A natural history of children s developing selfawareness is proposed as well as a model of adult selfawareness that is informed by the dynamic of early development Adult selfawareness is viewed as the dynamic 64258ux between basic levels of consciou ID: 37233
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Fivelevelsofself-awarenessastheyunfoldearlyinlifePhilippeRochatDepartmentofPsychology,EmoryUniversity,532NorthKilgoCircle,Atlanta,Ga30322,USAReceived27February2003AbstractWhendochildrenbecomeawareofthemselvesasdierentiatedanduniqueentityintheworld?Whenandhowdotheybecomeself-aware?Basedonsomerecentempiricalevidence,5levelsofself-awarenessarepresentedanddiscussedastheychronologicallyunfoldfromthemomentofbirthtoapproximately4 5yearsofage.Anaturalhistoryofchildrensdevelopingself-awarenessisproposedaswellasamodelofadultself-awarenessthatisinformedbythedynamicofearlydevelopment.Adultself-awarenessisviewedasthedynamicuxbetweenbasiclevelsofconsciousnessthatdevelopchronologicallyearlyinlife.2003ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.1.IntroductionSelf-awarenessisarguablythemostfundamentalissueinpsychology,frombothadevelop-mentalandanevolutionaryperspective.Inthispaper,Idiscussthisissuefromthepointofviewofdevelopment.Iaskthequestions:whendochildrenbecomeawareofthemselvesasdierentiatedanduniqueentityintheworld?Whenandhowdotheybecomeself-aware?Basedonsomerecentempiricalevidence,Iidentify5levelsofself-awarenessastheychronologicallyunfoldfromthemomentofbirthtoapproximately4 5yearsofage.Thedevelopmentalapproachinpsychologyisirreplaceable.Itallowsonetoobservehowbasiccompetenciesemergeandcomeon-line.Byanalogy,itcomparestoobservingtheconstructionofaskyscraperviadailyphotographstakenduringtheprocess(IamthinkingofapostcardIhaveseenoftheEieltowerinthevariousphasesofitsconstruction).Itrevealswhatthenalproductismadeofandthesequencingofeachofitselements.Itissomekindofaforwardengineering. E-mailaddress:(P.Rochat).1053-8100/$-seefrontmatter2003ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.www.elsevier.com/locate/concog Consciousness ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 granted,suchasself-awareness.Indeed,whatdoesitmeanandwhatdoesittaketorecognizeoneselfinamirror?Theresponselaysinchildrenandtheirdevelopmentofsuchcapacity.AtleastthatiswhatIwouldliketosuggesthere.Thegeneralideadrivingthepaperisthatpriortotheexpressionofexplicitself-awarenesssuchasself-recognitionandself-identicationinamirrororaphotograph,infantsfrombirthmanifestanimplicitsenseofthemselves.Thequestionsofinteresthereare(1)whatarethecontrastedlevelsofself-awarenessunfoldinginearlydevelopment?(2)whatdoesthisdevelopmenttellusaboutthenatureofself-knowledgeingeneral?1.1.Self-consciousnessindevelopmentThereisageneralconsensusonafewmajorlandmarksinyoungchildrenspsychologicalde-velopmentsuchasthemanifestationoftherstsocialsmile,therstindependentsteps,ortherstwords.Allparentsalsonoticeanimportantchangeataround2yearsofagewhenchildrenmanifestself-consciousness,theso-calledsecondaryemotionssuchasembarrassmentorprideinveryspecicsituationssuchasmirrorexposureorcompetitivegames(Kagan,1984;Lewis,1992).Priortothesecondyear,aninfantplacedinfrontofamirrorwilltypicallysmile,coo,andexploreinapparentdelightoftheperfectcontingencybetweenactedandseenmovementsbouncingbackatthemfromthepolishedsurfaceofthemirror(Amsterdam,1972).By2years,thespecularimageisassociatedwithradicallydierentbehaviors.Toddlersbecometypicallyfrozenandsometimebehaveasiftheywantedtohidethemselvesbytuckingtheirheadintheirshouldersorhidingtheirfacebehindtheirhands.Theyshowembarrassment.Thisisarobustphenomenonandoneisnaturallytemptedtoaskwhatitmeanspsychologicallyforchildrenintheirdevel-opment.Theliteraryquotereproducedbelowcapturesthisimportanttransition:Thereisathingthathappenswithchildren:Ifnooneiswatchingthem,nothingisreallyhappeningtothem.Itisnotsomephilosophicalconundrumliketheoneaboutthetreefallingintheforestandnoonehearingit:thatisapuzzlerforcollegefreshman.No.Ifyouareverysmall,youactuallyunderstandthatthereisnopointinjumpingintotheswimmingpoolunlessseeyoudoit.Thechildcrying,Watchme,watchme,isnotbeggingforattention;heispleadingforexistenceitself.M.R.MontgomerySayingGoodbye:AmemoirforTwoFathersThepoetArthurRimbaudclaimedthatIissomeoneElse(Jeestquelquundsuggestingthatweconceiveourselvesthroughtheeyesofothers.Itappearsindeedthatby2 