The standard method for deciding bitvector constraints is via eager reduction to propositional logic This is usually done after 64257rst applying powerful rewrite techniques While often ef64257cient in practice this method does not scale on problems ID: 7376
Download Pdf The PPT/PDF document "A Tale Of Two Solvers Eager and Lazy App..." is the property of its rightful owner. Permission is granted to download and print the materials on this web site for personal, non-commercial use only, and to display it on your personal computer provided you do not modify the materials and that you retain all copyright notices contained in the materials. By downloading content from our website, you accept the terms of this agreement.
2Alazysolvercanaddresstheselimitations,explicitlytargetingproblemsthataredifcultforeagersolversandthusprovidingacomplementaryapproach.Thelazyap-proachforbit-vectorswasrstproposedin[8,16].Inthispaper,werevisitthisap-proach,extendingandimprovingitinseveralways.Ourlazysolverintegratesalge-braic,word-levelreasoningwithbit-blasting.Designedforeasyplug-and-playcom-binationwithsolversforothertheories,theprocedureintegratesanon-linelazyTbvsolver(LBV)intotheDPLL(T)framework[20],separatingtheory-specicreasoningfromthesearchovertheBooleanstructureoftheinputproblem.Thisseparationoffersbenetsorthogonaltothoseprovidedbyeagerbit-vectorsolversbutalsoposesinter-estingtrade-offs.Ononehand,ithasthepotentialofincurringadditionaloverheadandlosingimportantconnectionsbetweensubproblems;ontheotherhand,dependingontheBooleanstructureoftheproblem,itoftenallowstheTbvsolvertoreasonaboutmuchsmallerproblemsatatime.Weuseaspecializeddecisionheuristictoreducethesizeofthesesub-problemsevenfurtherbyconsideringonlyliteralsrelevanttothecurrentsearchcontext.Ourapproachisparticularlyusefulonproblemswhosesubproblemsfallintooneoftheefcientlydecidablefragmentofthebit-vectortheory(e.g.,thecoretheoryofconcatenationandextraction[11],thetheoryofbit-vectorinequalities,orfragmentsdecidableusingequationalreasoning).Totargetsuchproblems,ourLBVsolverisbuiltasthecombinationofseveralalgebraicsolversspecializedforsomeofthesefragmentstogetherwithacompletebit-blastingsolver.Thebit-blastingsolverusesadedicatedSATsolverSATbb,distinctfromtheDPLL(T)Booleanenginedrivingthemainsearch(SATmain).TheseparationofthetwoSATenginestscleanlyintotheDPLL(T)frame-workandallowsthesolverstobetunedindependently.Experiments(describedinSection6)conrmourclaimthatthelazyapproachiscomplementarytotheeagerapproach,asthelazysolverefcientlysolvesproblemsthatareeitherimpossibleorverydifcultforeagersolvers.Atthesametime,itisnotrealistictoexpectthelazysolvertodowellonproblemsthatareeasyforeagersolvers(andindeeditisoftenslowerontheseproblems).Forthisreasonweproposeaportfolioapproachthatrunsaneagersolverandalazysolverinparallel.Additionalexperimentsshowthatourportfoliosolveroutperformseagersolversbothintermsofthenumberofproblemssolvedandthetimetakentosolvethem.Therestofthepaperisorganizedasfollows.Section2framesourcontributionsintermsofrelatedwork.Sections3and4providetechnicalpreliminariesandabriefoverviewoftheDPLL(T)framework.Section5describesthecomponentsofourlazysolverLBVincludingsomeoptimizationsenabledbythelazyframework.Wepresentanexperimentalevaluationofthesolverfollowedbyanin-depthanalysisinSection6.Finally,weconcludewithfutureworkinSection7.2RelatedworkThepredominantapproachtosolvingbit-vectorconstraintsisviareductiontoSAT.Boolector,aspecializedsolverforbit-vectorsandarrays,andthewinnerofthe2012SMT-COMPforQF