryctesrhinoceros (larvae) 6 50.480.6633.2515.25342.14Nigeria;wild Oryctesrhinoceros (larvae) 7 30.1538.1217.1614.13Nigeria;wild Oryctesrhinocerus Linnaeus(larvae) 8 57.810.731.4024.5115.56Nigeria;wild Passalusaf.Punctiger 3 26.0044.0015.0012.003.00Mexico;wild Phyllophaga sp. 4 47.4118.814.1715.9213.69282.74Mexico;wild Phyllophaga sp.(larvae) 9 42.525.7212.3015.3624.10282.32Mexico;wild Rhantusatricolor 4 71.106.3712.265.674.60Mexico;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (larvae) 2 28.4231.402.8248.602.70Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (larvae) 10 41.6937.123.27478.60Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (larvae;earlystage) 11 10.3369.7825.145.602.69Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (larvae;latestage) 11 11.4767.8318.808.542.54Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (larvae) 6 35.6319.5040.144.74479.14Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (larvae) 12 25.7059.433.675.495.70Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis F(larvae) 7 22.0666.615.535.79Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (pupae) 12 37.5750.652.585.983.23Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (adult) 11 8.8555.0422.9015.971.43Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorusphoenicis (adult) 12 35.5746.697.474.216.06Nigeria;wild Scyphophorusacupunctatus 3 36.0052.006.006.001.00Mexico;wild Scyphophorusacupunctatus 4 35.4951.685.555.861.42555.40Mexico;wild Scyphophorusacupunctatus (larvae) 9 35.4950.515.555.842.61618.78Mexico;wild Tenebriomolitor (adult) 13 60.2020.8016.300.012.70427.90Mexico;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) 14 47.1843.087.440.263.08577.44USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) 15 49.4338.076.532.84USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (adults) 14 65.2914.8820.223.863.31379.61USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) 14 49.0835.1714.967.092.36539.63USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) 13 47.7037.705.007.103.00554.30Mexico;reared Tenebriomolitor (pupae) 13 53.1036.705.101.903.20550.00Mexico;reared Tenebriomolitor 16 51.8831.1014.504.30USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (MightyMealys TM ) 16 48.1340.3011.203.20USA;reared Tesseratomapapillosa 5 50.5423.5513.856.715.35Thailand;wild Trichoderespini 4 41.0936.729.379.043.78530.96Mexico;wild Zophobasmorio 16 43.1340.8013.003.50USA;reared Zophobasmorio 14 46.7942.049.262.612.38575.53USA;reared Diptera(ßies)49.4822.7513.566.0110.31409.78 Copestylumhaggi&anna 3 37.0031.0015.008.008.00460.00Mexico;wild Drosophilamelanogaster 16 56.2517.9016.205.20USA;reared Ephydrahians 4 35.8735.879.756.5612.25216.94Mexico;wild Eristalis sp. 4 40.6811.8913.278.2125.95Mexico;wild Muscadomestica (larvae) 17 63.9924.311.255.16552.40S.Korea;reared Muscadomestica L.(pupae) 18 63.1015.505.30USA;reared C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 805 Table1. Continued Edibleinsects(basedondrymatter)ProteinFatFiberNFEAshEnergyOrigin [%][%][%][%][%]content [Kcal/100g] Polistesinstabilis 3 31.0062.003.002.002.00655.00Mexico;wild Polistescanadensis 4 61.5231.073.681.801.93Mexico;wild Polistesmajor 4 64.45Mexico;wild Polybia sp.(adults) 3 63.0013.0015.004.006.00473.00Mexico;wild Polybia sp. 4 57.7319.221.7820.560.71482.93Mexico;wild Polybia sp.(larvae,pupae) 9 58.4017.153.2317.124.10455.60Mexico;wild Polybiaoccidentalisnigratella 3 61.0028.002.0011.003.00445.00Mexico;wild Polybiaoccidentalisnigratella 4 61.2127.031.976.593.20444.80Mexico;wild Polybiaoccidentalisnigratella (larvae,pupae) 9 61.1022.941.9511.013.00494.00Mexico;wild Polybiaoccidentalisbohemani 3 62.0019.004.0013.003.00466.00Mexico;wild Polybiaoccidentalisbohemani 4 61.5718.743.5312.703.46Mexico;wild Polybiaparvulina 3 61.0021.006.008.004.00462.00Mexico;wild Polyrhachisvicina Roger(fromZhejiang) 24 36.1218.0029.1314.222.52China;reared Polyrhachisvicina Roger(fromGuizhou) 24 45.4017.4028.884.164.16China;reared Trigona sp. 3 28.0041.006.0021.003.00593.00Mexico;wild Vespulasquamosa 3 63.0022.003.0010.003.00490.00Mexico;wild Vespula sp. 4 52.8429.663.0211.043.44Mexico;wild Isoptera(termites)35.3432.745.0622.845.88 Macrotermesbellicosus 25 34.8046.1010.20Nigeria;wild Macrotermesbellicosus 2 20.4028.202.7043.302.90Nigeria;wild Macrotermesbellicosus 7 38.3636.1214.2511.26Nigeria;wild Macrotermesnatalensis Haviland(alatecaste) 26 65.6221.357.851.134.05Nigeria;wild Macrotermesnigeriensis 27 23.4738.376.4023.258.52Nigeria;wild Macrotermesnotalensis 2 22.1022.502.2042.801.90Nigeria;wild Termes sp. 5 42.6336.556.1412.342.34Thailand;wild Lepidoptera(butterßies,moths)45.3827.666.6018.764.51508.89 Aegiale(Acentrocneme)hesperiaris 3 40.0030.005.0021.003.00593.00Mexico;wild Aegiale(Acentrocneme)hesperiaris 4 40.3429.854.6621.293.86592.50Mexico;wild Aegialehesperiaris k(magueygrub) 20 30.8858.550.128.162.29Mexico;wild Aegialehesperiaris (larvae) 9 40.2429.455.2719.895.15504.63Mexico;wild Anapheinfracta (caterpillars) 2 20.0015.202.4066.101.60Nigeria;wild Anaphepanda( caterpillars) 25 45.6035.006.503.70543.00Zaire;wild Anapherecticulata (caterpillars) 2 23.0010.203.1064.602.50Nigeria;wild Anaphespp. (caterpillars) 2 18.9018.601.6846.804.10Nigeria;wild Anaphevenata (caterpillars) 2 25.7023.212.3055.603.20Nigeria;wild Anaphevenata (larvae) 28 60.0323.223.21610.00Nigeria;wild Arsenuraarmida 3 52.008.0012.0020.008.00356.00Mexico;wild Ascalaphaodorata 3 56.0015.0012.004.006.00419.00Mexico;wild Bombyxmori 3 58.0035.002.001.004.00555.00Mexico;wild Bombyxmori (spentpupae) 29 48.7030.108.60India;reared Bombyxmor i(larvae) 14 53.768.096.3625.436.36389.60USA;reared Bombyxmori (larvae) 15 69.849.525.9511.11USA;reared Brunaeaalcinoe (caterpillars) 26 74.3414.105.553.162.85Nigeria;wild Catastictateutila 3 60.0019.007.007.007.00438.00Mexico;wild Catastictateutila 4 59.7619.167.286.717.09438.20Mexico;wild Cirinaforda Westwood(larvae) 30 33.1212.249.4038.127.12359.00Nigeria;wild Cirinaforda Westwood(caterpillars) 26 74.3514.306.012.363.10Nigeria;wild Cirinaforda (caterpillar) 2 20.2014.201.8066.601.50Nigeria;wild Cirinaforda (Westwood)(larvae our) 31 20.9413.0956.869.11Nigeria;wild Cirinaforda (Westwood)(larvae) 32 62.255.2520.9811.51Nigeria;wild Comadiaredtembacheri 4 29.0443.296.4420.600.63614.39Mexico;wild Comadiaredtembacheri (larvae) 9 42.0747.986.241.582.13607.83Mexico;wild Eucheirasocialis 4 48.7822.719.9815.193.34438.80Mexico;wild Eucheriasocialis 3 47.0016.009.0022.007.00439.00Mexico;wild Galleriamellonella (larvae) 15 38.8058.558.922.17USA;reared Galleriamellonella 16 41.2551.4012.103.30USA;reared Galleriamellonella 14 33.9860.0019.523.371.45650.13USA;reared C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 820 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 allergens.Sincecontactantandinhalantallergenspredom- inateininsects,thehealthhazardsfrominsectallergens prevailforpersonneloftheinsectrearingindustry[4],but cautionisneverthelessadvisedregardingallergicreactionsat theÞrstconsumptionofedibleinsects. Ekopetal.[45]investigatedthecontentoftheantinutri- entshydrocyanide,oxalate,phytate,andtannininfourinsects speciesbutfoundgenerallylowlevelsofthosefourantinutri- entsthatwerefarbelowthetoxiclevelsforhumanconsump- tion.Thiswasinagreementwithanantinutritionalanalysis oflarvaeof Cirinaforda (Westwood)yieldinginlevelsofox- alateandphyticacidwithinnutritionallyacceptedvaluesand innotannin[46]. Finke[47]estimatedthechitincontentinsevencommer- ciallyrearededibleinsectsandcametotheconclusionthatthe chitincontentoftheseinsectsamountedto2.7Ð49.8mg/kg basedonfreshweightor11.6Ð137.2mg/kgbasedondrymat- ter.Sincechitinolyticenzymesproducedbybacteriaisolated fromthegastrointestinaltractofhealthyhumanshavebeen found[48],ithasbeenacknowledgedthatchitosan/chitincan bedigestedbyhumans. Inadditiontotoxic,allergenicorantinutrientsubstances incorporatedininsects,extrinsicfactorshavetobeconsidered aswell.Reportsofcasesofbotulism,parasitoses,andfood poisoning,e.g.,duetoaßatoxinscausedbyentomophagy[49] illustratetheimportanceoffoodsafetyanddecontamination regardingedibleinsects.Inaddition,someinsectssequester toxinsviafeedand/orsynthesizetoxins,e.g.,cyanogenicor cardiacglucosides,steroidsorpederin,asachemicaldefense mechanismagainstinsectivores.Consumptionofthesein- sectscanleadtonausea,vomiting,visualdisturbance,or worse[5,50,51].Itwasalsoreportedthatinsectsharvested inthewildthatareusuallysafetoeatcontainpesticides whentheyhavefedinpesticide-treatedareas[49].However, controlledfeedingofedibleinsectswithnontoxicplantselim- inatestheriskofsequesteringandpesticideuptake. Aninvestigationofthemicrobialfaunaonthebody surfaceaswellasthegutofthebeetle Oryctesmono- cerus revealedthepresenceofthepathogens Bacilluscereus , Pseudomonasaeruginosa ,and Staphylococcusaureus aswellas nonpathogenic Bacillus species[27].Klunderetal.