3yearsyoungchildrendostarttohaveothersinmindwhentheybehave.Theexpressionofem-barrassmentthatchildrenoftenbegintodisplayinfrontofmirrorsataroundthisageistheexpressionofsuchself-consciousness.Theybehavenotunlikecriminalshidingtheirfacetothecameras.Theirbehaviorindicatesadrivetovanishfromthepubliceyes,asiftheycametogripviatheexperienceoftheirownspecularimageofhowtheypresentthemselvestotheworld.Notonlydotheydiscoverinthemirrorthatitisthemselves,theyalsorealizethatitisthemselvesasperceivedbyothers.Themalaisemightcomefromtherealizationofafundamentaldiscrepancybetweenhowthechildrepresentsherselffromwithin,andhowheorsheisactuallyperceivedbyothersasreectedinthemirror.Notethatthisinterpretationisconsistentwithwhatvisualan-thropologistEdmundCarpenterreportedinadultsofanisolatedPapuaNewGuineatribe(theBiami).TheBiamipresumablydidnothaveanymirrorexperienceandtheriverinthePapuanplateauaretypicallytoomurkytoprovideclearreections,unliketheriversofancientGreeceenjoyedbyNarcissus.TheanthropologistrecordedtheirreactionswhenlookingfortherstatP.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 themselvesinamirror,viewingthemselvesinvideorecordingsorPolaroidphotographs.Car-penterdescribesreactionsofterrorandanguish:Theywereparalyzed:aftertheirrststartledresponsecoveringtheirmouthsandduckingtheirheadstheystoodtransxed,staringattheirimages,onlytheirstomachmusclesbetrayinggreattension(Carpenter,1975,pp.452 453).Ifchildrenbegintohaveothersinmindbytheageof2or3years,thequestionishowthisself-consciousnesscomesabout?Iwillsuggestthatthereareatleast5stepstothisprogression,eachcorrespondingtodierentlevelsofself-awareness.Iwillrstdescribethese5levelsofself-awarenessincontrasttoalevel0ofnoself-awareness.Inthisdescription,Iwilluseasillustrationsthevariousreactionstothemirrorinfantsandyoungchildrenmanifestasafunctionofage.Mirrorshavebeencriticizedforlackingecologicalvalidity(Loveland,1986)andmirrorself-recognitionfornotbeingathoroughindexofself-awareness(Povinelli,1995,2001).However,reactionstomirrorsremainawelldocumented,hencereliable(reproducible)behavioralindexofdevelopingself-awareness.Iprovidesomeempiricalevidenceofhowlevelsofself-awarenessunfoldchronologicallybetweenbirthandearlychildhood.1.2.Variouslevelsofself-awareness:ThecaseofmirrorreectionWhatdochildrenseewhentheyseethemselvesinamirror?Dotheyseethatitisthemselvesordotheyperceivesomeoneelsefacingthem?Whendomirrorsandtheirreectionbegintobeconsideredforwhattheyare,namelyasolidpolishedsurfacethatreectsback?AsillustratedbytheimageofFig.1,wecanplacesurreptitiouslyayellowPost-Itpieceofpaperonachildforehead.Wethenplaywithhimtoconrmthatthechildisobliviousthathisforeheadisnowadvertisingsuchayellowmark.AsillustratedbyFig.1,ifwenowplacethechildinfrontofamirrorwhatdoesheseeandwhatisheinclinedtodo?Thereare6possibilities,rangingfromself-obliviousness(absenceofself-awareness,referredhereasLevel0)toself-consciousness.Beyondlevel0,levels1 5correspondeachtoaparticularlevelofself-awareness.Idescribetheselevelsbelow,startingwithLevel0(absenceofself-awareness),thenproceedingintheorderofthelevelsofself-awarenessfollowingtheirrelativecomplexity,fromimplicit(Levels0 2)toexplicit(Levels3 5)(Rochat,1997,2001).1.3.Level0:ConfusionThisisthedegreezeroofself-awareness,level0atwhichtheindividualisobliviousofanymirrorreection,thusobliviousofthemirroritself.Thespecularimageisconfoundedwiththerealityoftheenvironmentitreects.Itisperceivedasamereextensionoftheworld,notare-ectionofit.Birdsyingintomirrorswouldexpresssuchlevel,astheysometimeaccidentallycrashintowindows.Theymistakenlyperceivemirrorsasextensionoftheenvironment,notasdierentiatedobjects.Petownersknowthatplacingamirrorinacanarycageissubstituteforcompanionshipandtriggersinthebirdmelodiouscourtshipsongs.Itisalsothelevelexpressedbydogs,cats,ormonkeysfacingmirrorsandposturingendlessaggressivedisplaystotheirownspecularimageasiftheywereconfrontingacreatureotherthanthemselves(Zazzo,1981).Notethatthislevelalsocharacterizesmomentsofabsencewhenwe,adulthumans,perceiveandsometimefrightenourselvesforaninstantwhenexperiencingourownmirrorreectionasanotherpersonsurreptitiouslyfacingus.P.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 1.4.Level1:DierentiationThisistherstsignthattheindividualisnotobliviousofmirrorsasreection.Atthislevel,thereisasensethatwhatisperceivedinthemirrorisdierentfromwhatisperceivedinthesurroundingenvironment.Morespecically,whenperceivingtheownspecularimage,theindividualpicksupthefactthatthereissomethinguniqueabouttheexperience,namelythatthereisaperfectcon-tingencybetweenseenandfeltmovements.Beyondtheconfusionoftheprecedinglevel,thislevelentailssomebasicperceptualdierentiation.Dierentiationbetweentheexperienceofownbodilymovementsasreectedinthemirrorandthedirectexperienceofothermovingentitiesintheworld.Thisisarstlevelofself-worlddierentiation:adierentiatedselfisexpressed.1.5.Level2:SituationBeyondthedierentiationoftheuniquenessofself-producedmovementsseenonthesurfaceofthemirror,theindividualnowiscapableofsystematicallyexploringtheintermodallinkbetweenseenmovementsonthemirrorsurfaceandwhatisperceivedoftheownbodyproprioceptively.Inotherwords,individualsnowgobeyondtheawarenessofmatchedsurfacecharacteristicsofseenandfeltmovements.Theyalsoexplorehowtheexperienceoftheirownbodyrelatestothespecularimage,animagethatisoutthere,projectingbackatthemwhattheyfeelfromwithin. Fig.1.Whatsinthemirror?WesternSamoanchildconfrontedwithhismirrorreectionafterayellowPost-Itstickerwassurreptitiouslyplacedonthetopofhisforehead(PhotoP.Rochat)(Forinterpretationofthereferencestocolourinthisgurelegend,thereaderisreferredtothewebversionofthisarticle.).P.