BVlogic,employspreprocessingbeforeencodingthebit-vectorformulaintotheAIGformat[7].Z3,aDPLL(T)-styleSMTsolver,appliesbit-blasting 4Table1:Tbvsignaturebv eqsorts[n]n�0constants0;1::[1]equal = ::[n][n]... conconcat ::[m][n]![m+n]extract [i:j]::[m]![i�j+1] ineqless ::[n][n]less-eq ::[n][n] ariplus + ::[n][n]![n]neg� ::[n]![n]times ::[n][n]![n]div = ::[n][n]![n]rem % ::[n][n]![n] booland & ::[n][n]![n]or j ::[n][n]![n]not ::[n]![n]xor ::[n][n]![n] shiftleftshift ::[n][n]![n]rightshift �� ::[n][n]![n]Wewillwritet[n]forsomexedntodenotethattisabv-termofsort[n].Notethatexceptfortheconstants,thefunctionandpredicatesymbolsinTable1areoverloaded;forexample,+standsforanyofthesymbolsintheinnitefamilyf+::[n];[n]![n]g�n0.Forsimplicity,werestrictourattentiontoasubsetofthebit-vectoroperatorsdescribedintheSMT-LIBv2.0standard[4];themissingonescaneasilybeexpressedintermsofthosegivenhere.TheTbv-satisabilityofconjunctionsofequalitiesbetweentermsoverthecoresub-signatureeq[conisdecidableinpolynomialtime[9,11].However,addingalmostanyoftheadditionaloperators,orallowingforarbitraryBooleanstructure,makestheTbv-satisabilityproblemNP-hard[6].4TheDPLL(T)FrameworkState-of-the-artSMTsolversefcientlydecidethesatisabilityofquantier-freerst-orderformulaswithrespecttoabackgroundtheoryTbyusingtheDPLL(T)frame-work[20].TheframeworkextendstheDavis-Putnam-Logemann-Loveland(DPLL)de-cisionprocedureforSATtohandlereasoninginatheoryTbyrelyingonatheorysolver(T-solver):adecisionprocedurefortheT-satisabilityofT-constraints.Algorithm1givesasimpliedalgorithmicviewoftheDPLL(T)frameworkwithageneralizedtheoryinterface.ThealgorithmtakesasinputaT-formula andreturnssatif isT-satisableandunsatotherwise.VariableCstoresthesetofworkingclausesandAthecurrenttruthassignmentforCasasequenceofT-literals.Weuse[]fortheemptyassignmentand;fortheconcatenationoftwoassignments.Initially,AisemptyandCissimplythesetofclausesobtainedbyconverting toConjunctiveNormalForm(CNF).WesaythatapairhA;CiisinconsistentiftheassignmentAfalsiessomeclauseinC;itisconsistentotherwise.AnassignmentApropositionallysatises if issatisedbyeveryfullassignmentextendingA.InAlgorithm1,theSATandtheorysolverworktogethertoaugmentAandCviaSatSolveandTheoryCheck,respectively.TheinputtoSatSolveisanassignmentandasetofclauseshA;Ci.ThereturnvalueisanewpairhA0;C0iderivedfromthe 6WesayacalltoTheoryCheckisnalwhentheparameternalissettotrue.FinalcallstoTheoryCheckmusteitherensurethatAisT-satisable,orreturnoneormoretheorylemmas.Twoimportantaspectsoftheorysolversarenotcapturedhere.TherstisthatactualimplementationsofTheoryCheckarestateful:theystoreacopyoftheassignmentAinternallyandareinstructedtopushandpopliteralsfromitasAismodiedbythemainloop.Inpractice,itiscrucialthatthetheorysolverbeabletobacktrackefcientlywhenAisshrunk,andreasonincrementallywhenitisextended.Thesecondaspectisthatatheorysolvermustbeabletoprovideanexplanationforeachtheory-propagatedliteralp.Thisisaclauseoftheform:l1__:ln_lforsomesubsetfl1;:::;lngofA,explainingwhytheliteralwasentailed.ExplanationsareneededbySatSolveduringitsconictanalysis.Itisimportantforefciencythatthetheorysolverbeabletocomputeexplanationslazily,onlyasneededbySatSolve.5ALazyBit-vectorSolverWenowproceedtogivethedetailsofourlazybit-vectorsolverLBV,designedtofullltherequirementsoftheTheoryCheckinterfacedescribedabove.5.1SubsolversTheLBVsolverconsistsoffoursub-solvers:theequalitysolverLBVeq,thecoresolverLBVcore,theinequalitysolverLBVineqandthebit-blastingsolverLBVbb.Eachsub-solverisincrementalandprovidesthetheorysolverfunctionalitiesdescribedinSec-tion4.ThearchitectureofLBVwasdesignedtobemodularandextensible:allthebit-vectorreasoningisconnedwithinthesolver,anditiseasytoenhanceitbyaddingmoresub-solvers. Algorithm2:LBVCheck