[52]inves- tigatedthemicrobiologicalaspectsofthreefresh,processed, andstoredwholeedibleinsectsandobservedthatsporeform- ingbacteriaenduringaboilingstepcouldrepresentasafety probleminentomophagy.Moreover,storageinarefrigera- torsubsequenttothethermaltreatmentisadvisedtodelay microbialspoilageduringstorage. Itcanbeconcludedthatinvestigationsofthemicrobial contaminationofedibleinsectsaswellasofthenativein- testinalmicrobiotaillustratethepotentialmicrobialthreatof entomophagyandurgethatthedecontaminationmethods andshelflifestabilityofeachedibleinsectproductneedto beensuredinordertoobtainmarketabilityandfoodsafety. Althoughantinutrientsubstancedonotappeartobeofcon- sequence,moredataarerequiredonthissubject.Inaddi- tion,thoroughknowledgeofthetoxicandallergenicpoten- tialofedibleinsectsismandatorybeforetheirapplicationin food. 4Conclusionandfutureresearch Itcangenerallybeconcludedthatedibleinsectsareapotential foodandproteinsourcesincetheyhavehighenergyandpro- teincontents,meetaminoacidrequirementsforhumans, arehighinMUFAand/orPUFA,andrichinseveralmi- cronutrientssuchascopper,iron,magnesium,manganese, phosphorous,selenium,andzincaswellasriboßavin,pan- tothenicacid,biotin,andinsomecasesfolicacid.However, ithastobekeptinmindthatthenutrientcompositionof insectsishighlydependentonthefeed.Thispossiblyalso opensupopportunitiesforregulation,enrichment,andad- ditionofcertainfoodingredientssuchasthe -3-fattyacids DHAandEPAviafeed. Moreresearchisrequiredonthequalityofinsectproteins inordertobeabletofullyassessitsvalueincomparisonto plantproteinsaswellasotheranimalproteinsandmoredata, especiallyonthefattyacidcomposition,mineralandvitamin contentofedibleinsectsarenecessaryforamoreprofound statementontheirnutritionalvalue.Inadditiontothenu- trientproÞle,thepresenceofpotentiallyharmfulingredients suchastoxins,allergens,andantinutrientsshouldbeinves- tigatedfurther.Becauseofthepotentialmicrobialthreatas wellastherapidspoilageofrawedibleinsects,decontami- nationmethodsandstorageconditionshavetobeevaluated anddeveloped. Theauthorshavedeclarednoconßictofinterest. 5References [1]Ramos-Elorduy,J.,Moreno,J.M.,Prado,E.,Perez,M.etal., NutritionalvalueofedibleinsectsfromtheStateofOaxaca, Mexico. J.FoodCompos.Anal. 1997, 10 ,142157. [2]Agbidye,F.S.,Ofuya,T.I.,Akindele,S.O.,Marketabilityand nutritionalqualitiesofsomeedibleforestinsectsinBenue State,Nigeria. Pak.J.Nutr. 2009, 8 ,917922. [3]Sirimungkararat,S.,Saksirirat,W.,Nopparat,T.,Na- tongkham,A.,in:Durst,P.B.,Johnson,D.V.,Leslie,R.N., Shono,K.(Eds.), ForestInsectsasFood:HumansBiteBack , FAO,Bangkok,Thailand2010,pp.189200. [4]Phillips,J.,Burkholder,W.,Allergiesrelatedtofoodinsect productionandconsumption. FoodInsectsNewsl. 1995, 8 , 12,4. [5]Berenbaum,M.R.,Sequesteredplanttoxinsandinsect palatability. FoodInsectsNewsl. 1993, 6 ,1,69. [6]Laos,Agendaitem13:commentsofLaoPDR:pro- posalforthenewworkanddevelopmentofre- gionalstandardforediblecricketsandtheirprod- ucts(CRD8), Proceedingsof17thSessionofthe FAO/WHOCoordinatingCommitteeforAsia(CCASIA) . C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 814 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 acidslistedinthetable,tracesoftheodd-numberedfattyacids pentadecanoic(C15:0),heptadecanoic(C17:0),pentadecenoic (C15:1),heptadecenoic(C17:1),andnonadecatrienoic(19:3) acidshavebeenfoundforsomeinsects.Researchersalso foundsmallamountsoftheeven-numberedsaturatedfatty acids(SFA)capricacid(C10:0),lauricacid,(C12:0),arachidic acid(C20:0),andbehenicacid(C22:0),oftheMUFAvaccenic acid(C18:1n11),eicosenoicacid(C20:1n9),anderucicacid (C22:1n9),aswellasofthePUFAhexadecadienoicacid (C16:2n6),eicosadienoicacid(C20:2n6),docosapentaenoic acid(C22:5n3),anddocosahexaenoic(C22:6n3;DHA).These fattyacidsinedibleinsectswereconsiderednegligibleand aresummarizedunderÒOtherSFA,ÓÒOtherMUFA,Óand ÒOtherPUFAÓinTable3.ThemeanvaluesforSFA,MUFA, PUFA,andtheratioofSFAtounsaturatedfattyacids(UFA = MUFA + PUFA)foreachinsectorderareindicatedin bold. TheaverageamountofSFAofedibleinsectordersranges from30.83%forHymenoptera(ants,bees,andwasps)to 41.97%forIsoptera(termites).Thetwomaincomponentsof theSFAarepalmiticacid(C16:0)andstearicacid(C18:0). Asanexception,forcaterpillars(larvae)of Imbrasiaertli ,the SFAarachidicacid(C20:0)predominatedwith38%[30].The meanfractionofMUFAamountstobetween22.00%for Isopteraand48.60%forHymenopteraandthemeanfrac- tionofpolyunsaturatedacidsamountstobetween15.95%for Diptera(ßies)and39.76%forLepidoptera(butterßiesand moths).EspeciallymembersoftheordersOrthopteraand LepidopterawerefoundtobecomparablyhighinPUFA.Ma- jorMUFAofedibleinsectsincludepalmitoleicacid(C16:1n7) andoleicacid(C18:1n9).Furthermore,thePUFAlinoleic acid(C18:2n6), -linolenicacid(C18:3n3), -linolenicacid (C18:3n6),Dihomo- -Linolenicacid(C20:3n6),arachidonic acid(C20:4n6),andeicosapentaenoicacid(C20:5n3;EPA) canbefoundinthefattyacidspectraofedibleinsects.Inthe caseswhereithadnotbeendistinguishedbetween -and - linolenicacid(C18:3),thedatawereenteredmidwayofboth tablecolumns. ItisconspicuousthatinallfattyacidspectraofRaksakan- tongetal.[13],theMUFAcontentsareuncharacteristically lowinelaidicacid(C18:1n9)andthePUFAcontentsunchar- acteristicallyhighinarachidonicacid(C20:4n6)butdevoid oflinoleicacid(C18:2n6)incomparisontodatapublished byotherauthors.Inaddition,itismentionablethattwofatty acidspectraderivedfromareviewbyBukkens[30]andorig- inatingfromAngolayieldmorethan100%whichindicates discrepancies. Thefattyacidsofinsectsaregenerallycomparabletothose ofpoultryandÞshintheirdegreeofunsaturation,butcontain morePUFA[31].Incontrast,beefandporkcontainvery littlePUFA,MUFAmakeupthegreatestportionofthefatty acidspresentinbeefandpork.Similarfattyacidspectrawere obtainedforsomeants(Hymenoptera)withMUFAcontents ofupto73.10%[32]andPUFAcontentsaslowas3.10%[9]. Yhoung-aree[33]observedthathousecrickets,short-tailed crickets,andscarabbeetleshaveafattyacidratioof1:1:1 (PUFA:MUFA:SFA)beingoptimalforanadequatefatuptake. ThiscouldnotbeconÞrmed,butitcouldbeobservedthatthe averageratioofSFAtoUFAonrangesbetween0.43and0.79 whichisbasicallyinagreementwithYhoung-aree[33]and clearlyshowsthatunsaturatedacidspredominateinthefatty acidspectraofedibleinsects. Forthepreventionofcoronaryheartdiseases,adailyup- takeof500mgEPA(C20:5) + DHA(C22:6)isrecommended whichcanbemetbytheconsumptionof180gofoilyÞsh perweek[34].Insectsforthemostpartcontainonlytraces ofthesetwoPUFAortheyhavenotbeendetectedininsects atall(seeTable3).However,areplacementofSFAwith PUFAingeneralleadstoadecreaseintheriskofcoronary heartdiseasesandthePUFA -linolenicacid(18:3n3)and linoleicacid(18:2n6)areessential,i.e.,theycannotbesynthe- sizedbyhumans[34].Ratherhighamountsoflinoleicand/or linolenicacidshavebeenreportedforthefattyacidproÞles ofinsectsinsomecases[24].Thiscorrespondswiththedata fromliteratureasshowninTable3whereinsectfatisingen- eralespeciallyrichinthesetwofattyacids.Ithastobenoted that,analoguetolivestock[34,35],thefattyacidcomposition ofinsectsisdependentonthefeedcomposition[8,36].For example,asigniÞcantenrichmentinlipidsaswellasinthe omega-3fattyacidsEPAandDHAofblacksoldierßyprepu- paehasbeenaccomplishedbyfeedingthemÞshoffalasfatty acidrecycling[37]. Justlikethefattyacidcomposition,thecholesterolcontent ininsectsvarieswiththeirdiet[36].Yhoung-aree[33]studied thecholesterolcontentper100gsample(freshweight)of insectscollectedinThailandandstatedthatthecholesterol contentwashighinhousecrickets(105mg/100g),Bom- baylocusts(66mg/100g),scarabbeetles(56mg/100g),and bamboocaterpillars.Incontrast,largefresh,raweggscontain incomparisonwith372mgcholesterolper100g[38]more thanthreetimesasmuchcholesterol.Ekpoetal.[17]deter- minedthetotalcholesterolcontentoffourinsectsconsumed inSouthernNigeriaandresultedinmuchlowercholesterol contentsofbetween7.31mg/100gdrysamplefor Imbrasis belina and22.91mg/100gdrysamplefor R.phoenicis ,to- talcholesterolcontentsper100gfreshsamplewereaccord- inglylower.Ritter[36]statedthatinsectscannotsynthesize cholesteroldenovoandcontainapproximately0.1%sterols obtainedfromtheirdiet.Someinsectspecieslike,e.g.,the honeybee A.mellifera arenotabletoconverttheplantsterols tocholesterol.Furthermore,insectsnaturallyfeedingondi- etscontainingothersterolsthan 5-sterolslackcholesterol. Inaddition,itwasdiscoveredthatitispossibletocircum- venttheproductionofcholesterolininsectsbyreplacing 5-sterolswith,e.g., 7-sterolsintheirdiet.Thishasbeen accomplishedsuccessfullyfortheLepidopteran Heliothiszea . Itisthereforepossibletoutilizeinsectsasfoodconstituents beingnutritionallyvaluablebutlowincholesterolinhuman diets.Thepresenceandcontentsofmicronutrientshasalso tobeconsidered,however. C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 816 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 Table4. Continued Mineralcompostion[mg/100g]CaKMgPNaFeZnMnCuSeOrigin basedondrymatter Bombyxmori(larvae) e) 102.311826.59287.861369.94274.579.5417.752.492.080.08USA;reared Bombyxmori (spentpupae) p) 158.00207.00474.0026.0023.000.710.15India;reared Cirinaforda (caterpillars) a) 8.241.87111.001.79Nigeria;wild Cirinaforda (Westwood)(larvae our) q) 12.9047.6043.8045.9044.401.3024.20ndndNigeria;wild Cirinaforda (Westwood)(larvae) r) 37.2071.8169.89241.7750.775.994.2710163.10Nigeria;wild Cirinaforda Westwood(larvae) s) 7.002130.0032.401090.00210.0064.008.607.00Nigeria;wild Comadiaredtembacheri i) 68.00515.00296.00283.0024.0024.00Mexico;wild Conimbrasiabelina c) 174.001024.00160.00543.001032.0031.0014.003.950.91 Galleriamellonella f) 60.0090.001200.007.737.880.330.31USA;reared Galleriamellonella e) 58.55532.5376.14469.8839.765.046.120.310.920.03USA;reared Imbrasiaepimethea (caterpillars) t) 224.731258.06402.15666.6775.2713.0111.085.811.18Zaire;wild Imbrasiaertli (caterpillars) c) 55.001204.00254.00600.002418.002.103.401.50Angola;wild Imbrasiaoyemensis (caterpillar) u) 73.00680.00730.00Ivorycoast;wild Imbrasiatruncata (caterpillars) t) 131.611348.44192.02841.42183.398.7411.113.241.40Zaire;wild Nudaureliaoyemensis (caterpillars) t) 149.461107.53265.59870.97139.7810.225.485.481.18Zaire;wild Samiaricinii (prepupaeoncastorleaves) v) 75.40180.00585.0025.407.102.631.69India;reared Samiaricinii (prepupaeontapiocaleaves) v) 76.80196.00572.0025.207.102.691.78India;reared Samiaricinii (pupaeoncastorleaves) v) 74.20178.00584.0024.007.242.541.75India;reared Samiaricinii (pupaeontapiocaleaves) v) 71.20187.00570.0023.407.022.611.80India;reared Ustaterpsichore (caterpillar) c) 391.003259.0059.00766.003340.0039.1025.306.702.60Angola;wild Orthoptera Achetadomesticus (adults) f) 210.0080.00780.0011.2318.642.970.85USA;reared Achetadomesticus (adults) e) 132.141126.62109.42957.79435.066.2721.793.732.010.06USA;reared Achetadomesticus (juvenilecrickets) f) 1290.00160.00790.0019.6815.915.280.96USA;reared Achetadomesticus (nymphs) e) 120.091537.1298.691100.44589.529.2629.693.892.230.04USA;reared Arphiafallax S. w) 75.0062.00657.0092.0022.0016.00Mexico;wild Boopedon sp.af.f laviventris S.88.0066.00521.00173.0024.0032.00Mexico;wild Brachytypes spp. a) 9.210.13126.900.68Nigeria;wild Cytacanthacrisaeruginosusunicolor a) 4.400.09100.200.35Nigeria;wild Encoptolophusherbaceus B. w) 64.0065.00498.00150.0017.0016.00Mexico;wild Melanoplusfemurrubrum i) 144.0076.00902.00134.0037.0021.00Mexico;wild Melanoplusmexicanus S. w) 120.0062.00740.00110.0032.0017.00Mexico;wild Ochrottetixcer.Salinus B. w) 64.0062.00532.0066.0027.0026.00Mexico;wild Onjirimammon l) 341.001562.0025.10Kenya;wild Osmilia avolineata D.G. w) 80.0065.00672.00173.0019.0024.00Mexico;wild Ruspoliadifferens (brown) x) 24.50259.7033.10121.00229.7013.0012.402.500.50Kenya;wild Ruspoliadifferens (green) x) 27.40370.6033.90140.90358.7016.6017.305.300.60Kenya;wild Sphenariumhistrio i) 48.0041.00700.00103.0026.0058.00Mexico;wild Sphenariumhistrio G. w) 96.00422.00744.00426.0023.0021.00Mexico;wild Sphenariumhistrio G.