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 Ascomparedtotheprecedinglevel,thiscanbeviewedasrstsignsofacontemplativestancetowardthespecularimage,asortofproto-narcissisticstageguidedbyself-explorationonaprojectedsurface.Atthislevel,thereisnoconfusion.Theindividualisawarethatwhatisseenonthemirrorisuniquetotheself.Inaddition,theindividualisalsoawarethatwhatisseenisoutthere,onasurfacethatisspatiallysituatedinrelationtothebody:asituatedselfisexpressed.1.6.Level3:IdenticationAtthislevel,theindividualmanifestsrecognition,thefactthatwhatisinthemirrorisMe,notanotherindividualstaringandshadowingtheself.Thereismorethandierentiationandsituationofselfinrelationtothespecularimage.Thislevelisexpressedwhenchildrenreferexplicitlytotheselfwhileexploringtheirownspecularimage.AsillustratedinFig.2,inthecaseofthePost-Itstickersurreptitiouslyplacedonthechildsforeheadpriortomirrorexposure,thechilddiscoversitinthemirrorandreachesforitfortouchorremoval.Thisbehavioristypicallyconsideredbydevelopmentalpsychologistsastheindexofanemergingconceptualself(Lewis&Brooks-Gunn,1979;Bertenthal&Fisher,1978;Rochat,1995),butalsoasamajorcognitivelandmarkbyevolutionarypsychologists(Gallup,1982;Povinelli,1993).Atthislevel,theindi-vidualiscapableofreferringthespecularimagetotheownbody,thelatterbeingthereferentof Fig.2.Thechildmanifestsself-recognition(Level3)byreachingtowardtheyellowPost-Itmarkdiscoveredinthespecularimage(seeFig.1foranimmediatelyprecedingsnapshotofthesamechild.PhotoP.Rochat)(Forinterpre-tationofthereferencestocolourinthisgurelegend,thereaderisreferredtothewebversionofthisarticle.).P.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 whatisseeninthemirror.Thereisanidentityrelationbetweentheselfasexperiencedfromwithinandwhatisdisplayedonthepolishedsurfaceofthemirror:anidentiedselfisexpressed.1.7.Level4:PermanenceTheselfisidentiedbeyondthehereandnowofmirrorexperience.Itcanbeidentiedinpicturesandmoviestakeninthepast,wheretheselfmightbesignicantlyyounger,atadierentlocationanddressedindierentcloths.Inotherwords,theidenticationoftheselfisnottiedtothetemporalsimultaneityandspatialcoincidenceofthebodyanditsreectionwhetherinlivevideosorspecularimages.Theindividualmanifestsasenseofselfthatperdurestheimmediacyofmirrorexperience.Apermanentselfisexpressed:anentitythatisrepresentedasinvariantovertimeandappearancechanges.1.8.Level5:Self-consciousnessormetaself-awarenessTheselfisnowrecognizednotonlyfromarstpersonperspective,butalsofromathirds.Individualsarenotonlyawareofwhattheyarebuttheyareinthemindofothers:Howtheypresentthemselvestothepubliceye(Goman,1959).Thepublicoutlookontheselfissimulatedforfurtherevaluationofhowoneisperceivedandvaluedbyothers.Theresultofthisevaluation,moreoftenthannotiseitheradevaluationoradelusion,linkedtoso-calledself-consciousemotionsorattitudessuchasprideorshame.Aself-consciousselfisexpressed:anentitythatissimulatedandprojectedinthemindofothers.2.Anaturalhistoryofself-awarenessinformedbyinfancyresearch2.1.Self-worlddierentiationatbirthRecentempiricalndingssuggestthatinfantsdonotcometotheworldwiththeexpressionofself-obliviousnesscorrespondingtoLevel0,thedegreezeroofself-awarenessasdescribedabove.Itappearsthatimmediatelyafterbirth,infantsarecapableofdemonstratingalreadyasenseoftheirownbodyasadierentiatedentity:anentityamongotherentitiesintheenvironment(Level1).Thisisevident,forexample,whenobservingtherootingresponseofnewbornsandwhattriggersit.Whentouchingthecheekofnewborns,theytendtoorienttheirheadtowardthetouchstimulation.Thisresponseishighlypredictableandpartoftheroutineneurobehavioralassessmentofneonates(Amiel-Tison&Grenier,1980).Inarecentstudy,wecomparedsuchresponsein24-h-oldinfantsfollowingeitheratactilestimulationoriginatingfromtheindexngeroftheexperimenterorfromself-stimulation,infantsspontaneouslybringingoneoftheirhandsincontactwithacheek.Systematiccomparisonshowsthatneonatesdorootsignicantlymoretoexternalcomparedtoself-stimulation(Rochat&Hespos,1997).Frombirth,infantsdierentiatebetweenself-vs.non-selftouch,betweenstimu-lationoriginatingfromeithertheownbodyoranexternalsource.Contrarytotheassumptionofmanyclassictheoriesofchilddevelopment,infantsarenotborninastateoffusionorconfusionwithenvironment(theblooming,buzzing,confusionproposedbyWilliamJames,1890).TheyP.