Input:hA,nalihPeq;Leq;completei LBVCheckeq(A,nal);ifcompletethen returnhPeq;Leqi; hPineq;Lineq;completei LBVCheckineq(A;Peq,nal);ifcompletethen returnhPeq;Pineq;Leq[Lineqi; hPbb;Lbbi LBVCheckbb(A;Peq;Pineq,nal);returnhPeq;Pineq;Pbb;Leq[Lineq[Lbbi Algorithm2showstheimplementationofLBVCheck,theTheoryCheckfromAl-gorithm1correspondingtotheLBVsolver.LBVCheckcallsthesubsolversinincreasingorderofcomputationalcost.Foreachi2feq;ineq;bbg,LBVCheckireturnsasequence 10 Algorithm3:LBVCheckbb Input:hA,nalihP;Li BvSatBCP(A);ifnalandL=;then L BvSatSolve(A); returnhP;Li; 5.2LazyTechniquesThelazyDPLL(T)frameworkenablesseveraltechniquesthataredifcultorimpossibletousewitheagersolvers.Inthissectionwediscusstwoofthesetechniques:applyingword-levelrewritesduringsolving(inprocessing)andreducingtheproblemsizebyonlyreasoningaboutatomsrelevantinthecurrentsearchcontext(relevancy-baseddecisionheuristics).InprocessingTechniquesBeforeengaginginpotentiallyexpensiveSATreasoning,LBVbbreliesontheinprocessingmoduletocheckiftheproblemcanbesolvedorsig-nicantlysimpliedbyword-levelsimplicationtechniques.Thisisdonebyaprocess,describedinAlgorithm4,thathastheavorofGaussianelimination.Itworksbyiter-atingoveraworklistoftheoryliteralsWwhilemaintainingasubstitutionmap.Initially,WisinitializedtothesetofliteralsAassignedtotrueinthecurrentsearchcontext.Foreachworklistassertionw2W,werstapplythesubstitutionmap,andthenrewriteitusingword-levelsimplicationtechniques(Simplify).TheSolveEqprocedurethenattemptstosolvetheupdatedassertionwtoobtainanewsubstitution.Alternatively,itcanalsolearnnewequalitiesentailedbywandaddthesetothework-inglist.8TheworkinglistWandthesubstitutionmapareupdatedwiththisnewinformation,andtheprocessisrepeatedtoaxpoint.9IfanyoftheassertionsinWreducestofalse,wehaveaconict.IftherearenosuchobviousinconsistencieswecanruntheLBVCheckbbroutineonthesimpliedsetofassertionsW.Wedothisheuristically,iftheproblemhasbeenreducedenoughintermsofthecircuitsize.Wefoundcheckingthesimpliedassertionswhentheyarelessthan50%ofthesizeoftheoriginalassertionstobeagoodheuristic.Relevancy-AwareDecisionHeuristicsTheideaofrelevancyisbestunderstoodwithasimpleexample.Let =:a^(b_')withassignmentA=[:a;b].NotethatApropositionallysatises regardlessofhowmanyunassignedliteralsarein'.Theliteralsin'areirrelevant.TheDPLL(T)frameworkmakesiteasytoaddadecisionheuristicthatavoidssplit-tingonirrelevantliterals.Inparticular,wecan(i)detectwhenanassignmentAbe-comespropositionallysatisfyingandstopearlyinordertoreducethenumberofliterals 8Inourimplementation,wesolvexorequationsandsliceequationsbetweenconcatenationexpressionstogetnewequalities.9Thedata-structuresareenhancedwithextrabook-keepinginformationtokeeptrackofexpla-nations.Weomitthesedetailsforsimplicity. 12 (a)cvcLzvscvcLz-J (b)cvcLzvscvcLz-P (c)cvcLzvscvcLz-AlgFig.2:Impactofvariousfeaturesofthelazysolver.Allplotsareonalogarithmicscale.SMT-LIBv2.0.Instead,weselected3786ofthembyfocusingonexamplescomingfromvericationapplications:weexcludedtheanswer-setprogrammingaspfamilyaswellasthecheck2andcraftedfamiliesthatcontaintoyexamples.Topreventverylargefamiliessuchassage(26K)andspear(1694)fromdominatingtheresults,weusedarandomizedprocesstoselectarepresentativefractionofthebenchmarksfromthem.Becausemanyofthesageproblemsareveryeasy,weconsideredonlybenchmarksthattakemorethan10secondstosolve.Fromthespearfamilyweincludedallsmallsub-families,andrandomlyselectedafractionofthelargestsubfamily.Forbrevity,wemergeherethefourfamilieswithabrummayerbiereprexintobrummayerbiere*,uclidanduclid-contrib-smtcomp09intouclid*,andstpandstp-samplesintostp*.WeusecvcEtorefertotheimplementationoftheeagersolverinCVC4,cvcLzforthelazyLBVsolverandcvcPllfortheparallelsolver.TheletterspreceededbyaminussignrepresentwhichfeatureofcvcLzhasbeenturnedoff:Jforthejusticationheuristic,PforLBVbbpropagation,Algforallofthealgebraicsub-solvers(LBVeq,LBVcore,LBVineq)plustheword-levelin-processingtechniques.ThescatterplotsinFigure2comparetheruntimeperformanceofthefullfeaturedlazysolverwithaversionwithoutoneofthefeaturesabove.Figure2ashowstheimpactofthejusticationheuristic.Whileoverallthejusticationheuristicimprovesperfor-mance,ithasanegativeimpactonbenchmarksinthemcmfamily.Theseproblemsconsistofconjunctionsoflargedisjunctions.Onsuchproblemsthejusticationheuris-ticforcesSATmaintochooseanaivepatternofdecisionsbyalwaysinitiallydecidingontherstdisjunctofeachconjunct.Figure2bshowsthatLBVbbpropagationisessen-tialtosolvingdifcultbenchmarks,althoughitaddssomeoverheadtotheeasierones.Figure2cshowstheimpactofalltheword-leveltechniquesenabledbythelazyap-proach.Theplotshowsarelativelysmalloverheadwhenthesetechniquesdonothelp,butdramaticimprovementswhentheydoapply.Table2comparestheperformanceofcvcE,cvcLzandthatoftheonlyotherbit-vectorsolverthatsupportslazybit-blasting:mathsatL(smtcomp2012versionwithlazysolvingenabled).TheeagersolvercvcEperformsbetteronfamiliesthatinvolvebit-levelmanipulations,suchasthebrummayerebiere*families.ThelazysolvercvcLzex- 14celsonfamiliescalypto,tacas07,lfsr,coreandsimple processorsthatbenetfromal-gebraicreasoning.Furthermore,cvcLzsolves6problemsthatnoneoftheothersolversweconsideredcouldsolveinthegiventimelimit.Theunique-solverowatthebottomofTable2andTable3showsthisgureforallothersolvers.Finally,inTable3wecomparecvcPllwithotherstate-of-the-artbit-vectorsolvers:yices(2.1.1),stp2(r1673),z3(r0e74362),boolector(1.6),sonolar(smtcomp2012)andmathsat(smtcomp2012witheagersolver).FortheparallelsolvercvcPllwereportwallclocktime.TheportfoliosolvercvcPllsolvesthelargestnumberofproblems.Weat-tributethisincreaseinperformancetothecomplementarynatureofthetwoapproaches.ToillustratethatthelazycvcLzapproachcomplementseagersolvers,wealsosimulatedrunningcvcLzinparallelwithtwoofthemostefcenteagerbit-vectorsolvers:boolec-torandz3.Wedidthisbychosingthebestresultfromeithersolverforeachproblem.Evenforthesesolvers,cvcLzgreatlyimprovesontheirperformance:thecombinedboolector+cvc4Lsolves57moreproblemsinaquarteroftheoriginalboolectortotaltimeandz3+cvcLsolves42moreproblemsinjustoverhalfthetotaltime.DiscussionWenowprovideamoredetailedanalysisofthetradeoffsbetweenthetwoapproaches,basedonourexperimentalresults.TheeagersolvercvcEisparticularlyefcientonhardwareequivalencecheckingbenchmarksthatverifytheequivalenceofabit-levelimplementationtoitsword-levelspecication.Insuchcasesthecorrectnessoftheproofoftendependsonbit-levelprop-ertiesthatbenetfromefcientpropositionalanalysismorethanthekindofalgebraicreasoningdoneinthelazysolver.Thisisespeciallyobviousinthedifferenceintheper-formanceofcvcEandcvcLzonthebrummayerbiere*family,ascanbeseeninTable2.Maintainingtheword-levelstructureduringthecomputationinLBVrequireses-tablishingacommonlanguagebetweenSATmain,theSATsolverdrivingthemainDPLL(T)search,andSATbb.Inourapproach,thislanguageconsistsoftheTbv-atomsandrepresentsafrontierthatpartitionstheproblembetweenthetwosolvers.LBVcon-ictscanbeseenasinterpolantsbetweenthepartoftheproblemdescribingthecontrolow(theBooleanabstraction)andthedatapath.RestrictingtheconictlanguagetoTbv-atomslimitsthegranularityoftheconicts:wecannotexpressbit-levelconicts.Insomecasesthiscanproveinefcient.Considerthefollowingexample.Example2.Thefollowingassertionsareunsatisable.Allpathsthroughthedisjunctionforcethelastbitofthexivariablestobe0[1].Thereforetheirdisjunctionmustalsohavetheleastsignicantbitequalto0[i]whichmakestheequalityfalse.n_i=0xi=y1[1]^n^i=0(xi=ti0[1]_xi=si0[1])InExample2,aneagersolvermaypotentiallylearnthatthelastbitofxihastobe0.Thelazysolverontheotherhand,willhavetotryallpossiblepathsthroughthedisjunctionandlearnaconictforeachoneofthem.Forproblemswithexpensivearithmeticoperators,thebenetsofmaintainingtheword-levelstructureoutweighthislimitation.Whileeagersolvershavesophisticated 15rewritetechniques,suchtechniquesareusuallyonlyapplicableatthetoplevel.Equiva-lencecheckingproblemsbetweenhigherleveldesignscanrequireprovingtheequiva-lenceofresultsobtainedbytakingdifferentcontrol-owpaths.Thesecanbeencodedaslargeite(if-then-else)termtreeswithasimilarstructure,asinthefollowingexample.Example3.Theformulabelowisunsatisable.Theconditionsonallpathsthroughtheitetreesforcetheleavestobeequal.ite(x0=y0;x0(ite(x1=y1;2x1;2));2)6=2ite(x0=y0;y0(ite(x1=y1;y1;1));1)Collectingtheassertionsdownanyitepathintheexample,andapplyingsimpleequalitysubstitutionsrenderseachsuchpathtriviallyunsatisable.Nomultiplicationreasoningisrequired.However,bitblastingthisexpressionresultsinadifcultSATproblemasthelargecircuitsrequiredtomodeltheproductsobscurethetrivialincon-sistency.Thecalypto,lfsrandsimple processors(Table2)exhibitthistypeofstruc-ture.Onthesefamilies,ourLBVin-processingmodulecanoftensimplifyeachcalltoTheoryChecktofalseorasignicantlysimplercircuit.Othervericationproblems,suchascheckingthecorrectnessofsortingalgorithms,relyonthearithmeticpropertiesofatotalorder.Theequality,coreandinequalitysubsolverscandecidesuchproblems,oftenwithoutanybit-levelreasoningatall.7FutureWorkForfuturework,weplantobothimprovetheperformanceofthelazysolverandin-vestigateheuristicsforautomaticallyselectingbetweentheeagerandlazysolvers.InSection6wegavesomeintuitionforwhichofthetwoapproachesisbestsuitedforwhichproblemstructure.Itwouldbeinterestingtoseeifitispossibletostaticallydeterminewhichsolverislikelytoperformbetter.Thelazysolvercanbeimprovedbyaddingmoresub-theorysolvers,suchasasub-solvercompleteforsomefragmentofmodulararithmetic.Theinprocessingmodulecurrentlyonlyhandlesequalityreasoning,xorsolvingandslicing.Althoughitisal-readyremarkablyefcient,theSolveEqroutinecouldbegeneralizedtoothertypesofequationsolving.Anotherwaytoimprovetheperformanceofthelazysolveristominimizethecon-ictsobtainedfromthebit-blastingsubsolver.Theconictsreturnedbythatsubsolverwithassumptionsinfrastructurearenotguaranteedtobeminimal.Indeed,inourexpe-riencetheyareoftennon-minimal,insomecaseslargerthanminimalonesbyafactorof10.ThechallengehereistominimizetheconictinanefcientlysincesatisabilityqueriesinTbvarepotentiallyveryexpensive.Onewaytoexpandthescopeofthelazybit-vectorsolver,andovercomesomeofitslimitation,wouldbetoincreasethekindofconictsitcanreturn.Currently,thesolvercanonlyreturnconictsintermsofbit-vectoratoms.Itwouldbeinterestingtoexperimentwithexpandingthisvocabularydynamically,byaddingconictsthatrefertoindividualbitsoftheterms.Thiscouldpotentiallybesupportedbyusingthesplittingondemandframework[3].