1 1 . Patterns of speciation and extinction - Description
The rise and fall of biodiversity. Four major . mass extinctions . of marine organisms:. End of Silurian Devonian, Permian, and Cretaceous). Rise in diversity during Cambrian, Silurian, Cretaceous, and Paleogene. ID: 332297 Download Presentation
The rise and fall of biodiversity. Four major . mass extinctions . of marine organisms:. End of Silurian Devonian, Permian, and Cretaceous). Rise in diversity during Cambrian, Silurian, Cretaceous, and Paleogene.
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Presentation on theme: "1 1 . Patterns of speciation and extinction"— Presentation transcript:
Slide1
11. Patterns of speciation and extinction
The rise and fall of biodiversity
Four major
mass extinctions of marine organisms:End of Silurian Devonian, Permian, and Cretaceous)Rise in diversity during Cambrian, Silurian, Cretaceous, and Paleogene
The rise and fall of biodiversity
Eliminating all groups known only from a single stage (5-6 mya):
Rise in diversity during
C
ambri
an
, and Ordovicium and in the Paleogene
Decline of longer lasting taxa from Ordovicium to Triassic
Slide2
What is a species in the evolutionary context?
The biological species concept states that species are actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are genetically isolated from othersThe evolutionary species concept states that species are ancestor – descendent lineages of organisms that have their own evolutionary fate. The phylogenetic species concept states that a species is the smallest monophyletic group of organisms of common ancestry (a lineage from one node to another).The genetic species concept states that a species is a genetically sufficiently distinct group of organisms as identified by a genetic fingerprint.The ecological species concept states that a species is a group of organisms (population) that are ecologically distinct from other groups. The heuristic species concept states that a species is a group of organisms that are practically clustered together for the aims of a certain study.
8. Vegetarian tree finch (Platyspiza crassirostris)
9. Medium tree finch (Camarhynchus pauper)
10. Large tree finch (Camarhynchus psittacula)
11. Small tree finch (Camarhynchus parvulus)
12. Warbler finch (Certhidia olivacea)
13. Mangrove finch (Cactospiza heliobates
Slide5
Speciation is the divergence of genetic structure between subpopulations until new separate populations emerge.
Any mechanism that promotes the emergence of sublineages is therefore a potential speciation mechanism
Premating examples are:spatial isolationbehavioural isolationtemporal isolation (separated generations)host switch in parasites and herbivoresselective habitat choice
Divergence can be triggered by premating and postmating mechanisms:Premating mechanisms are those that keep populations isolated before mating occurs.Postmating mechanisms prevent hybrids to develop or breed.
Postmating examples are:genetic incompatibilitymorphological incompatibilityearly death of hybridssterility
Basal population
Lineage A
Lineage B
Genetic distance
Slide6
Speciation due to ecological or spatial or temporal isolation
Barriers of gene flow or genetic isolation
Allopatric barrier
Ancestral population
Spatial barrier
Lineage A
Lineage B
Peripatric barrier
Ancestral population
Lineage A
Lineage B
Founder effect
Allopatric speciation
Peripatric speciation
Slide7
Sympatric lineage emergence
Ancestral population
Genetic differences within the same geographical region result in genetic isolation and lineage divergence.
Parapatric lineage emergence
Differential selection pressures cause lineage divergence even within narrow spatial ranges.
Ancestral population
Barriers of gene flow or genetic isolation
Sympatric speciation
Parapatric speciation
Slide8
How fast is speciation?
Lineage
length
Time to genetic isolation
It seems that evolutionary speed is not correlated with generation length
and body size
Are species reproductively independent lineages?
Many ‘species’ do not represent genetically isolated lineages. However ecological, morphological or spatial mating barriers exist
Time to ecological isolation
Slide9
Examples of fast evolutionary speed
Cameraria ohridella
Minotetrastichus frontalis (=ecus)
The Faroer Island house mouse origin
at
ed from the Western European House Mouse (Mus domesticus). During 250 years of colonization it has evolved three distinct isolated island populations. The Nólsoy House Mouse is a sub-species called (Mus musculus faeroensis) and the Mykines House Mouse is also a sub-species called (Mus musculus mykinessiensis). Its closest relative was the now extinct St Kilda House Mouse (Mus musculus muralis).