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 doshowsomerudimentsofself-worlddierentiation.Thequestioniswhatmightbetheoriginsofsuchinnatecapacity?Iproposethatattheorigins,therearesomebasicperceptualexperiencesthatuniquelyspecifyingtheownbodyasopposedtotheexperienceofotherentitiesintheworld.Wheninfantsexperiencetheirowncrying,theirowntouch,orexperiencetheperfectcontingencybetweenseenandfeltbodilymovements(e.g.,thearmcrossingtheeldofview),theyperceivesomethingthatnoonebutthemselvescanperceive.Thetransportoftheownhandtotheface,veryfrequentatbirthandevenduringthelasttrimesterofpregnancy,isauniquetactileexperience,unlikeanyothertactileexperienceasitentailsadoubletouch:thehandtouchingthefaceandsimultaneouslythefacetouchingthehand.Samefortheauditoryexperienceoftheowncryingorthevisual-proprioceptiveexperienceaccompanyingself-producedmovements.Thesebasicper-ceptual(i.e.,multimodal)experiencesareindeedself-specifying,unlikeanyotherperceptionex-periencedbytheinfantfrombirthandevenpriortobirthintheconneofthematernalwomb.Younginfantsappeartopickuptheinvariantinformationthatspeciestheownbodyasadierentiatedentity,anentitythatisexperienceddierentlyfromotherphysicalbodiesorobjectsthatareoutthereintheenvironment.Asidefromourownresearch,thereisanabundanceofexperimentalstudieswithnewbornsandveryyounginfantsthatsuggesttheexistenceofearlyself-worlddierentiation(seeforexampleMeltzo&Moore,1995regardingneonatalimitation;Jouen&Gapenne,1995regardingvisual-vestibularcoordinationatbirth;seealsoButterworth&Hicks,1977;Rochat,1995,2001forareview).2.2.Situatedselffrom2monthsofageBytheendofthesecondmonth,infantsshowclearsignsthatinadditiontoself-worlddif-ferentiation,theyalsohaveasenseofhowtheirownbodyisinrelationtootherentitiesintheenvironment(Level2Ifinfantsfrombirthshowapropensitytoimitatefacialexpressionssuchastongueprotrusion(Meltzo&Moore,1977)orbasicemotionssuchasjoyorsadness(Field,Woodson,&Green-berg,1982),bythesecondmonththeydemonstratesystematicmatchingthatdenoteanovelsenseofhowtheyrelatetothemodeltheyimitate.Inaremarkableexperiment,MeltzoandMoore(1992)showedthat6week-oldstendtocopysystematicallytheorientationofthetonguepro-trusionofanadultmodelpullinghertongueeithertotherightortotheleft,asopposedtomidline.Thisimitativeresponseoftheinfantsindicatethat,notonlydotheyreproducetheglobaltongueprotrusionact,somethingtheyarecapableoffrombirth,theyalsoapproximatethedi-rectionalityofthemodeledtonguemovements.Thisentailsthatinadditiontodierentiatingtheirownactionsfromthoseofthemodel,theyarealsocapableofmappingtheirownbodilyspacetothebodilyspaceofthemodel.Withthissophisticatedimitativebehavior,infantsappearnotonlytodierentiatethemselvesbutalsotosituatethemselvesinrelationtotheperceivedmodel.WhatisparticularlystrikingintheobservationsreportedbyMeltzoandMoore(1992),isthefactthatbythesecondmonthinfantsareactivelyapproximatingthetongueorientationofthemodel,engagedinactiveexplorationuntiltheymapthetargetaction.Basedonmicroanalysesofthevideotapes,MeltzoandMooredocumentthatinfantstypicallystarttopulltheirtongueatmidline,slowlyandwithapparenteortbringingittothesidewhilestaringatthemodel.Thisactiveexplorationisanindexofbothdierentiationandsituationoftheinfantinrelationtotheadultmodelfacingher.P.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 Inarelatedperception-actionstudy,werecentlyfoundthatbythesecondmonth,infantsbecomeactivelyinvolvedinexploringandcontemplatingtheconsequencesoftheirownactionsintheenvironment(Rochat&Striano,1999).Werecordedyounginfantsoralactivitywhilein-troducedwithapacierconnectedtoasoundproducingdevice.Eachtimetheinfantsappliedoralpressureonthepacierabovealowthreshold,theyheardaperfectlycontingentsuccessionofdiscretesoundswithaparticularpitchvariation.Inonecondition,thepitchvariationwasananalogoftheoralpressureappliedonthepacier,withanascendinganddescendingpitchvariationmappingtheincreaseanddecreaseoforalpressure.Inanothercondition,thepitchvariationwasanon-analogoftheoralpressure,varyingrandomly.Wefoundthattheinfantsoralactivityonthepacierwasmarkedlydierentineithertheanalogornon-analogcondition.Interestingly,wetriedtoreplicatethesendingswithagroupofnewbornsbutdidnotndanyevidenceofsuchdierentialactivity,theseyoungerinfantsdemonstratingnosignofdiscrimi-nationbetweenthetwoconditions.Bythesecondmonth,infantsthusappeartobenewlyex-ploringtheperceptualeventstheyproduceintheenvironmentadoptingwhatcanbedescribedasacontemplativestance(Rochat,2001).Presumably,thisdevelopingstanceimpliesbothdier-entiation(Level1)andsituation