(adults) w) 82.00177.00420.001142.0016.0078.00Mexico;wild Sphenariummagnum M.(adults) w) 88.00574.00352.00102.0020.0032.00Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpurascens Ch.(adults) w) 112.00377.00424.00609.0018.0042.00Mexico;wild Sphenarium spp. w) 120.0068.00824.00915.0044.0032.00Mexico;wild Zonocerusvariegatus (1stinstarlarvae) y) 552.002030.0096.004500.001350.00910.0029.00Nigeria;wild Zonocerusvariegatus (adult) y) 182.00761.0039.0021800.00306.00184.0017.00Nigeria;wild Zonocerusvariegatus a) 42.168.21131.201.96Nigeria;wild Recommendeddailyintakes1300 z ) 4700 * 220Ð700 * 1500 * 7.5Ð3.0Ð1.8Ð0.9Ð0.026Ð [mg/day]foradults260 z ) 58.8 z ) 14.0 z ) 2.6 * 1.3 * 0.036 z ) nd,notdetected. a)[12],b)[18],c)[30],d)[28],e)[16],f)[40],g)[23],h)[54],i)[15],j)[55],k)[56],l)[39],m)[9],n)[57],o)[58],p)[21],q)[60],r)[46],s) [59],t)[62],u)[61],v)[63],w)[14],x)[65],y)[77],z)[41]. *LinusPaulingInstitutesMicronutrientCenter(http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/(asseenonSeptember18,2012)). 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[70]Fontaneto,D.,Tommaseo-Ponzetta,M.,Galli,C.,Rise,P. etal.,Differencesinfattyacidcompositionbetweenaquatic andterrestrialinsectsusedasfoodinhumannutrition. Ecol. FoodNutr. 2011, 50 ,35167. [71]Bophimai,P.,Siri,S.,Fattyacidcompositionofsomeed- ibledungbeetlesinThailand. Int.FoodRes.J. 2010, 17 , 10251030. [72]Yang,L.-F.,Siriamornpun,S.,Li,D.,Polyunsaturatedfatty acidcontentofedibleinsectsinThailand. J.FoodLipids 2006, 13 ,277285. C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 818 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 Table5. Vitamincompositionofedibleinsects(basedondrymatter) VitAVitEVitCVitB1VitB2VitB3VitB5VitB7VitB9Origin [ g/100g][IU/kg][mg/100g][mg/100g][mg/100g][mg/100g][mg/100g][ g/100g][mg/100g] Blattodea(cockroaches) Periplanetaamericana (nymphs) a) 8.7223.84 Mexico;reared Periplanetaamericana (adults) a) 48.1623.84 Mexico;reared Periplanetaamericana L(larvae) b) 4.8023.80 Mexico;reared Periplanetaamericana L(adults) b) 0.8723.80 Mexico;reared Coleoptera(beetles,grubs) Analeptestrifasciata c) 12.545.412.62 Nigeria;wild Asplagiognathusspinosus (larvae) a) 23.430.080.180.42Mexico;wild Oryctesboas c) 8.587.590.08 Nigeria;wild Rhyncophorusphoenicis (larvae) d) 3.382.513.36Angola;wild Rhyncophorusphoenicis c) 11.254.252.21 Nigeria;wild Scyphophorusacupunctatus (larvae) a) 0.200.251.38Mexico;wild Tenebriomolitor (larvae) e) 6.150.310.4110.593.7294.870.30USA;reared Tenebriomolitor( adults) e) 14.880.282.3414.806.6177.130.38USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) e) 3.150.632.1310.686.8878.740.41USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) a) 36.10 Mexico;reared Tenebriomolitor (pupae) a) 15.44 Mexico;reared Tenebriomolitor (adults) a) 22.6145.73 Mexico;reared Tenebriomolitor f) 24.3330.00 USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (MightyMealys TM ) f) 4.8315.00 USA;reared Zophobasmorio f) 29.1632.00 USA;reared Zophobasmorio e) 18.292.850.141.787.674.6183.140.16USA;reared Diptera(ßies) Copestylumanna/haggi (larvae) a) 1.472.5611.07Mexico;wild Drosophilamelanogaster f) 0.0023.00 USA;reared Hemiptera Ahuahutle(eggs) a) 0.410.812.64Mexico;wild Axayacatl(adults) a) 1.010.764.14Mexico;wild Euschistusegglestoni (adults) a) 0.150.280.71Mexico;wild Euschistusstrennus (adults) a) 0.180.420.75Mexico;wild Euschistustaxcoensis (adults) a) 0.410.182.64Mexico;wild Thasusgigas (nymphs) a) 0.310.502.26Mexico;wild Hymenoptera(ants,bees) Apismellifera (honeybee) c) 12.4410.253.24 Nigeria;wild beebrood g) 2.1616.38 0.10USA;reared Attacephalotes a) 0.611.011.26Mexico;wild Attamexicana a) 0.190.533.09Mexico;wild Brachygastramelli ca (larvae,pupae) a) 0.110.170.25Mexico;wild Carebaravidua Smith(female) h) 767.005.930.030.4620.260.280.45Kenya;wild Liometopumapiculatum a) 0.8836.140.150.340.67Mexico;wild Liometopumoccidentalevar.Luctuosum a) 0.140.292.06Mexico;wild Oecophylla sp. d) 0.440.98 Papua;wild Polybiaoccidentalisbohemani a) 0.450.381.08Mexico;wild Polybiaparvulina (larvae,pupae) a) 0.440.392.47Mexico;wild Vespulasquamosa (larvae,pupae) a) 0.180.346.25Mexico;wild C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 821 Bali,Indonesia,2010.Availablefromftp://ftp.fao.org/Codex/ Meetings/CCASIA/ccasia17/CRDS/AS17_CRD08x.pdf. 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[31]DeFoliart,G.,Insectfattyacids:similartothoseofpoul- tryand shintheirdegreeofunsaturation,buthigher inthepolyunsaturates. FoodInsectsNewsl. 1991, 4 , 14. [32]Sihamala,O.,Bhulaidok,S.,Shen,L.-r.,Li,D.,Lipidsandfatty acidcompositionofdriededibleredandblackants. Agric. Sci.inChina 2010, 9 ,10721077. [33]Yhoung-aree,J.,in:Durst,P.B.,Johnson,D.V.,Leslie,R.N., Shono,K.(Eds.), ForestInsectsasFood:HumansBiteBack , FAO,Bangkok,Thailand2010,pp.201216. [34]FAO,Fatsandfattyacidsinhumannutrition:reportofan expertconsultation, FAOFoodandNutritionPaper .Rome 2010. [35]Daley,C.A.,Abbott,A.,Doyle,P.S.,Nader,G.A.etal.,A reviewoffattyacidpro lesandantioxidantcontentingrass- fedandgrain-fedbeef. Nutr.J. 2010, 9 ,1022. [36]Ritter,K.S.,Cholesterolandinsects. FoodInsectsNewsl. 1990, 3 ,18. [37]St-Hilaire,S.,Cran ll,K.,McGuire,M.A.,Mosley,E.E.etal., Fishoffalrecyclingbytheblacksoldier yproducesafood- stuffhighinomega-3fattyacids. J.WorldAquacult.Soc. 2007, 38 ,309313. [38]USDA,USDANationalNutrientDatabaseforStandardRefer- enceRelease24,UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture, AgriculturalResearchService,MD2011. [39]Christensen,D.L.,Orech,F.O.,Mungai,M.N.,Larsen,T. etal.,EntomophagyamongtheLuoofKenya:apotential mineralsource? Int.J.FoodSci.Nutr. 2006, 57 ,198203. C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 815 Table4. Mineralcomposition[mg/100g]ofedibleinsects(basedondrymatter)andrecommendeddailyintakes[mg/day]foradults Mineralcompostion[mg/100g]CaKMgPNaFeZnMnCuSeOrigin basedondrymatter Coleoptera(beetles,grubs) Analeptestrifasciata a) 61.286.14136.4018.20Nigeria;wild Oryctesboas a) 45.686.62130.202.31Nigeria;wild Oryctesrhinoceros L.(larvae) b) 0.040.2026.284.94Nigeria;wild Rhyncophorusphoenicis (larvae) c) 208.002209.0033.60352.0044.8014.7026.500.801.60Angola;wild Rhyncophorusphoenicis (larvae) d) 54.101025.00131.80685.0052.0030.8015.803.50Nigeria;wild Rhyncophorusphoenicis a) 39.587.54126.4012.24Nigeria;wild Tenebriomolitor (larvae) e) 47.18761.54221.54697.44125.385.5111.410.921.640.03USA;reared Tenebriomolitor( adults) e) 63.64936.64166.94763.09174.106.0112.731.102.070.04USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) e) 44.36895.01210.24748.03140.945.4113.651.361.600.07USA;reared Tenebriomolitor f) 120.00280.001420.003.9713.100.681.78USA;reared Tenebriomolitor(MightyMealys TM ) f) 30.00220.001270.002.598.280.561.49USA;reared Zophobasmorio f) 120.00180.00830.005.038.750.151.39USA;reared Zophobasmorio e) 42.04750.59118.29562.95112.833.927.291.020.860.03USA;reared Diptera(ßies) Drosophilamelanogaster f) 140.00130.001100.0045.4214.701.610.87USA;reared Muscadomestica (larvae) g) 2010.001320.00660.0060.4023.705.603.40S.Korea;reared Hemiptera(truebugs) Agonoscelispubescens (Thunberg) h) 759.51412.52309.22923.11340.41Sudan;wild Aspongubusviduatus F. h) 1021.21200.08301.101234.33401.10Sudan;wild Euschistus sp. i) 204.00108.001910.00397.0057.0059.00Mexico;wild Hymenoptera(ants,bees) Apismellifera (honeybee) a) 15.405.23125.5025.20Nigeria;wild Beebrood j) 59.481159.4890.95771.5555.175.566.900.261.72USA;reared Carebaravidua Smith(female) k) 22.2351.7310.41106.0426.2310.695.69Kenya;wild Liometopumapiculatum i) 26.0024.00317.0020.005.0010.00Mexico;wild Oecophylla sp. c) 48.00541.0070.00517.00180.0021.8010.109.060.87Papua;wild Oecophyllavirescens c) 79.70957.00122.10936.00270.00109.0016.906.302.17Papua;wild Onyosomammon (ant) l) 32.6017.7011.10Kenya;wild Polybiaoccidentalisnigratella i) 93.0054.00982.0059.0035.0028.00Mexico;wild Polybia sp. i) 101.001080.00530.00194.0050.0032.00Mexico;wild Polyrhachisvicina Roger(fromZhejiang) m) 49.1065.30387.70118.0017.6025.902.40China;reared Polyrhachisvicina Roger(fromGuizhou) m) 108.0067.60417.0053.7011.9032.301.90China;reared Isoptera(termites) Agoro (termites) l) 132.00161.0014.30Kenya;wild Macrotermesbellicosus a) 21.000.15136.0027.00Nigeria;wild Macrotemresnigeriensis n) 0.10336.006.101.49112.000.960.100.080.070.00Nigeria;wild Macrotermisnotalensis a) 18.000.26114.0029.00Nigeria;wild Ogawo (termites) l) 83.0093.908.10Kenya;wild Oyala(t ermites) l) 84.70332.0011.90Kenya;wild Lepidoptera(butterßiesandmoths) Anapheinfracta (caterpillars) a) 8.561.01111.301.78Nigeria;wild Anapherecticulata (caterpillars) a) 10.522.56102.402.24Nigeria;wild Anaphespp. (caterpillars) a) 7.580.96122.201.56Nigeria;wild Anaphevenata (caterpillars) a) 8.571.56100.502.01Nigeria;wild Anaphevenata (larvae) o) 40.001150.0050.00730.0030.0010.0010.0040.001.00Nigeria;wild C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 808 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 AverageÞbercontentsrangefrom5.06%forIsoptera(ter- mites)to13.56%forHemiptera(truebugs)withmaximum yieldsfortheblackants Polyrhachisvicina Rogerfromthe ChineseprovincesGuizhouandZhejiang(Hymenoptera) andthelarvaeofthemoth Latebrariaamphipyrioides (Lep- idoptera)with28.88,29.13,and29.00%,respectively[1,9]. SpecieswiththelowestÞbercontentsincludelarvaeof Aegiale hesperiaris k(magueyworm;Lepidoptera)with0.12%[10],lar- vaeofthehoneybee Apismellifera (Hymenoptera)with1.00Ð 1.33%[1,11],andthecricket Brachytrupes spp.