The Aesculus miner C. ohridella was first described in 1984 in Albania as a rare new species.Since then it colonized whole Europe and became a dominant mining species on Aesculus hippocastanus.It is unknown what caused the rapid spread.Nevertheless it is a good example how an evolutionary novelty can trigger dispersion. This dispersion initiated host switches and lineage divergence of its major parasite Minotetrastichus frontalis.
Mus musculus
Slide10
The classic view of speciation
Phyletic gradualism asserts that Species arise by the transformation of an ancestral population into its modified descendants. The transformation is even and slow. The transformation involves large numbers, usually the entire ancestral population. The transformation occurs over all or a large part of the ancestral species' geographic range
This implies thatIdeally, the fossil record for the origin of a new species should consist of a long sequence of continuous, insensibly graded intermediate forms linking ancestor and descendant. Morphological breaks in a postulated phyletic sequence are due to imperfections in the geological record.
Ernst Mayr, 1904-2005
Classical Darwinian selection implies a continuous (graduate) change in species characters.
The combination with population genetics gave rise to the neodarwinean synthetic theory of evolution formulated mainly by Ernst Mayr and J.B.S. Haldane.
John B. S. Haldane, 1892-1964
Slide11
Natura non facit saltus?
Species A
Species B
Species A
Species B
Species C
Time
Genetic divergence
Speciation event
Speciation event
Gradual speciation
Saltatorial
speciation
Gradualism in Pliocene snails, 10 to 3 Mya.
Saltatorial speciation
means sudden rapid evolutionary change that is manifest in genetic isolation.
Stasis
Stasis
Slide12
The theory of punctuated equilibrium of Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould states thatThe fossil record is relatively complete.Most speciation occurs via peripatric speciation. Widespread species usually change slowly, if at all, during their time of existence. Daughter species usually develop in a geographically limited region. Daughter species usually develop in a stratigraphically limited extent.Sampling of the fossil record will reveal a pattern of most species in stasis, with abrupt appearance of newly derived species being a consequence of ecological succession and dispersion. Adaptive change in lineages occurs mostly during periods of speciation. Trends in adaptation occur mostly through the mechanism of species selection.
Tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered
Stephen Jay Gould, 1941-2002
Niles Eldredge 1943-
Slide13
Adaptation or species selection?
Morphological divergence
Time
Species selection
Morphological divergence
Time
Adaptive trend
Species selection means that evolution proceeds via differential extinction of species with certain characteristic features.
Adaptive trends imply differential speciation rates of better adapted lineages
.
Slide14
Time
Genetic distance
Speciation
Speciation
Speciation
Subspeciation
Stasis
Stasis
Stasis
Stasis
Evolution is assumed to proceed via fast genetic transitions within an peripatric speciation framework.
Punctuated equilibrium
Mean thorax width of Trilobite species
The evolution of man is a good example of punctuated equilibrium
.
Slide15
Does evolution need hopeful monsters? Or evolution above the species level
Richard Goldschmidt,1878-1958
Classical Darwinian theory assumes character evolution to be a gradual process.However higher taxa are of often distinguished without any intermediate fossils (fossil gaps).Did major evolutionary branches evolved very fast or is our fossil record too incomplete?
Goldschmidt assumed that major evolutionary transitions are caused by mutations in regulatory genes giving rise to major morphological changes.Most of these highly altered creatures have no chance to survive, but few succeed and are ‘hopeful monsters’ that are ancestors of new higher taxa.Punctuated equilibrium is a modern form of this saltationism.
Slide16
Ambulocetans natans
Dorudon atrox
Eocene
50 mya
40 mya
Paleocene
65 mya
Rhodocetus kasrani
The history of whales: Gradualism or saltationism?
46 mya
The history of birds: Gradualism or saltationism?
Protarchaeo-pteryx robusta
Jura
150mya
135 mya
Caudipteryx
zoui
Sinosauro-
pteryx prima
First feathers
Slide17
The rise of major lineages
Cryogenian850-630
Ediacaran630-540
Cambrian540-490
Mass extinction
Ordovician490-440
Silurian440-410
Sponges
RangeomorphaErniettomorpha
CnidariaMolluscaAnnelidaBasal arthropods
Basic members of nearly all major
phyla
ChordataEchinodermata
CephalopodaPisces
ChelicerataTrilobites„Crustacea”„Myriapoda”
Insects
Very probably all animal phyla (except sponges) appeared during the
Ediacarian
and Cambrian periods. About 35 of the lineages
survi
v
ed.
Later, only new classes appeared.
By the end of the carbon all extant classes were already present.
Slide18
Evolution and development (
EvoDevo)
August Weismann (1834-1914)
The soma
- germ line distinctionmakes it impossible to transmit acquired characters to the next generation
Ernst Haeckel
(1834-1919)
Theory of
recapitulation
The ontogeny of advanced species recapitulates respective stages in ancestral forms.
In fact, only basic genetic programs are conserved and modifications at all stages of ontogenesis appear.
Haeckel’s rule is only a crude approximation.
Slide19
EvoDevo and the constraints
Genes for cell division and adhesion
HOX genes
Genes for basic body shape and cell types
Segment differentiationSupply and neural networks
Segment differentiationorgan development
Common to all extant animals
Phylum specific body plans
Class specific
body plans
Steps of gene switching
Probability of lethal mutations
for higher advanced
organi
sms
Seastar
Gastrula
Zygote
New phyla arise from free living gastrula stages
New classes arise from free living larval stages,
for instance by
Neoteny
Tunicate larva
Vertebrate embryo
Adult Tunicate
Slide20
Phagocytic Eukaryotes
First filter-feeding
Porifera
All major types of marine animals
First land living Cyanobacteria
First land living Eukaryotes
First land living arthropod predators
Complex terrestrial arthropod based food chains
Chains including parasitoid levels
The evolution of ecological complexity
By the end of the Cambrium marine food chains nearly reached today’s complexity
Terrestrial food chains still appear to increase in complexity
By the end of the
Cambrium
all major marine and freshwater ecological niches were occupied, leaving no room for additional aquatic born phyla.
Slide21
Extinctions
Trade off between extinction and speciation
The background extinction rate e(t) of marine taxa decreased!
Marine taxa
Slide22
Trade off between extinctions and speciations
Extinction and origination rates are connected.
Peaks in speciation of marine taxa occurred often after mass extinctions.
Mass extinctions might also change ecological dominance. Bivalvia raised after the mass extinction of the ecologically similar Brachiopoda.
Slide23
Mass extinctions are not equally distributed among taxa.
Advanced species that are physiologically more buffered against environmental changes increased in frequency after mass extinctions
Motile species were often less affected than sessile species
Predator species richness increased after mass extinctions
Slide24
Data from Mc Peek, Brown (2007)
Species richn
e
ss increases with taxon age.Speciation rates l are independent of species richness but decrease with taxon age.Younger taxa have higher speciation rates l.Total species richness is also determined by species survival rates.
Chordata
Arthropoda
Mollusca
Species richness and taxon age
Insecta and Vertebrata
Slide25
The Red Queen hypothesis
Extinction rates (probabilities) are roughly constant through time.One explanation for this is the Red Queen hypothesis (after Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking Glass).Each species has to run as far as possible (to evolve continuously) only to stay in the same place.Its competitors, predators and parasites also evolve continuously. Under these circumstances extinction probabilities will remain roughly constant in time.
Leigh M. Van
Valen 1935- 2010
Survival times for extinct genera of Echinoidea (sea urchins).