(Level2)inrelationtotheobjectofcontemplation.Inthesocialrealm,andcorrespondingalsototheemergenceofthecontemplativestance,in-fantsbythesecondmonthbegintosmilewhenplayfullyengaginginface-to-faceinteractionswithanotherperson.Theinfantsareexpressinganovelsenseofsharedexperiencewithothers.Wheninfantsbythesecondmonthbegintoengageinso-calledviaturntaking,imitation,aectivemirroring,andmutualmonitoring,allimplyasenseofselfthatisdierentiatedandsituatedinrelationtotheconversingpartnertheyshareexperiencewith(Gergely&Watson,1999;Rochat,Querido,&Striano,1999;Rochat&Striano,1999b;Rochat,2001b;Stern,1985;Trevarthen,1979).Finally,probablythelessambiguousdemonstrationofLevel2self-awarenessiswheninfantsstartsystematicallytoreachforobjectstheysee,deliberatelybringingtheirhandsincontactwithobjects.By4months,normallydevelopinginfantsbecometouchallortoucheatoutastheFrenchsay.Theyexpresssystematiceye-handcoordination.However,theydososelectively.Weobservedthatfromthetimetheyarecapableofreaching,infantsaresensitivetothesit-uationoftheirownbodyinrelationtotheobjecttheyreach,namelythedistancethatseparatesthemfromtheobject.Inaddition,theycalibratetheirdecisiontoreachinrelationtotheirpos-turaldegreesoffreedom,whethertheyaremoreorlessabletomoveforwardtowardtheobjectwithoutlosingbalanceandfallingontotheground.Infantsarecapableofeye-handcoordinationlongbeforetheyarecapableofmaintainingposturalstabilitywhilesitting.Earlyreachingisthereforechallengingtheinfantsoverallbodybalance.Inaseriesofstudieswefoundthat4-to6-month-oldinfantsdecisiontoreachtowardanobjectplacedatvariousdistancesandlocationsinfrontofthemwasdeterminedbytheirownsenseofsituationandposturalability(Rochat,1992;Rochat&Goubet,1995).Foranobjectpresentedatthesamereachabledistance,infantsvariedintheirpropensitytoreachdependingontheirsittingability.Wealsofoundininfantsofcomparablesittingability,hencewithcomparableposturaldegreesoffreedom,thattheirattemptstoreachforanobjectvariedwhetherweattachedweightstotheirwrists(Rochat,Goubet,&Senders,1999).Theseweightsbroughtbackthecenterofmassoftheirbody,thereforeaddingtotheirbalanceproblemastheyreachforwardtowardtheobject.Wefoundthatintheweightcondition,infantsarelessinclinedtoreach,despitethefactthattheyhavenoproblemmovingP.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 theirarmaroundwiththeloadedbracelet.Inshort,theseobservationsclearlyindicatethatin-fantshaveasenseofselfnotonlyasdierentiated(Level1)butalsoassituatedinrelationtowhattheenvironmentaordsforaction(Level22.3.ThebirthofMebythesecondyearUntilthemiddleofthesecondyearwhenlinguisticandsymboliccompetenciesstarttoplayamajorroleinthepsychiclifeofchildren,self-awarenessremains.Itisexpressedinper-ceptionandaction,notyetexpressedviasymbolicmeanssuchaswords.Priortoapproximately14 18monthsthereisyetnoclearevidencethatthechildrenperceivetracesofthemselves,asstandingforthemselves,onlythemselves,andnooneelse,suchasthelittlefootprintstheymightleaveinthemudortheimagetheyseeinthemirror.Infantsdohowever,monthsearlier,discriminatebetweentheirownimageandtheimageofanotherinfant.Preferentiallookingstudiesshowthatby5 6monthsinfantstendtobesigni-cantlymorecaptivatedbyapre-recordedvideoofanother,sameageinfant,comparedtoapre-recordedvideoofthemselveswearinganidentical,samecoloroutt(Bahrick,Moss,&Fadil,1996).Itappearsthatbythisage,andpresumablyviapreviousexposuretomirrorsandotherselfreectingdevices,infantspickupinvariantfeaturesoftheirownface.Itdoesnotmeanhoweverthattheyconstruethesefeaturesasstandingforthemselves.Itistheproductofperceptuallearningofsubtleinvariantfacialfeaturestheyquicklybecomefamiliarwith.Whenplacedinasituationwheretheyhavethechoicetoexploreeithertheirownfamiliarfaceorthefaceofan-otherchild,theyshowatypicalpreferencefornovelty(e.g.,Fantz,1964;Rochat,2001).Althoughcertainlyanecessaryprecursorandasignofremarkableperceptuallearningability,thisprefer-encedoesnotmeanyetthatinfantsdothatitisthemselvesontheTV.Thesamekindofinterpretationappliestoourrecentndingsthat4-and7-month-oldsshowcleardiscriminationbetweenseeingthemselvesliveonaTVwhilemovingaroundintheirseatversusseeingaliveexperimenteronaTVengagedinthesystematicimitationofwhattheinfantisdoing(Rochat&Striano,2002).Inourexperiment,theexperimentershadowedtheinfantasmirrorsdo.Wefoundthatinfantssmiled,vocalized,andlookeddierentiallyattheimitatingexperimenterseenonTVcomparedtotheself.Inaddition,infantstendedtoreactdierentiallyineitherconditionwhentheimagewassuddenlyfrozeninstill-faceepisodes.Inall,younginfantsdemonstratedonceagaintheirperceptualabilitytodistinguishbetweenthefamiliarsightofthemselvesandthenoveltyoftheexperimenterappearingontheTV,theagevariable,notwithstandingtheinescapablelackofperfectcontingencyintheExperimentershadowingoftheinfantsownactions(seeRochat&Striano,2001;Rochat&Striano,2002,andRochat,2001,forfurtherdiscussion).Despitealltheseremarkableperceptualdiscriminabilitybetweenwhatpertainstotheselfandwhatpertainstoothers,uptothemiddleoftherstyearinfantsareobliviousthatsomerougehassurreptitiouslybeensmearedontheirfaceorthatayellowPost-Itmightappearontheirforeheadwhenlookingattheirownspecularimage(Bertenthal&Fisher,1978;Povinelli,1995).Itisonlyby18monthsthat,asshowninFig.2,infantsstarttoreachforthemarkontheirownbody,ofteninordertoremoveit(Level3).ThisbehaviorisconsideredbymostdevelopmentalandcomparativepsychologistsastheLitmustestofself-awareness(butseeLoveland,1986,foracriticofthisview).ItisoftenviewedastheevidenceofaconceptualorrepresentedsenseofselfP.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 inanyorganismbehavinglikethisinfrontofmirrors,whetherthehumanchild,non-humanprimates,avian,mammalslikeelephants,orevencetaceanslikedolphins(Parker,Mitchell,&Boccia,1994).Butwhy?Itismainlybecausebyshowingthisbehavior,individualsdemonstratetheabilitytorefertothespecularimageasstandingtotheirownbody.Inotherwords,theyreferthesilhouettetheyseereectedinthemirrortopreciseregionsoftheirownbodytheycannotseedirectly(e.g.,theirforehead).Thiswouldbeimpossiblewithoutabodyschemaorownbodyrepresentationthatismappedontowhatisseeninthemirror.Therefore,thisbehaviorindicatesthatthemirrorreectionisseenbytheindividualasstandingforthisrepresentation(Level3).Itisidentiedasreferringtothebodyexperiencedandrepresentedfromwithin,notanybodyelseIdentityisusedhereintheliteral,dictionarysenseofrecognizingtheconditionofbeingoneself,notanother(RandomHouseUnabridgeddictionary).Inrelationtotheaboveformulation,mirrorself-recognitionexpressedviathesuccessfulpassingofthemarktestispredictablylinkedtomajorprogressinsymbolic(referential)func-tioningofthechildinotherdomains,inparticularlanguagedevelopment.By18months,infantsalsostarttomarkcontrastsbetweenthemselvesandotherpeopleintheirverbalproduction.Theyexpresssemanticrolesthatcanbetakeneitherbythemselvesorbyothers(Bates,1990).Anexplicit,hencereectiveconceptionoftheselfisapparentattheearlystageoflanguageacquisition,ataroundthesameagethatinfantsbegintorecognizethemselvesinmir-rors.ThischronologicallinkindevelopmentprovidesindirectvalidationofthemirrortestandtheinterpretationIprovidedabove.Indeed,asarguedbyBates(1990),languageacquisitionrequiresapreexistingconceptualorrepresentedsenseofselfasMeasopposedtosimplyI:atheoryoftheselfasdistinctfromotherpeople,andatheoryoftheselffromthepointofviewofoneconversationalpartners.(Bates,1990,p.165).2.4.ThebirthofMeextendingovertimeIfinfantsidentifythemselvesinmirrorsstarting18months,theystilldemonstratethatthetheyidentifyinthespecularimageremainsenigmaticandambivalent.Theyappeartostillos-cillatebetweenanawarenessoftheselfandanawarenessofseeingsomeoneelsefacingthem(Piaget,1962;Povinelli,2001;Rochat,2001).Identifyingoneselfinthemirrorisamajorfeat,notonlyforthereferentialmappingbetweenthemirrorreectionandtheownbodyschema,butalsobecausewhatthechildseesinthemirroristhewayheorshealwaysseesothers:inanenfacepostureoftenwitheyecontact.Inrelationtothisbasicexperienceofsocialencounters,whatthechildexperiencesinthemirrormightbeMe,butitisalsowhatotherstypicallylooklike.Thechildthereforehastosuspendandoverridetheiroverallvisualexperienceofothers,thespecularimagestandingforMeasanother(MebutNotMedilemma,Rochat,2001;seealsofromapsychoanalyticalperspectiveJacquesLacansaccountofthemirrorstage).Themirrorexperienceoftheselfcarriesthisfundamentalambiguityandchildrenstrugglewithit,aswewillsee,untilatleasttheirfourthbirthday.Notethatthisambiguityispervasiveallthroughthelifespan.Asadults,welookatourselvesinmirrors,workingonourpresentationbysimulatingorrepresentingthelookingofothersonourownbody.Whatweareseeing,isdefactoourappearanceasseenbyothers,hencethepretenseofsomeoneelse.Inhisseminalobservationsofhisownchildren,Piagetreportsanecdotesthatpertaintothemirrordilemma.Jacqueline,aged23months,announcestoherfatherastheyarecomingbackP.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 fromawalk,thatsheisgoingtoseeherfather,heraunt,andherselfinthemirror.PerfectlycapableofidentifyingherselfinthemirrorasMewhenpromptedbyherfatheraskingwhoisthere?,PiagetobservesthatJacquelineprovidesalsoattimeathirdpersonaccountofwhatsheseesinthespecularimage.Likewise,shetendstooscillatebetweenclaimingthatitisMeorthatitisJacquelinewhenviewingphotographswithherselfonit(Piaget,1962,pp.224 225).Morerecently,aspartofaseriesofingeniousstudiesonthedevelopmentaloriginsofself-recognition,Povinellireportsthecommentaryofa3year-oldviewingherselfonaTVwithastickeronherforehead.Shesays:itsJennifer...sastickerandthenadds:butwhyisshewearingmyshirt?