(Orthoptera) with1.01Ð11.61%[2,12Ð14]. ThecontentofNFE,acommonlycalculatedvaluerep- resentingcarbohydratesotherthanÞber,variesbetween 4.63%forOdonata(dragonßies,damselßies)and22.84% forIsoptera(termites,ants).Theinsectsrichestincarbo- hydratesarethecricket Brachytrupes ssp.(Orthoptera)with 2.33Ð85.30%[2,12Ð14],theant Myrmecosistusmelliger with 77.00Ð77.73%[1,11,15],andthehoneybee A.mellifera with 22.00Ð73.60%[1,11,12,15](bothoftheorderHymenoptera). Insectswiththelowestcarbohydratecontentsincludethe ant Attamexicana (Hymenoptera)with0.00Ð4.92[1,10],the beetle Tenebriomolitor (Coleoptera)with0.01Ð3.86%[8,16], andthebug Euschistusstrennus (Hemiptera)with0.01%[11]. ItisnoteworthythattheauthorsBanjoetal.[12]resulted inoutstandinglyhighNFEcontentsincomparisontoother authorsandconsequentlymeasuredlowfat,Þberbutalso proteincontents. Theaverageashcontentsofedibleinsectsvarybetween 2.94%forBlattodea(cockroaches)and10.31%forDiptera (ßies)withmaximumyieldsof25.95%for Eristalis sp. (Diptera)[11],21.00%formosquitoeggsof Krizousacorixa aztecaJ (commonnameÒahuahutleÓ;oftheorderHo- moptera)[10,11],and14.13Ð15.56%forlarvaeof Oryctes rhinoceros (Coleoptera)[17Ð19].Thelowestashcontentswere foundfor Sphenariummexicanum S.(Orthoptera)with0.34% [14], Metamasiusspinolae (Coleoptera)with0.62%[11],and Co- madiaredtembacheri (Lepidoptera)with0.63Ð2.13%[11,15]. Themeanenergycontentsofedibleinsectsrangefrom 409.78to508.89kcal/100g(basedondrymatter)withmaxi- mumenergycontentsashighas762.00to776.85kcal/100g for Phasustriangularis (Lepidoptera)[1,11],655.00kcal/100g for Polistesinstabilis (Hymenoptera)[1],and652.30kcal/100 gfor Arophalusrusticus (Coleoptera)[11].Minimumenergy contentsobtainedinclude216.94kcal/100gfor Ephydrahi- ans (Diptera)[11],282.32Ð282.74kcal/100gfor Phyllophaga sp.(Coleoptera)[11,15],and293.00kcal/100gfor L.am- phipyrioides (Lepidoptera)[1].Againthemarginofdeviation becomesclearlyvisible,evenwithinthesameorderasinthis caseLepidoptera(butterßiesandmoths)theenergycontent ßuctuatesconsiderably.However,themaximumandmini- mumenergycontentsfoundareoveralloutliers,79.65%of all113energycontentsofedibleinsectsobtainedfromlitera- turerangeabove400kcal/100g,40.94%above500kcal/100 g.Consequently,theenergycontentsofmostedibleinsects aresubstantialevenincomparisontomeatwhichisdueto thetwomajorcomponentsofinsects:proteinandfat. 2.1Proteincontentsandaminoacidspectra Proteinsrepresentthemaincomponentofthenutrientcom- positionofinsects(seeFig.1).Consideringtheaveragecon- tentsoftheinsectordersinTable1,theproteincontentsofed- ibleinsectsamounttobetween35.34%forIsoptera(termites) and61.32%forOrthoptera(crickets,grasshoppers,locusts). Thespecies Melanoplusfemurrubrum , Sphenariumhistrio ,and Melanoplusmexicanus (allfromtheorderOrthoptera)yielded thehighestproteincontentswith77.00,71.15Ð77.00,and 58.90Ð77.13%,respectively[1,11,14,15].Itisnoteworthythat withinallnineinsectsordersincludedinTable1,maximum proteinscontentsbetween56.22%(Odonata)and77.13%(Or- thoptera)havebeenobtainedwithmaximumproteincontents ofabove70%forfourofthenineorders(basedondrymat- ter).Comparingthemaximumproteinyieldsofspeciesofthe orderOrthopterawithupto77.13%withmaximumprotein contentsofplants(35.8%fordrysoybeans(DanishFood CompositionDatabanked.7.01(11.09.2012),http://www. foodcomp.dk/v7/fcdb_default.asp)insectsbutespecially grasshopperspotentiallyrepresentanexcellentalternative proteinsource.Furthermore,theuseofpesticidesforthe preservationofplantsinfavorofgrasshoppersbecomes debatable. However,thequalityoftheinsectproteinsincompari- sontootheranimalandplantproteinshastobeassessed infeedingtrials.Evaluatingtheproteinqualityofdiffer- entinsectmealsfedtoweanlingratsitwasobservedthat proteinsfrombothcricketmealstested( Achetadomesticus and Anabrussimplex )wereequalorsuperiortosoyprotein asanaminoacidsource[20].Bycontrast,infeedingtrials withratstheproteinqualityofspentsilkwormpupae,a by-productofthesilkindustry,showedasigniÞcantlower proteinqualitythancaseindespiteahigherchemicalscore regardingfoodintake,weightgain,proteindigestibility,pro- teinefÞciencyratio(PER),andnetproteinutilization(NPU). Thiswasattributedtoabadodorofthesilkwormpupae mealandthegrowthdepressingpupalhormoneecdysone. Thechemicalscoreofthespentsilkwormpupaeprotein was60incomparisonto100forwholeeggprotein[21]and 55.3forcasein[22].Infeedingtrialswithchicks,anim- provedgrowingperformanceandcarcassqualityofbroiler chickswasyieldedsupplementingchickfeedwith10Ð15% ofhouseßylarvae.Inthebreastmuscleofthechicks,the proteincontentremainedconstantwhereasitslysineand tryptophancontentincreased.Thishadbeenattributedtothe optimalaminoacidproÞle,highproteincontentof63.99% dryweight,orhighproteindigestibilityof98.5%ofthelar- vae[23].Acomparisonofwholedriedhoneybeesandhoney beeproteinisolatefromthesamesourcerevealedthatthe removalofchitinviaanalkalinetreatmentimprovedthe nutritionalqualityoftheinsectproteinasmeasuredbyin- creasedproteindigestibility,aminoacidavailability,NPU, andPERwhenfedtorats.Thehoneybeeproteinisolate hadaproteindigestibility,NPU,andPERcomparableto casein[22]. C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 810 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 Table2. Continued Edibleinsects[mg/gprotein]HisIleLeuLysMetCysMetPheTyrPheThrTrpValArgSerProAlaGlyGluAorigin + Cys + Tyr Isoptera(termites) Macrotermesbellicosus d) 51.451.178.354.27.518.726.243.830.274.027.514.373.369.4Nigeria;wild Lepidoptera(butterßies,moths)23.740.462.757.722.112.234.746.349.195.840.011.254.146.948.444.948.943.8103.4 AegialeAcentrocnemehesperiaris h) 31.046.072.066.047.051.063.0114.076.03.058.057.083.066.059.0123.0Mexico;wild Aegialehesperiarisd 16.049.052.036.010.037.042.079.033.09.047.030.0Mexico;wild Aegialehesperiarisk (magueygrub) l) 45.061.050.031.070.041.08.051.0Mexico;wild Anaphevenata (larvae,withouthair) p) 7.821.413.18.80.021.425.046.43.80.017.63.218.718.214.16.1Nigeria;wild Ascalaphaodorata (larvae) h) 28.041.069.063.023.095.044.0139.040.04.448.0Mexico;wild Bombyxmori (larvae) f) 29.533.048.950.012.59.121.628.434.162.528.46.839.843.238.635.240.958.0102.3USA;reared Bombyxmori (larvae) g) 25.832.352.747.314.08.622.629.031.260.231.27.540.941.936.634.445.260.2100.0USA;reared Bombyxmori (pupae) q) 27.034.062.061.034.014.048.046.056.0102.039.015.047.047.037.070.039.036.095.0Japan;reared Bombyxmori (pupae) b) 35.446.170.677.236.3122.045.319.052.258.837.944.439.429.7107.3Thailand;wild Bombyxmori (pupae) r) 22.537.760.253.117.53.521.042.548.090.538.345.946.236.816.038.934.686.5SriLanka;rear. Bombyxmori (spentpupae) s) 25.057.083.075.046.014.060.051.054.0105.054.09.056.068.047.040.055.046.0149.0India;reared Clanisbilineata (larvae) t) 28.528.035.633.634.926.160.134.734.369.022.59.640.130.530.931.239.830.882.3China,reared Galleriamellonella (larvae) g) 23.444.787.956.015.67.823.437.662.4100.041.88.548.250.474.567.466.752.5138.3USA;reared Galleriamellonella (larvae) f) 22.441.670.857.127.313.040.437.354.091.336.08.754.050.977.077.071.457.8121.1USA;reared Imbrasiaepimethea (caterpillars) u) 19.728.681.074.222.418.741.165.075.0140.048.016.0102.066.2Zaire;wild Imbrasiaertli (caterpillars) d) 36.036.739.315.813.429.217.413.230.640.58.141.9Angola;wild Imbrasiatruncata (caterpillars) u) 17.424.273.178.922.216.538.762.276.5139.046.916.5102.055.5Zaire;wild Mellacosomaamericanum Fab.meal v) 18.028.048.044.012.07.019.029.034.063.032.036.040.037.028.053.040.089.0USA;wild Nudaureliaoyemensis (caterpillars) u) 18.125.682.779.823.519.743.258.675.7134.044.516.096.063.5Zaire;wild Omphisafuscidentalis (caterpillars) b) 23.333.960.056.041.7100.734.941.138.847.941.340.737.732.793.2Thailand;wild Samiaricinii (prepupae) w) 27.943.365.265.421.25.226.451.763.2114.944.852.946.947.660.360.556.4129.0India;reared Samiaricinii (pupae) w) 26.744.266.365.423.15.328.452.464.0116.447.553.644.152.564.661.449.4129.0India;reared Ustaterpsichore (caterpillars) d) 108.791.391.011.312.924.255.933.088.950.86.675.8Angola;wild Orthoptera21.239.674.853.919.312.829.846.661.5100.335.88.150.353.641.953.977.454.094.5 Achetadomesticus meal v) 25.040.076.059.017.09.026.034.053.087.043.057.078.043.046.086.059.0112.0USA;reared Achetadomesticus (nymphs) g) 22.142.995.553.913.08.421.427.955.283.135.75.249.461.041.655.289.052.6103.9USA;reared Achetadomesticus (nymphs) f) 25.740.672.662.315.49.124.632.062.994.938.96.360.070.942.961.1101.160.6117.1USA;reared Achetadomesticus (adults) g) 23.445.9100.053.714.68.322.931.748.880.536.16.352.261.049.856.187.850.7104.9USA;reared Achetadomesticus (adults) f) 22.736.466.751.119.69.829.330.244.074.231.17.648.457.352.054.276.945.3104.4USA;reared Achetadomestica L.(larvae) a) 21.042.073.056.015.021.036.033.041.074.035.06.060.063.049.067.070.060.080.0Mexico;wild Achetatestacea Walker b) 15.429.860.946.130.962.429.024.434.445.135.945.278.047.296.8Thailand;wild Anabrussimplex meal v) 22.037.068.054.015.013.028.033.047.080.043.049.063.048.039.081.054.0104.0USA,wild Boopedon aviventris h) 24.047.088.055.018.041.074.0115.044.06.057.0Mexico;wild Boopedon aviventris a) 24.047.088.055.018.020.038.041.074.0115.044.06.057.043.043.068.059.075.0154.0Mexico;wild Brachytrupes sp.(adults) a) 20.827.161.459.87.914.021.924.192.8116.938.65.540.431.138.562.050.973.1Mexico;wild Melanoplusfemurrubrum a) 23.126.458.261.729.811.641.422.556.478.937.06.440.932.129.426.662.6Mexico;wild Patangasuccinata L. b) 13.532.759.535.720.960.022.317.335.636.023.948.792.748.876.4Thailand;wild Sphenariumhistrio G. a) 19.053.087.057.020.013.033.0117.073.0190.040.06.051.066.051.072.076.053.053.0Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpurascens Ch. a) 22.042.089.057.025.018.043.0103.063.0166.031.07.057.060.048.062.064.068.0107.0Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpuracens l) 42.085.057.042.077.039.06.056.0Mexico;wild Taeniopodaauricornis W. a) 14.841.242.541.518.910.729.651.276.4127.620.65.849.035.932.959.530.668.3Mexico;wild Aminoacidrequirementinhuman nutrition x ) 15.030.059.045.016.06.022.030.023.06.039.0 Ile,Isoleucine;Leu,leucine;Lys,lysine;Met,methionine;Cys,cysteine;Phe,phenylalanine;Tyr,tyrosine;Thr,threonine;Trp,tryptophan;V al,valine;Arg,arginine;His,histidine;Ser,serine;Pro, proline;Ala,alanine;Gly,glycine;GluA,glutamicacid;rear.,reared. a)[14],b)[33],c)[19],d)[30],e)[28],f)[47],g)[16],h)[66],i)[23],j)[53],k)[54],l)[10],m)[22],n)[55],o)[9],p)[58],q)[67],r)[68],s) [21],t)[69],u)[62],v)[20],w)[63],x)[25]. C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 812 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 Table3. Fattyacidcomposition[%fattyacids]ofedibleinsects FattyacidcompositionC14:0C16:0C18:0OtherSFAC16:1C18:1OtherMUFAC18:2C18:3C18:3C20:3C20:4C20:5OtherPUFASFA/Origin [%fattyacids]SFAn7n9MUFAn6n3n6n6n6n3PUFAUFA Aquaticedibleinsects a) 33.4033.8014.604.500.600.203.7012.300.6027.900.54Review Terrestrialedibleinsects a) 32.9022.5025.8017.506.707.4035.704.606.7044.200.49Review Coleoptera(beetles,grubs)38.4935.72 27.140.61 Coprisnevinsoni b) 1.7628.9713.29nd44.022.7547.6650.413.920.840.815.570.83Thailand;w Coprisnevinsoni Waterhouse c) 0.291.3128.261.8531.71nd3.683.681.7510.3640.2412.9465.290.46Thailand;w Cybisterlimbatus Fabricius d) 29.204.503.6037.307.5028.5036.0013.306.301.504.001.6026.700.59Thailand;w Helicoprisbucephalus b) 0.9140.3413.250.4954.981.6140.6342.242.130.65nd2.781.22Thailand;w Holotrichia sp. c) nd0.7727.920.7329.420.515.596.10nd13.8647.26nd3.3964.510.42Thailand;w Holotrichia sp. e) 33.3030.00 32.400.53Thailand;w Hydrouscavistanum Bedel d) 22.005.803.4031.203.2031.1034.3021.503.10nd7.102.8034.500.45Thailand;w Liatongusrhadamitus b) 2.0428.7410.700.4941.964.8447.920.4053.163.870.670.505.040.72Thailand;w Onitis spp. b) 1.0718.6712.983.9136.632.3250.590.7153.628.850.520.399.750.58Thailand;w Onthophagusmouhoti b) 1.2521.6517.213.0843.181.7345.090.6047.428.560.430.409.390.76Thailand;w Onthophagusseniculus b) 1.6623.8617.821.2044.552.9543.0045.967.541.380.609.510.80Thailand;w Oryctesowariensis f) 2.500.200.230.123.0537.605.240.7943.6345.464.191.2250.870.03Camer;w Oryctesrhinoceros (larvae) g) 3.5028.702.100.0934.394.4141.5045.9114.101.504.1019.700.52Nigeria;w RhynchophorusphoenicisF (larvae) g) 3.2032.403.100.2038.903.3040.1043.4013.003.501.2017.700.64Nigeria;w Rhynchophorusphoenicis (larvae) h) 2.5036.000.302.1040.9036.0030.000.6066.6026.002.0028.000.43Angola;w Rhynchophorusphoenicis (larvae)oil i) 35.3060.4795.770.720.723.513.5122.64Nigeria;w Tesseratomapapillosa c) nd0.4641.0041.46nd7.277.27nd4.6746.68nd51.350.71Thailand;w Coleoptera j) 1.1119.664.841.1125.615.3137.870.0343.2119.199.7028.890.36Review AquaticColeoptera a) 34.3035.204.705.6030.600.52Review TerrestricColeoptera a) 27.1025.502.5043.8046.800.37Review Diptera 33.0247.23 15.950.52 Muscadomestica (larvae) k) 6.8326.742.3235.8925.9221.7547.6716.4416.440.56S.Korea;r Muscadomestica L.(pupae) l) 3.2027.602.200.4033.4020.6018.3038.9014.902.1017.000.60USA;r Diptera j) 2.8122.554.412.8129.7725.8928.240.9955.1212.182.2314.410.43Review Hemiptera(truebugs)43.8932.39 22.890.79 Agonoscelispubescens (Thunberg) m) 0.2111.417.771.0820.471.0441.150.8543.0435.211.2836.490.26Sudan;w Aspongubusviduatus F. m) 0.3431.333.472.7337.8710.6245.530.6256.774.900.455.350.61Sudan;w Lethocerusindicus d) 31.805.502.0039.308.0034.5042.509.003.40nd4.101.9618.460.64Thailand;w Meimunaopalifera Walker c) 1.992.4752.53nd56.990.280.921.20nd10.7733.03nd43.801.27Thailand;w Hemiptera j) 41.6319.903.2841.6364.812.0615.510.8518.428.901.4310.332.25Review Hymenoptera(bees,ants)29.8848.76 21.180.43 Carebaravidua S.(femalethorax) n) 1.0627.064.821.5934.531.8651.4453.3012.1912.190.53Kenya;w Carebaravidua S.(femaleabdomen) n) 1.8328.755.943.5640.082.9346.7849.7110.2010.200.67Kenya;w C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 817 2.3Vitaminandmineralcontentofinsects Eighty-Þvemineralcompositionsofedibleinsectsasderived fromliteratureandtherecommendeddailyintakesforadults (valuesinbold)aredepictedinTable4inmg/100gbased ondrymatter.Againalargevariationcanbeobservedand itwassoenormousthatitwasabstainedfromtheformation ofmeanvalues.Itisfurthermorestrikingthatmostmineral contentsofinsectscollectedinNigeriaarecomparablylow whichmightbeduetotheirfeedcomposition. Itcanbeobservedthatexceptforlarvaeofthehouseßy ( Muscadomestica )[23],allinsectsanalyzedarelowincal- ciumanddonotmeettherequiredamountforadults.A 100gofdriedinsectsalsodoesnotfulÞlltherequirements forthedailyuptakeof4700mg/dayforpotassium.Onthe otherhand,mostinsectsshowveryhighamountsofphos- phorous,and24of60insectsmeettherecommendeddi- etaryallowanceforadults.Ofthe77insectsanalyzedfortheir magnesiumcontent,only23insectssufÞcientlysupplywith magnesium.Itisnoteworthythattruebugs(Hemiptera)and somespeciesoftheorderOrthoptera(grasshoppers,crickets, locusts)areespeciallyrichinmagnesium.Generallyinsects arelowinsodium.Onlysomecaterpillars(larvaeoftheor- derLepidoptera)havehigh-sodiumcontentsper100gandin twocasesevenexceedthemaximumdailyuptakeof1500mg sodium[30].Therequiredamountofironishighlydepen- dentonitsbioavailabilty,andtheconsumerÕsageandsexÑ premenopausalwomenrequiremorethantwiceasmuch ironasmenandpostmenopausalwomenÑandthusvaries from7.5to58.5mg/day.Sincenostatementcanbemade abouttheironÕsbioavailabilityininsects,arequiredamount of58.5mg/dayisassumed.Consequently,onlytenof82in- sectscontaintherequiredamountofironsforadultsand especiallythecricket Onjirimammon andseveraltermites fromKenyaarehighiniron[39].However,insectspartially containmuchmoreironandcalciumthanbeef,pork,and chicken[3].Itwasalsosuggestedthattheconsumptionof insectscoulddecreaseironandzincdeÞciencyindeveloping countries[39].AlthoughthiscouldnotbeconÞrmedregard- ingironsupply,mostedibleinsectsshowhighzinccontents. EspeciallyspeciesoftheorderOrthoptera(grasshoppers, crickets,locusts)couldfunctionaszincsupplementingfood (ingredients).Furthermore,edibleinsectscontaininmost casessufÞcientamountsofmanganeseandcopper.Only beetlesandtermitesaregenerallylowinmanganese.Inthe ninecaseswhereithasbeendetermined,theamountofse- leniuminmg/100gdrymatterissufÞcientinallcasesbut forthetermite Macrotermesnigeriensis .Itcanbeconcluded that,althougha100gofedibleinsectsgenerallylacksufÞ- cientamountsofcalciumandpotassium,edibleinsectshave thepotentialtoprovidewithspeciÞcmicronutrientssuch ascopper,iron,magnesium,manganese,phosphorous,se- lenium,andzinc.Itisfurthermoreassumedthatthecon- tentofmicronutrientsinedibleinsectscanbecontrolledvia feed.Inaddition,edibleinsectscanbeutilizedinlow-sodium diets. Inadditiontominerals,insectsprovidewithseveralvita- mins,andthevitamincontentsofedibleinsectsderivedfrom literatureandtherecommendeddailyintakesforadultsare showninTable5.VitaminAvalueswerecalculatedas1U = 0.3 gretinolaccordingtoBarkeretal.[40].Itcangenerally beobservedthatlittledataonthevitamincontentofedible insectshavebeenpublishedtodateandthattheavailabledata aresubjecttodeviation. Referringtovitaminrequirementsinhumannutritionof adults(boldvaluesinTable5)[41],a100gofinsectsbased ondrymatterisgenerallyrichinriboßavin,pantothenicacid, andbiotin.InsectsoftheorderOrthoptera(grasshoppers, crickets,locusts)andColeoptera(beetles)arealsorichinfolic acid.Ontheotherhand,100gofinsectsarenotanefÞcient sourceofvitaminA,vitaminC,niacin,andinmostcases thiamin.Bycontrast,itwasdeterminedthataninsecttea madefromtheexcrementsofinsectscontainedupto15.04 mgvitaminCper100g[7].SincetheFAOrecommendsadaily uptakeof45mgvitaminCforadults[41],adailyconsumption of300mLofthisinsectteacoverstherecommendeddaily amountofvitaminCinthenutritionofadults. VitaminEactivityhadbeenspeciÞedininternational units(IU)perkilogram,whereastherecommendedamount isgiveninmilligram -TE( -tocopherolequivalent)per day.SincevitaminEdoesnotonlyconsistof -tocopherol (1IU = 1mg)butofamixtureofantioxidantsubstancesin- cludingtocopherolsandtocotrienolswithpartlymuchlower activities,itisdifÞculttoconvertthedatatouniformunits. However,evenassumingthedeterminedvitaminEactivities ofedibleinsectsareduetopure -tocopherol,mostediblein- sectsbutthelarvaeofthewaxworm Galleriamelonella andthe housecricket A.domesticus [16,40]wouldbepoorsourcesof vitaminE. Insummary,edibleinsectscanberichinvitaminsbut specieshavetobespeciÞcallyselectedfortheprovisionofde- siredvitamins.Furthermore,itwassuggestedthatthecontent ofvitaminsinedibleinsectscanbecontrolledviafeed[42]. 