(Povinelli,2001,pp.81).Inall,theseobservationsillustrateonceagaintheMe-But-Not-Medilemma,childrenstrug-glingwithitmonthsaftertheyshowsignsofself-identicationinmirrors.TherecentresearchofPovinelliandcolleaguesdemonstratethatchildrenslowlybypasstheMe-But-Not-Medilemmawhenviewingliveorpre-recordedvideosofthemselves.Forexample,3year-oldsandyoungerdotendtoreachforalargestickertheyseeontopoftheirownheadwhileviewingalivevideoofthemselves.Incontrast,theydonotwhenviewingthereplayofthesamevideotakenonly3minutesprior.Furthermore,whenaskedwhowasontheTV,itisonlyby4yearsthatthema-jorityofchildrensayMeratherthantheirpropernamesuggestingarstpersonstanceratherthanathird(seePovinelli,1995,2001forareviewanddiscussionofthisresearch).ThecarefulempiricalworkofPovinelliandcolleaguesondelayedself-recognitionshowsthatitisnotpriortoapproximately3yearsthatchildrenbegintograspthetemporaldimensionoftheself.Thattheselfpertainsnotonlytowhatisexperiencednowbutalsotowhatwasexperiencedthen,whatcanbeseeninamirrornoworinamovietomorrow:thesameenduringself(Level42.5.Othersinmind:Evaluativeandthemeta-cognitiveself-awarenessBythetimeyoungchildrenbegintoexpressandrecognizethemselvesasenduringentities,theyalsobegintoshowmajoradvancesintheirunderstandingofothers.By4 5years,childrenbegintobecapableofholdingmultiplerepresentationsandperspectivesonobjectsandpeople.Theycanforexampleinfertheparticularage,relativesentience,temperament,andemotionalityofapersonbymerelylookingatthequalityofasimpledrawing.Bythisage,childreninferthemindandaectsoftheartistbehindagraphicsymbol(Callaghan&Rochat,2003).Thisabilityislinkedtothedevelopingchildsabilitytoconstruefalsebeliefinothers,aswellastograsptherepre-sentationalstatusofgraphicandothersymbolicartifactssuchasmaps,photos,orscalemodels(Callaghan&Rochat,2003;DeLoache,1991;Olson&Cambell,1993;Perner,1991).Thedevelopmentofrepresentationalabilitiesingeneralandtheoriesofmindinparticularcorrespondsalsotoevidenceofmeta-awarenessinrelationtotheself(Level5).Forexample,whenchildrenbegintounderstandexplicitlythatanotherpersonholdsafalsebelief,theynec-essarilyunderstandthattheythemselvesholdtherightbelief.Inthesameway,wheninfantsdemonstratesomeconstrualofobjectpermanence,theyalsodemonstratetheirownpermanenceinrelationtoobjects(Rochat,2001).Thesetermsareinseparable.Theexpressionofembarrassmentinfrontofmirrorsbythesecondyearcanbeinterpretedastherstsignsofyoungchildrenawarenessoftheirpublicappearanceandhowothersperceivethem.Asproposedearlier,bythisagechildrenbegintoexperiencethebasicfeargeneratingP.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 realizationofagapbetweenhowtheyperceivethemselvesfromwithinandwhatactuallypeopleperceivefromtheoutside.Analternativeinterpretationwouldbethatyoungchildrenshyawayfromtheirreectioninthemirror,notbecausetheyareself-conscious,butratherbecausetheywronglyconstruethepresenceofanotherchildstaringatthemwithsomekindofapersistentstillface.Butthisisdoubtfulconsidering,aswehaveseen,thatveryearlyoninfantsdiscriminatebetweenseeingthemselvesorseeingsomeoneelseinavideo(Bahricketal.,1996;Rochat&Striano,2002).Byshowingembarrassmentandotherso-calledsecondaryemotions(Lewis,1992),youngchildrendemonstrateapropensitytowardanevaluationoftheselfinrelationtothesocialworld.Theybegintohaveothersinmind,existingthroughinadditiontowithothers.Secondaryemotionssuchastheembarrassmentchildrenbegintoexpressby2 3yearsparallelandareprobablylinkedtotheemergenceofsymbolicandpretendplays.Suchplaysentail,ifnotatthebeginningbutatleastby3 4years,someabilitytosimulateeventsandroles,totakeandelaborateontheperspectiveofothers(Harris,1991;Striano,Tomasello,&Rochat,2001;Tomasello,1999;Tomasello,Striano,&Rochat,1999).Theprocessofimaginingwhatothersmightperceiveorjudgeabouttheself,whetherthisimaginationisimplicitlyorexplicitlyexpressed,islinkedtothecognitiveabilityofrunningasimulationofothersmindsastheyencountertheself.Thereisfantasyandphantasmsinvolved,thestuthatfeedstheself-consciousmindandcharacterizesthemeta-cognitivelevelofself-awareness(Level5).Notethatthearticulationindevelopmentbetweentheevaluativesenseofselfexpressedatlevel4viaembarrassmentandthemetacognitiveawarenessoflevel5remainsforthemostpartamysteryandwoulddeservemuchmoreexperimentalscrutiny.3.Conclusions:Towardamodelofself-awarenessthatisinformedbyearlydevelopmentThedevelopmentofself-awarenessearlyinliferevealslayersofprocessesthatexpandfromtheperceptionofthebodyinactiontotheevaluativesenseofselfasperceivedbyothers.Itrevealsalsowhatmatureself-awarenessismadeof.Iproposethattheself-awarenessexperiencedbyadultsismadeofthe5basiclevelsdiscussedhere.Self-awarenessisadynamicprocess,notastaticphenomenon.Asadults,weareconstantlyoscillatinginourlevelsofawareness:fromdreamingorlosingawarenessaboutourselvesduringsleep,tobeinghighlyself-consciousinpubliccircumstancesorinastateofconfusionanddis-sociationasweimmerseourselvesinmoviesornovels.Infact,eachoftheseoscillatingstatesofself-awarenesscanbeconstruedasconstanttransitionbetweenthe5levelsemergingearlyinlife.Theselevelsformthedegreesoflibertyofself-awarenessasaconstantlyuctuatingprocess.Toborrowfromdynamicsystemsjargon,theseslevelswouldformacollectionofbasicintheprocessofself-awareness.Theseattractorswouldbeuniversal,sharedbyallmatureindividuals.Inotherwords,allmatureindividuals(i.e.,individualsthatreachedlevel5ofmeta-cognitiveself-awareness)uctuatearoundthe5levelswedescribedintheperspectiveofdevelopment,includingalsoLevel0ofself-obliviousnesswhereself-awarenessistemporarilyobliterated.Accordingly,whatchangesamongmatureindividuals,istherhythmanductuatingpatternsofoscillationamongthesebasiclevelsofself-awareness.SomepeoplearemorepronetodwellinstatesofconfusionwhileabandoningtheirembodiedselfinthesagaofanoveloraP.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 731 movie.Theyareparticularlyinclinedtoenjoytheprojectionofthemselvesintoanother(non-self)being,reactingasiftheywerepartofthescreenorthebook.Hypothetically,itwouldcorrespondtoamatureexpressionofLevel0(self-worldconfusion)expressedinastateofhypervigilance.However,Level0alsomanifestsitselfwhenwesinkintoanon-REMsleepstateofhypovigilancewithnoconsecutivedreamrecollection.Notethattheissueofself-abandonisacomplexandcontroversialissuethatwoulddeservemorediscussion.Asadults,wedoindeedmanifestallofthelevelsofself-awarenessdevelopingearlyinlife:fromourimmersioninskilledactionssuchascompetitivesportwhichentailsagreatdealtheimplicitself-awarenessofLevel1(dierentiation)andLevel2(situation).Interestingly,ifonerisestothenextlevelsofexplicitself-awareness(Level3andabove)whileengagedinskilledactionssuchasplayingtennisorgolf,thistransitionisassociatedwithdramaticchangesinperformance,typicallyadeterioration.Tennisandgolfplayerswilltellyouthatiftheystepintoexplicitself-con-sciousness,erringintoexplicitlythinkingandreectingonwhattheyaredoing,theirgametendstocollapse.Thereisnothingworsefortennisplayersthanself-reectingontheshapeoftheirbackhands.Thesameappliesforpeopleengaginginmeditation.PeoplemeditatingandteacherswithintheBuddhisttraditionforexample,willtellyouthatcertainstatescannotbeattainedwithoutemptyingoneselffromself-reectingmentalactivities.Adultmeditationtechniquesrevolvearoundthecontrolofexplicitself-consciousawareness,inparticularthecontrolofundesirableslippagefromonelevelofself-awarenesstoanother.Moviedirectorsbyattemptingtoenthralltheircaptiveaudience,tryaswelltocontrolsuchslippage,byactuallyencouragingthem.Ingeneral,andmaybewiththeexceptionofavant-gardemoviesthatapplyBertholdBrechtsdistancingprinciplesbywhichspectatorsshouldnotleavetheirintel-ligenceatthecloakroomofthetheater,moviedirectorsattemptatcaptivatingspectators,in-vitingthemtolosegripwiththemselves.Ifamovieissuccessful,spectatorswillabandonthemselvesintothescreen,becomingtheprotagonistsofthestorytheyfollow.Thescreenbe-comesnotonlyalivewithmovingpictures,butasimulationofarealitywherespectatorsbecomesomeoneelseinanimaginaryrealmthatissupportedbyvividimages,notwithstandingaso-phisticatededitinglanguagethatprovidessyntaxtotheseimages.Althoughitmightbereasonabletoaccountforself-awarenessasadynamicuctuationbetweenatleast5levelsofconsciousnessandonelevelofself-obliviousness(Level0),theheuristicvalueofsuchmodelislimitedwhenconsideringthatindividualsaremoreoftenthannotself-awarewithothers,notontheirown.Thesocialdimensionofself-awarenesswasnottreatedhereandneedstobeatleastmentioned.Thefactisthatweareneverawareoutsideofasocialcontext,whetherrealorvirtual.Inrelationtosocial-cognitivedevelopment,infantsandchildrenshowthattheydeveloptobecomeco-awareoftheworld,includingthemselves.Theydevelopawarenessothers,notindependentlyofothers.Somewhereelse,Iproposedthattheindividualawarenessofthephysicalorsocialworldisamyth,toooftenupheldoratleastimpliedinexistingtheoriesaboutcognition(Rochat,2001;inpress).Cognitivepsychologiststendtoisolateconsciousexperiencefromthesocialrealm.Oncetakingintoaccountthatawarenessisco-constructedwithothers,notconstructedbytheindividualalone,thingsgetinnitelymorecomplex.Consideringthatself-awarenessisaco-construction(constructedininteractionwithothers,Rochat&Striano,1999;Rochat,inpress),themodelproposedinthispaperisobviouslyin-complete.However,itpresentssomeheuristicadvantages.Forone,itisinformedbyempiricalP.Rochat/ConsciousnessandCognition12(2003)717 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