3Liabilitiesofentomophagy BesidesallthenutritionallybeneÞcialingredientsediblein- sectssupply,cautionneedstobeexercisedregardingendoge- nousandexogenousriskfactorsof(edible)insects.Justasit appliesforplantandanimalfoodproducts,someinsectsare notedibleornotsafetoeat[43]. Endogenousriskfactorscomprisefor,e.g.,antinutrient substancesandallergens.Forexample,itwasdetermined thatthepupaeoftheAfricansilkworm Anaphe spp.con- tainaheat-resistantthiaminasethathasbeenresponsiblefor seasonalataxicsyndromecasesduetothiamindeÞciencyin Nigeriaforthelast40years[44].Furthermore,ithasbeendis- coveredthatinsectsjustlikeotherarthropods(e.g.,shellÞsh) cancauseallergicreactions.Thesearecausedbyinjectant allergens(bees,wasps,andants),contactantallergens,in- halantallergens(e.g.,castskins,excreta),and/oringestant C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 819 Table5. Continued VitAVitEVitCVitB1VitB2VitB3VitB5VitB7VitB9Origin [ g/100g][IU/kg][mg/100g][mg/100g][mg/100g][mg/100g][mg/100g][ g/100g][mg/100g] Isoptera(termites) Macrotermesbellicosus c) 2.893.411.98Nigeria;wild Macrotemresnigeriensis i) 350.0017.760.671.562.74Nigeria;wild Macrotermisnotalensis c) 2.563.011.54Nigeria;wild Lepidoptera(butterßiesandmoths) Anapheinfracta (caterpillars) c) 2.954.522.00Nigeria;wild Anapherecticulata (caterpillars) c) 3.402.241.95Nigeria;wild Anaphespp. (caterpillars) c) 2.783.200.09Nigeria;wild Anaphevenata (caterpillars) c) 3.122.221.25Nigeria;wild Bombyxmori(larvae) e) 273.9951.45 5.781.915.4315.2012.49144.510.41USA;reared Bombyxmori (spentpupae) j) 0.95India;reared Cirinaforda (caterpillars) c) 2.991.952.21Nigeria;wild Conimbrasiabelina d) 0.584.9811.90 Galleriamellonella f) 4.50509.00 USA;reared Galleriamellonella e) 32.050.551.769.044.8769.880.11USA;reared Imbrasiaepimethea (caterpillars) k) 47.310.224.3011.837.8524.730.01Zaire;wild Imbrasiatruncata (caterpillars) k) 33.440.325.5011.7611.0048.540.04Zaire;wild Latebrariaamphypirioides (larvae) a) 0.9646.33 Mexico;wild Nudaureliaoyemensis (caterpillars) k) 32.260.223.4410.119.4632.260.02Zaire;wild Phasustriangularis (larvae) a) 0.240.472.92Mexico;wild Spodopteraexigua (larvae) a) 0.090.170.65Mexico;wild Ustaterpsichore (caterpillar) d) 4.042.090.33Angola;wild Xyleutesredtembacheri (larvae) a) 17.580.310.461.83Mexico;wild Odonata Anax sp.(nymphs) a) 0.050.091.29Mexico;wild Orthoptera Achetadomesticus (adults) f) 24.3381.00 USA;reared Achetadomesticus (adults) e) 63.969.740.1311.0712.597.4755.190.49USA;reared Achetadomesticus (juvenilecrickets) f) 14.1371.00 USA;reared Achetadomesticus (nymphs) e) 41.927.860.094.151.4311.4821.830.63USA;reared Achetadomesticus (nymphs) a) 0.2325.47 Mexico;reared Achetadomesticus (adults) a) 0.1023.92 Mexico;reared Achetadomesticus (adults) b) 0.0123.90 Mexico;reared Achetadomesticus (nymphs) b) 0.0225.50 Mexico;reared Brachytypes spp. c) 0.000.000.03Nigeria;wild Cytacanthacrisaeruginosusunicolor c) 1.001.000.08Nigeria;wild Ruspoliadifferens (brown) l) 280.0022.640.10n.d.1.402.400.90Kenya;wild Ruspoliadifferens (green) l) 210.0029.950.10n.d.1.202.100.90Kenya;wild Sphenariummagnum (adults) a) 0.831.283.97Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpurascens (adults) a) 0.270.591.56Mexico;wild Sphenarium sp.(adults) a) 0.500.665.04Mexico;wild Zonocerusvariegatus (1stinstarlarvae) m) 111.790.00 Nigeria;wild Zonocerusvariegatus (adult) m) 814.490.01 Nigeria;wild Zonocerusvariegatus c) 6.828.640.07Nigeria;wild Recommendeddailyintakes500Ð6007.5Ð10mg45mg/day1.2Ð1.31.1Ð1.314Ð165mg/30 g/0.4mg/ foradults n) g/day -TE/daymg/daymg/daymg/daydaydayday Vit,vitamin. a)[78],b)[14],c)[12],d)[30],e)[16],f)[40],g)[55],h)[56],i)[57],j)[21],k)[62],l)[65],m)[77],n)[41]. C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 823 [73]Womeni,H.M.,Linder,M.,Tiencheu,B.,Mbiapo,F.T.etal., OilsofOryctesowariensisand Homorocoryphusnitidulus consumedinCameroon:sourcesoflinoleicacid. J.Food Technol. 2009, 7 ,5458. [74]Thompson,S.N.,Reviewandcomparativecharacteriza- tionoffatty-acidcompositionsof7insectorders. Comp. Biochem.Physiol. 1973, 45 ,467482. [75]Pan,W.-J.,Liao,A.-M.,Zhang,J.-G.,Dong,Z.etal.,Supercrit- icalcarbondioxideextractionoftheoaksilkworm( Anther- aeapernyi )pupaloil:processoptimizationandcomposition determination. Int.J.Mol.Sci. 2012, 13 ,23542367. [76]Longvah,T.,Manghtya,K.,Qadri,S.S.Y.H.,Erisilkworm: asourceofedibleoilwithahighcontentofalpha-linolenic acidandofsigni cantnutritionalvalue. J.Sci.FoodAgr. 2012, 92 ,19881993. [77]Ademolu,K.O.,Idowu,A.B.,Olatunde,G.O.,Nutritional valueassessmentofvariegatedgrasshopper, Zonocerus variegatus (L.)(Acridoidea:Pygomorphidae),duringpost- embryonicdevelopment. Afr.Entomol. 2010, 18 ,360364. [78]Ramos-Elorduy,J.,Pino,J.M.,Contenidodevitaminasen algunosinsectoscomestiblesdeMexico. J.Mex.Chem.Soc. 2001, 45 ,6676. C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 809 Table2. Aminoacidcontentofedibleinsects[mg/gprotein] Edibleinsects[mg/gprotein]HisIleLeuLysMetCysMetPheTyrPheThrTrpValArgSerProAlaGlyGluAorigin + Cys + Tyr Blattodea(cockroaches)19.429.956.448.029.811.641.430.662.392.934.66.053.841.541.965.056.658.799.7 Periplanetaamericana L. a) 20.031.056.040.036.020.056.031.069.0100.036.06.065.051.045.065.061.071.0130.0Mexico;wild Periplanetaaustralasiae F.F. a) 18.728.756.856.023.63.226.830.255.585.733.26.042.632.038.852.246.369.3Mexico;wild Coleoptera(beetles,grubs)26.345.674.250.616.214.631.947.155.798.635.210.151.953.942.664.169.555.2123.7 Holotrichia sp. b) 16.132.151.818.844.649.326.927.129.332.331.347.058.352.897.6Thailand;wild Oryctesrhinoceros (larvae) c) 38.239.853.044.219.420.239.646.130.977.033.435.081.637.050.152.547.2154.6Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorisphoenicis (larvae) c) 38.939.054.245.019.720.239.947.529.076.530.635.079.239.050.152.547.2156.0Nigeria;wild Rhynchophorisphoenicis (larvae) d) 77.558.963.912.010.622.632.813.646.428.65.154.9Angola;wild Rhynchophorisphoenicis (larvae) e) 11.024.047.042.021.025.046.065.060.0125.029.041.024.033.0102.076.048.0Nigeria;wild Sciphophorusacupunctatus (larvae) d) 14.748.278.253.520.226.746.946.163.5109.640.48.162.044.0Mexico;wild Sphenariumhistrio d) 11.053.087.057.07.013.020.044.073.0117.040.06.051.066.0Mexico;wild Sphenariumpurpurascens d) 22.042.089.057.025.018.043.0103.063.0166.038.06.557.060.0Mexico;wild Tenebriomolitor (larvae) f) 37.949.482.264.919.510.930.543.779.9123.640.810.369.060.354.674.180.559.8132.8USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) g) 35.346.777.760.914.18.222.340.877.7118.534.89.266.356.049.565.874.553.8123.9USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (adults) g) 28.743.582.744.312.76.819.426.233.359.534.211.063.343.041.463.376.484.489.0USA;reared Tenebriomolitor (larvae) g) 31.650.3106.454.512.88.621.435.374.5109.841.88.058.851.951.369.582.455.6112.8USA;reared Zophobasmorio g) 30.547.297.052.310.77.618.334.569.5104.139.69.152.348.746.754.872.648.2122.8USA;reared Diptera22.332.657.462.927.25.336.650.656.7107.338.828.346.949.460.027.858.945.198.6 Ephydrahians (larvae) h) 10.040.074.055.019.054.051.0105.049.07.161.0Mexico;wild Muscadomesticus (larvae) i) 30.922.845.381.636.66.643.155.871.1126.935.549.545.656.788.024.775.851.189.2S.Korea;rear. Muscadomesticus (pupae) j) 26.035.053.052.026.04.030.042.048.090.032.034.042.032.031.042.039.0108.0USA;reared Hemiptera(truebugs)15.731.549.828.021.712.932.234.438.763.829.910.344.324.910.326.416.423.7 Agonoscelispubescens (Thunberg) k) 11.414.219.56.42.74.57.218.08.626.616.617.436.97.713.912.830.8Sudan;wild Aspongubusviduatus F. k) 20.620.822.615.535.921.257.110.517.427.918.125.912.812.938.920.016.6Sudan;wild Hoplophorionmonograma h) 15.041.077.055.019.047.090.0137.045.09.674.0Mexico;wild KrizousacorixaaztecaJ (eggs) l) 50.080.035.029.062.040.011.060.0Mexico;wild Hymenoptera(bees,wasps,ants)27.047.878.453.823.812.930.547.555.3104.341.710.360.543.538.266.772.381.3134.3 Apismellifera (honeybee) m) 24.053.093.056.017.039.037.076.043.052.051.053.075.087.070.0126.0Canada;rear. Attamexicana d) 25.053.080.049.019.015.034.041.047.088.043.06.064.047.0Mexico;wild Attamexicana h) 25.053.080.049.034.088.047.0135.043.06.064.0Mexico;wild AttamexicanaB l) 51.075.051.040.075.041.06.060.0Mexico;wild Beebrood n) 23.445.770.261.721.321.342.635.143.678.733.09.652.142.635.160.647.943.6137.2USA;reared Brachygastraazteca h) 28.051.085.061.014.041.065.0106.044.07.064.0Mexico;wild Liometopumapiculatum d) 29.049.076.058.018.014.032.039.068.0107.042.08.060.050.0Mexico;wild Liometopumapiculatum h) 29.044.089.060.018.035.068.0103.035.06.248.0Mexico;wild LiometopumapiculatumH (eggs) l) 45.076.055.045.066.043.07.060.0Mexico;wild Parachartegusapicalis h) 29.042.077.058.020.043.071.0114.047.06.257.0Mexico;wild Polyrhachisvicina Roger(Zhejiang) o) 25.846.569.743.716.37.023.233.453.486.840.227.468.835.248.273.794.8128.6112.1China;reared Polyrhachisvicina Roger(Guizhou) o) 24.045.769.837.423.37.330.635.053.388.342.624.682.737.951.167.788.4116.0115.7China;reared Vespa sp.(hornetgrub) b) 35.342.678.559.020.8165.045.310.153.741.03.856.843.548.2180.6Thailand;wild C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 811 Figure2. Meanaminoacid contents[mg/gcrudeprotein] ofedibleinsectsbelongingto thesameorderinrelationto aminoacidrequirementsfor adults[mg/gprotein]published bytheWHO[25].n,number ofinsectsamplesperorder obtainedfromliterature,Insect orders:Blattodea(cockroaches), Coleoptera(beetles,grubs), Diptera( ies),Hemiptera (truebugs),Hymenoptera (ants,bees,wasps),Lepi- doptera(butter ies,moths), Orthoptera(grasshoppers, crickets,locusts).Aminoacids: His,histidine;Ile,isoleucine; Leu,leucine;Lys,lysine;Met, methionine;Cys,Cysteine;Phe, phenylalanine;Tyr,tyrosine; Thr,threonine;Trp,tryptophan; Val,valine. Theaminoacidspectraofedibleinsectsareshownin Table2andtheaverageaminoacidcontentsofinsectsbe- longingtothesameinsectorderaregiveninboldvaluesand furtherillustratedinFig.2.Againlargevariationcanbeob- served,SDsashighas31.3wereobtainedforLepidoptera forphenylalanineandtyrosine(phe + tyr).Additionallyto theaforementionedinßuencefactors,thisdistributioncan beattributedtothepartlylowdatavolumerangingfrom n = 23forLepidopteratoonly n = 3forDiptera.Itwasstated inliteraturethatinsectproteinswereshowntobelowinthe aminoacidsmethionineandcysteineandhighinlysineand threonine[24].ThiscouldnotbeentirelyconÞrmed.Compar- ingtheaminoacidrequirementsforadultspublishedbythe WHO[25]inmg/gproteinwithaverageaminoacidcontents ofinsectsbelongingtothesameorder,itcangenerallybe observedthatalledibleinsectsmeettheaminoacidrequire- mentsofadultsformethionineandmethionine + cysteine, andwithoneexception(Diptera)forcysteine.Asidefromthe orderHemipterabeinglowinisoleucine,lysine,phenylala- nine + tyrosine,andvalineandtheorderDipterabeingshort ofleucineandcysteine,allinsectordersgenerallymeetthe requirementsoftheWHOforaminoacids.Highvalueshave beenobtainedforphenylalanine + tyrosineandsomeinsects arerichintryptophane,lysine,andthreonine. Itcanbeconcludedthatedibleinsectsingeneraland speciesfromtheorderOrthoptera(grasshoppers,crick- ets,locusts)inparticulararerichinproteinsandrep- resentavaluablealternativeproteinsource.Thenutrient qualityoftheinsectproteinispromisingincomparison tocaseinandsoybutvariesandcanbeimprovedby theremovalofthechitin.Furthermore,mostediblein- sectsprovidesatisfactorilywiththerequiredessentialamino acids. 2.2Lipidcontentsandfattyacidspectra Fatrepresentsthesecondlargestportionofthenutrientcom- positionofedibleinsects(seeFig.1).Theaveragefatcon- tentsperorderrangefrom13.41%forOrthoptera(grasshop- pers,crickets,locusts)beingrichinproteinto33.40%for Coleoptera(beetles,grubs).Inaddition,bugs(Hemiptera), termites(Isoptera),Blattodea(cockroaches)andinsome casescaterpillars(Lepidoptera)arealsorichinfatwithav- erageamountsof30.26,32.74,29.90,and27.66%,respec- tively.Theinsectspecieswiththehighestamountsoffat includethecaterpillars(i.e.,larvae)of P.triangularis (Lep- idoptera)with77.00Ð77.13%[1,11],thepalmweevillarvae Rhynchophorusphoenicis withupto69.78%(Coleoptera)[26] andwasps P.instabilis (Hymenoptera)with62.00%fat[1]. Thelowestfatcontentshavebeenobtainedforlarvaeof O. rhinoceros with0.66Ð38.12%[17Ð19],larvaeof Oryctesboas with1.50%(bothColeoptera)[12],and Brachytrupers ssp.(Or- thoptera)with3.24Ð53.05%fat[2,13,14,27].Particularlythe fatcontentsofthepalmweevillarvae( n = 7),wherefatcon- tentsaslowas19.50%withcarbohydratecontentsofupto 48.60%havebeenreported[17,19,26Ð29],thefatcontents ofthecricket Brachytrupes ssp.( n = 4),andlarvaeofthe Asiaticrhinocerosbeetle O.rhinoceros ( n = 2)giveagen- eralideaofthemarginofdeviationofthenutrientcompo- nentsofthesamespeciesasderivedfromliterature.Since allbeetlesampleshadbeencollectedinNigeriainthewild, thedeviationcannotbeattributedtotheirorigin.Thefat contentalsovariesbetweendevelopmentalstagesandisin generalhigherinlarvalandpupalstagesthanattheadult stage[7]. Thefattyacidcompositionofedibleinsectsaspublished inliteratureissummarizedinTable3.Inadditiontothefatty C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 813 Table3. Continued FattyacidcompositionC14:0C16:0C18:0OtherSFAC16:1C18:1OtherMUFAC18:2C18:3C18:3C20:3C20:4C20:5OtherPUFASFA/Origin [%fattyacids]SFAn7n9MUFAn6n3n6n6n6n3PUFAUFA Carebaravidua S.(maleabdomen) n) 1.3825.945.781.7234.823.3151.2654.5710.6110.610.53Kenya;w Polyrhachisvicina Roger(Wenzhou) o) 0.6016.504.401.422.909.2060.803.1073.102.400.800.100.400.204.000.30China;w Polyrhachisvicina Roger(Guizhou) o) 0.6017.504.301.523.908.2063.001.2072.402.101.000.200.100.103.700.31China;w Polyrhachisvicina Roger(Zhejiang) p) 0.6019.004.301.625.508.9060.501.9071.301.700.600.100.200.203.100.34China;r Oecophyllasmaragdina o) 2.1020.805.803.231.904.3052.102.3058.707.000.701.000.309.400.47Thailand;w Oecophyllasmaragdina F.(weaverant) c 0.271.1927.670.0929.220.551.802.350.369.8857.82nd0.7468.800.41Thailand;w Oecophyllasmaragdina F.(queencaste) c) 0.441.6832.410.0634.590.001.961.96nd5.8257.73nd63.550.53Thailand;w Hymenoptera j) 1.5515.494.301.5521.344.4645.7750.2310.6915.5426.230.28Review Isoptera(termites)41.9722.00 36.040.72 Macrotermesbellicosus h) 0.1846.5446.722.0912.8414.9334.423.8538.270.88Nigeria;w Macrotermesbellicosus oil q) 2.1742.452.861.5048.982.1015.8417.9424.243.904.9433.080.96Nigeria,w Macrotermesnigeriensis r) 0.6231.397.140.2039.350.6252.4553.077.577.570.65Nigeria;w Termes sp. c) 0.130.7831.900.0232.830.191.862.050.348.9056.010.0065.250.49Thailand;w Lepidoptera(butterßies,moths)37.0423.36 39.760.59 Antheraeapernyi (pupae) s) 19.921.990.6022.514.7730.9735.746.8934.270.3941.550.29China;r Bombyxmori (pupae) s) 22.776.69nd29.460.6026.0126.615.9038.0243.920.42China;r Bombyxmori(pupae) t) 0.1024.204.5028.801.7026.0027.707.3036.3043.600.40Japan;r Bombyxmori(spentpupae) u) 26.207.0033.2036.9036.904.2025.7029.900.50India;r Cirinaforda Westwood(larvae) v) 0.7013.0016.00 � 1.1031.600.2013.900.5014.608.1045.300.20 0.10 0.10 0.100.2053.800.46Nigeria;w Imbrasiabelina (larvae) g) 1.1531.904.710.1237.881.8034.2036.006.0219.600.5026.120.61Nigeria;w Imbrasiaepimethea (caterpillars) w) 0.6023.2022.100.2046.100.608.409.007.0035.100.4042.500.90Congo;w Imbrasiaertli (caterpillars) h) 1.0022.000.4039.5061.4022.002.0024.0020.0011.0031.001.12Angola;w Imbrasiaoyemensis x) 0.4845.977.210.5054.1634.6234.6211.2211.221.18Ivoryc.;w Imbrasiatruncata (caterpillars) w) 0.2024.6021.7046.500.207.407.607.6036.8044.400.89Congo;w Nudaureliaoyemensis w) 0.2021.8023.100.2045.300.605.606.205.7035.600.301.400.4043.400.91Congo;w Samiaricinii (prepupaeoncastor leaves) y) 26.453.9130.361.9016.5718.475.6245.2650.880.44India;r Samiaricinii (prepupaeontapioca leaves) y) 27.523.9431.461.8318.3220.156.1041.5247.620.46India;r Samiaricinii (pupaeoncastorleaves) y) 26.755.6132.361.7616.1917.954.9344.7449.670.48India;r Samiaricinii (pupaeontapiocaleaves) y) 27.185.4532.631.7918.4620.255.2941.3846.670.49India;r Lepidoptera j) 0.7425.892.270.7428.906.3631.6337.997.6722.1829.850.43Review Orthoptera(crickets,grasshoppers)32.0529.37 37.080.48 Achetatestacea e) 36.5030.10 31.100.60Thailand;w Achetacon rmata Walker d) 26.105.501.2032.802.4031.1033.5032.201.70ndndnd33.900.49Thailand;w Brachytrupesportentosus Lichtenstein c) nd1.6135.790.1337.530.713.404.11nd7.9450.43nd58.370.60Thailand;w Brachytrupesportentosus e) 35.0032.30 29.600.57Thailand;w Chondracisroseapbrunner Uvarov d) 18.206.401.9026.501.0020.2021.2012.3040.10ndndnd52.400.36Thailand;w Gryllotalpaafricana Beauvois d) 28.605.601.2035.404.8045.6050.4013.800.50ndndnd14.300.55Thailand;w Homorocoryphusnitidulus f) 0.590.5927.596.890.2834.7645.6316.190.5862.400.01Camer.;w Ruspoliadifferens (green) z) 0.9031.505.500.4038.301.9024.6026.5031.203.2034.400.63Kenya;w Ruspoliadifferens (brown) z) 0.7032.105.900.2038.901.4024.9026.3029.504.2033.700.65Kenya;w Orthoptera j) 2.0428.548.382.0438.962.9931.5234.5111.698.9720.660.71Review Dictyoptera(cockroachesandtermites) Dictyoptera j) 3.3333.564.333.3341.227.2842.3049.581.06nd1.060.81Review SFA(saturatedfattyacids):C14:0,myristicacid;C16:0,palmiticacid;C18:0,stearicacid.MUFA:C16:1n7palmitoleicacid;C18:1n9oleicacid .PUFA:C18:2n6linoleicacid;C18:3n3 -linolenic acid;C18:3n6 -linolenicacid;C20:3n6dihomo- -linolenicacid;C20:4n6arachidonicacid;C20:5n3eicosapentaenoicacid(EPA).UFA(unsaturatedfattyacids) = MUFA + PUFA.nd,not detected;w,collectedinthewild;r,reared;Camer.,Cameroon;Ivoryc.,Ivorycoast. a)[70],b)[71],c)[13],d)[72],e)[33],f)[73],g)[17],h)[30],i)[28],j)[74],k)[23],l)[53],m)[54],n)[56],o)[32],p)[9],q)[17],r)[57],s) [75],t)[67],u)[21],v)[59],w)[62],x)[61],y)[76],z)[65]. C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 802 Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 DOI10.1002/mnfr.201200735 R EVIEW Nutritionalcompositionandsafetyaspects ofedibleinsects BirgitA.RumpoldandOliverK.Schl ¨ uter DepartmentofHorticulturalEngineering,QualityandSafetyofFoodandFeed,LeibnizInstituteforAgricultural EngineeringPotsdam-Bornim,Potsdam,Germany Insects,atraditionalfoodinmanypartsoftheworld,arehighlynutritiousandespecially richinproteinsandthusrepresentapotentialfoodandproteinsource.Acompilationof236 nutrientcompositionsinadditiontoaminoacidspectraandfattyacidcompositionsaswell asmineralandvitamincontentsofvariousedibleinsectsasderivedfromliteratureisgiven andtherisksandbeneÞtsofentomophagyarediscussed.Althoughthedataweresubjectto alargevariation,itcouldbeconcludedthatmanyedibleinsectsprovidesatisfactorilywith energyandprotein,meetaminoacidrequirementsforhumans,arehighinMUFAand/or PUFA,andrichinseveralmicronutrientssuchascopper,iron,magnesium,manganese, phosphorous,selenium,andzincaswellasriboßavin,pantothenicacid,biotin,andinsome casesfolicacid.Liabilitiesofentomophagyincludethepossiblecontentofallergenicandtoxic substancesaswellasantinutrientsandthepresenceofpathogens.Moredataarerequiredfor athoroughassessmentofthenutritionalpotentialofedibleinsectsandproperprocessingand decontaminationmethodshavetobedevelopedtoensurefoodsafety. Keywords: Alternativeproteinsource/Edibleinsects/Entomophagy/Foodsafety/Nutritive value Received:November7,2012 Revised:December15,2012 Accepted:December19,2012 1Introduction Entomophagy,i.e.,theconsumptionofinsects,istradi- tionallypracticedinmanypartsoftheworld.Generally, insectswerefoundtobehighlynutritiousandtorepresent goodsourcesofproteins,fat,minerals,vitamins,and energy[1].Forexample,a100gofcaterpillars(larvaeof mothorbutterßy)wasfoundtoprovidewith76%ofthe dailyrequiredamountofproteinsandwithnearly100%of thedailyrecommendedamountofvitaminsforhumans[2]. Theenergycontentofinsectsisonaveragecomparableto meat(onafreshweightbasis)exceptforporkbecauseofits particularlyhighfatcontent[3].Takingintoconsideration thatinsectshaveahighfecundity,canbemultivoltine,havea highfeedconversionefÞciency,lowspacerequirement,and areomnivorousinadditiontotheirnutritivevalue,edible Correspondence: Dr.OliverK.Schl ¨ uter,LeibnizInstituteforAgri- culturalEngineeringPotsdam-Bornim,Max-Eyth-Allee100,14469 Potsdam,Germany E-mail: oschlueter@atb-potsdam.de Fax: + 49-331-5699-849 Abbreviations:nd ,notdetected; NFE ,nitrogen-freeextract; NPU , netproteinutilization; PER ,proteinef ciencyratio; SFA ,saturated fattyacids; UFA ,unsaturatedfattyacids insectscancontributetoworldfoodsecurityandrepresent aninterestingfoodandfeedalternative,especiallytomeat productsandÞshmeal.However,antinutritivecomponents andharmfulingredientsofinsectsshouldalsobetakeninto account.Itwasreportedthatinsectscancauseallergicreac- tions[4]andcancontaintoxicsubstances[5].Themajority ofthemorethan2000edibleinsectspecies(Listofedible insectsoftheworld(April4,2012),http://www.ent.wur. nl/UK/Edible+insects/Worldwide+species+list/)arecol- lectedinthewilduptotoday[6].Therefore,littleisknown abouttheirnutritivevalue.Acompilationofnutrient compositionsofedibleinsectsinadditiontoaminoacid spectraandfattyacidcompositionsaswellasmineraland vitamincontentsofedibleinsectsderivedfromliteratureand anoverviewofthenutritivevalueandrisksofedibleinsects aregiveninthispaper. 2Nutrientcomposition Acompilationof236nutrientcompositionsofedibleinsects aspublishedinliterature(basedondrymatter)isgivenin Table1.Meanvaluesofnutrientcontentsofallinsects belongingtothesameinsectorderareindicatedinbold.If necessary,valueswerebasedondrymatterandconverted C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 804 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 Table1. Continued Edibleinsects(basedondrymatter)ProteinFatFiberNFEAshEnergyOrigin [%][%][%][%][%]content [Kcal/100g] Hemiptera(truebugs)48.3330.2612.406.085.03478.99 Abedus sp. 4 67.696.2016.416.653.05352.56Mexico;wild Acantocephaladeclivis 3 35.0045.0018.001.00547.00Mexico;wild Agonoscelispubescens (Thunberg) 19 28.2057.304.402.50Sudan,wild Aspongubusviduatus F. 19 27.0054.207.003.50Sudan,wild Axayacatl 4 62.809.6710.462.473.30346.73Mexico;wild Belostoma sp. 4 70.87Mexico;wild Edessaconspersa 4 36.8245.7610.004.213.21Mexico;wild Edessamontezumae 4 37.5245.8710.882.083.65Mexico;wild Edessapetersii 3 37.0042.0018.001.002.00530.00Mexico;wild Edessa sp. 3 33.0054.0011.001.00622.00Mexico;wild Edessa sp. 4 34.2451.239.122.013.40Mexico;wild Edessacordifera 4 622.00Mexico;wild Euchistuszopilotensis 4 551.08Mexico;wild Euschistusegglestoni 3 35.0045.0019.001.00548.00Mexico;wild Euschistusstrennus 4 41.8441.6813.410.013.06Mexico;wild Euschistus sp.(nymphs,adults) 9 37.6546.7212.783.336.83583.74Mexico;wild Hoplophorionmonograma 3 64.0014.0018.001.003.00394.00Mexico;wild Hoplophorionmonograma 4 59.5714.3223.000.542.57394.14Mexico;wild KrizousacorixaaztecaJ (ahuahutleeggs) 20 53.604.333.0018.0721.00Mexico;wild Ahuahutle(mosquitoeggs) 4 56.554.436.2211.8021.00328.99Mexico;wild Meimunaopalifera Walker 5 47.238.5319.2215.989.04Thailand;wild Neortholomus sp. 9 48.2534.515.109.622.42542.08Mexico;wild Pachilisgigas (adults) 3 65.0019.0010.002.003.00445.00Mexico;wild Pachilisgigas (nymphs) 3 63.0026.005.002.004.00498.00Mexico;wild Pachilisgigas 4 65.3919.439.412.473.30445.43Mexico;wild Proarna sp. 3 72.004.002.0018.003.00401.00Mexico;wild Umboniareclinata 3 29.0033.0013.0013.0011.00470.00Mexico;wild Hymenoptera(ants,bees)46.4725.095.7120.253.51484.45 Apismellifera (honeybee) 2 21.0012.302.0073.602.20Nigeria;wild Apismellifera (honeybee) 21 52.007.5011.10Canada;reared Apismellifera (larvaeandpupae) 3 50.0021.003.0022.004.00475.00Mexico;wild Apismellifera (larvaeandpupae) 9 50.4220.593.3322.133.53474.65Mexico;wild Apismellifera (larvae) 3 42.0019.001.0035.003.00475.00Mexico;wild Apismellifera (larvae) 4 41.6818.821.3334.823.35Mexico;wild Apismellifera (pupae) 3 49.0020.003.0024.004.00476.00Mexico;wild Apismellifera (pupae) 4 49.3020.212.6724.263.56476.00Mexico;wild beebrood 22 40.5220.260.8634.483.45482.33USA;reared AttamexicanaB (ants) 20 66.0024.022.064.923.00Mexico;wild Attamexicana (ants) 3 46.0039.0011.000.004.00555.00Mexico;wild Attacephalotes (reproductors) 3 43.0031.0010.0014.002.00391.00Mexico;wild Brachygastraazteca 3 63.0022.003.009.003.00481.00Mexico;wild Brachygastramelli ca 3 53.0030.003.0011.003.00522.00Mexico;wild Carebaravidua Smith(female) 23 42.5049.457.191.61Kenya;wild LiometopumapiculatumH (anteggs) 20 40.9033.961.3015.997.85Mexico;wild Liometopumapiculatum 4 37.3342.139.687.813.05535.44Mexico;wild Liometopumapiculatum (larvae,pupae) 9 39.6736.872.4419.221.80566.36Mexico;wild Liometopumoccidentale var. Luctuosum 4 41.6836.212.1017.612.40Mexico;wild Meliponabeeckeii 3 29.0041.006.0020.003.00469.00Mexico;wild Mischocyttarus sp. 4 57.3324.267.686.514.22Mexico;wild Myrmecosistusmelliger 3 4.906.003.0077.004.00401.00Mexico;wild Myrmecosistusmelliger 3 9.455.802.9077.734.12400.68Mexico;wild Myrmecosistusmelliger 9 9.355.903.1277.574.02400.05Mexico;wild Oecophyllasmaragdina Fabricius(weaverant) 5 53.4613.4615.3811.156.55Thailand;wild Oecophyllasmaragdina Fabricius(queencaste) 5 37.4636.878.2614.432.98Thailand;wild Pogonomyrmexbarbatus 3 45.7934.252.797.869.31Mexico;wild Pogonomyrmex sp. 4 46.26522.77Mexico;wild C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com 806 B.A.RumpoldandO.K.Schl ¨ uter Mol.Nutr.FoodRes. 2013, 57 ,802823 Table1. Continued Edibleinsects(basedondrymatter)ProteinFatFiberNFEAshEnergyOrigin [%][%][%][%][%]content [Kcal/100g] Heliothiszea 3 42.0029.004.0021.004.00513.00Mexico;wild Heliothiszea 4 41.9829.004.1421.023.86512.82Mexico;wild Hylesiafrigida 3 42.0010.0012.0029.007.00372.00Mexico;wild Imbrasiabelina (larvae) 7 54.2623.3810.9811.38Nigeria;wild Imbrasiaoyemensis (caterpillars) 33 61.5925.362.78IvoryCoast;wild Imbrasiaopimethea (caterpillars) 34 62.4713.333.98Zaire;wild Imbrasiatruncata (caterpillars) 34 64.7216.403.99Zaire;wild Laniiferacyclades 4 45.8530.344.9714.224.62513.34Mexico;wild Laniiferacyclades (larvae) 9 45.5030.494.8714.344.77512.83Mexico;wild Latebrariaamphipyrioides 3 57.007.0029.001.006.00293.00Mexico;wild Nudaureliaoyemensis (caterpillars) 34 61.0812.153.76Zaire;wild Phasus sp. 4 32.7360.354.101.131.69Mexico;wild Phasustriangularis 3 15.0077.004.002.002.00762.00Mexico;wild Phasustriangularis 4 13.1777.175.313.001.35776.85Mexico;wild Samiaricinii (prepupaegrownoncastorleaves) 35 54.2026.203.263.264.00459.69India;reared Samiaricinii (prepupaegrownontapiocaleaves) 35 54.0026.203.143.144.10461.84India;reared Samiaricinii (pupaegrownoncastorleaves) 35 54.6026.203.453.453.80468.05India;reared Samiaricinii (pupaegrownontapiocaleaves) 35 54.8025.003.623.584.20459.21India;reared Xyleutesredtembacheri 3 43.0048.006.001.002.00614.00Mexico;wild Odonata(dragonßies,damselßies)55.2319.8311.794.638.53431.33 Aeschnamulticolor 4 54.2416.729.966.2312.85Mexico;wild Anax sp. 4 56.2222.9313.623.024.21431.33Mexico;wild Orthoptera(crickets,grasshoppers,locusts)61.3213.419.5512.983.85426.25 Achetadomesticus (adults) 16 64.3822.8019.105.10USA;reared Achetadomesticus (adults) 14 66.5622.0822.082.603.57455.19USA;reared Achetadomesticus (adults) 15 70.7518.5516.355.03USA;reared Achetadomesticus (juvenilecrickets) 16 55.009.8016.409.10USA;reared Achetadomesticus (nymphs) 14 67.2514.4115.723.934.80414.41USA;reared Achetadomesticus (nymphs) 15 70.5617.7414.924.84USA;reared Achetadomestica L. 1 64.1024.006.202.123.55Mexico;wild Acridaexaltata 36 64.467.077.733.644.98495.00India;wild Arphiafallax S. 1 71.306.5211.588.112.41Mexico;wild Brachytrupesmembranaceus Drury(adults) 26 35.0653.056.302.333.25Nigeria;wild Brachytrupesportentosus Lichtenstein 5 48.6920.6011.619.749.36Thailand;wild Brachytrupes spp. 2 6.253.241.0185.301.82Nigeria;wild Brachytrupes sp. 1 61.2018.707.427.605.05Mexico;wild Boopedon af. Flaviventris 4 75.958.4310.352.322.95Mexico;wild Boopedon aviventris B. 1 59.3011.0010.1016.592.98Mexico;wild Conocepalustriops L. 1 71.00Mexico;wild Cytacanthacrisaeruginosusunicolor 2 12.103.501.5060.502.10Nigeria;wild Encoptolophusherbaceus 1 57.6011.8011.0217.222.87Mexico;wild Hieroglyphusbanian 36 63.617.157.164.814.86566.00India;wild Idiarthronsubquadratum S.&P. 1 65.208.1711.104.423.79Mexico;wild Melanoplusmexicanus 4 77.134.2212.174.042.44Mexico;wild Melanoplusmexicanus 1 58.9011.0010.0116.503.94Mexico;wild Melanoplus sp. 4 62.93376.00Mexico;wild Melanoplusfemurrubrum (nymphs,adults) 9 77.004.2012.104.082.59361.46Mexico;wild Oxyafuscovittata 36 63.966.497.517.515.01465.00India;wild Romalea sp. 1 75.3012.309.730.194.25Mexico;wild Romaleacolorata S. 1 72.7016.306.330.004.64Mexico;wild Ruspoliadifferens (brown) 37 44.3046.204.902.60Kenya;wild Ruspoliadifferens (green) 37 43.1048.203.902.80Kenya;wild Schistocerca sp. 3 61.0017.0010.007.004.60427.00Mexico;wild Schistocerca sp. 4 61.1017.0010.007.004.60Mexico;wild Spathosternumprasiniferumprasiniferum 36 65.888.116.966.365.11550.00India;wild Sphenariumborrei B. 1 63.7010.409.8112.403.96Mexico;wild Sphenariumhistrio 3 77.004.0012.004.002.00363.00Mexico;wild C 2013WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim www.mnf-journal.com