What was the ‘Self-Strengthening’ Movement and why did - PowerPoint Presentation

Slide1

What was the ‘Self-Strengthening’ Movement and why did it Fail?

L/O – To identify the key features of the self-strengthening movement and to evaluate the reasons for its failureSlide2

The Tongzhi Restoration 1861-1894

By the 1860s, the Qing Dynasty in China was facing collapse. The impact of Western imperialism and

internal rebellions

had brought China to the brink of destruction.

The Opium Wars had seen China defeated by Britain and France whilst the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64) had led to the deaths of over 20 million!Slide3

The Tongzhi Restoration 1861-1894

China tried to restore its power by embarking on a series of reforms. This period has become known as the ‘Tongzhi Restoration

’.

It was led by a group of reforming officials within the Qing Dynasty who became collectively known as the ‘

Self-Strengthening Movement’.The Tongzhi Restoration ultimately failed to stop the decline of the Qing Dynasty, unlike the

Meiji Restoration in Japan but did give the Qing another 50 years of rule until the 1911 Revolution.

Emperor Tongzhi

(1861-1875)Slide4

Historiographical Issues

Was the Tongzhi Restoration and Self-Strengthening Movement the

beginning of the end

for Qing China or did it rather

give a declining dynasty another 60 years it would not have had without it?Did the Restoration begin the process of declining state power?Were

internal or external pressures more to blame for the decline of the Qing dynasty?

Source A:

"Not only a dynasty but also a civilization which appeared to have collapsed was revived to last for another sixty years by the extraordinary efforts of extraordinary men in the 1860s. This was the

T'ung-chih

Restoration." 

By Historian Mary Wright 

Source B:

"That the Qing managed to survive both domestic and international attacks is due largely to the policy and leadership changes known as the Qing Restoration."

By Historian John FairbankSlide5

A New Emperor

In 1861, the 5-year-old Emperor Tongzhi ascended the throne, but real power resided with his mother,

Empress Dowager Cixi

, and his uncle

Prince Gong.The Imperial Court was divided between Conservatives, led by Cixi, and Progressives

led by Prince Gong. Both believed that military and economic modernisation was necessary to strengthen and protect China.

Emperor Tongzhi

Empress Dowager Cixi (mother)

Prince Gong (uncle)Slide6

Who led the reforms?

The Self-Strengthening Movement and Restoration was led by Prince Gong and a group of

provincial officials.

Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang were all

Scholar-Generals and regional leaders who had risen to power by defeating the Taiping and Nian rebels.They were given a free-hand to reform China as the Imperial Court

relied on them to rule. In a sense, they operated like the Warlords of the 20

th

century, but unlike them, were

loyal to the Qing

.

Zuo Zongtang

Li Hongzhang

Zeng GuofanSlide7

Aims of the Reformers

They sought to apply ‘practical knowledge’ from the West whilst reaffirming the old Confucian system of government.

Different from Japan?

The idea of self-strengthening was first expressed clearly in a series of essays to Zeng Guofan by

Feng Guifen in 1861. He even advocated political reforms although this was too much for Zeng.Zeng and other Qing officials argued that in order to strengthen itself against the West, China had to adopt

Western military technology BUT NOT social or political ideas. Mistake?

Zeng Guofan

Feng GuifenSlide8

…Books on mathematics, mechanics, optics, light, chemistry, and others all contain the ultimate principles of understanding things. Most of this information is unavailable to people in China…

I have heard that with their new methods the Westerners have found that the movements of the earth conform closely to those of the heavens. This can be of assistance in fixing the calendar… Other things beneficial to the national economy and the livelihood of the people should also be used… There are many intelligent people in China. Surely there are some who, having learned from the barbarians, can surpass them…

In my humble opinion, at the present time it is also appropriate to say “Learn from the various nations,” for they are similar to us and hence their ways are easy to implement. What could be better than to take Chinese ethical principles of human relations and Confucian teachings as the foundation, (

ti

) and supplement them with the techniques (

yong

) of wealth and power of the various nations?

From “On the Adoption of Western Learning” by Feng GuifenSlide9

The Role of Zeng Guofan

Zeng Guofan was the most influential and powerful reformer, responsible for defeating the

Taiping Rebels

.

He sought to restore order by restoring the Confucian education and exam system and by re-organising agriculture.He then advocated adopting aspects of Western learning like

science and engineering in order to build modern ships and armaments.

Zeng GuofanSlide10

The Role of Zeng Guofan

In 1864 he sent Yung Wing (

the first Chinese graduate of Yale University

) to

purchase machines in the USA in order to build a China’s first modern weapons factory (arsenal) in Shanghai in 1865.Further arsenals were built at Fuzhou in 1867 along with China’s first engineering school for studying

mechanical skills and navigation were founded.

In 1868, China built it’s

first steamship

at Fuzhou, with a further 11 warships being built by 1873.

Yung Wing (1828-1912)

Chinese warship

YangwuSlide11

Fuzhou Arsenal, Fujian Province - 1867Slide12

The Role of Prince Gong

As co-regent and grand councillor, Gong had considerable influence and he championed the reform movement.

From 1861, he led the new ‘

Office for the Management of the Business of All Foreign Countries

’ (Zongli Yamen) and along with his second in command, Wenxiang, worked to modernise China’s foreign relations.

Prince Gong

Wenxiang

Zongli Yamen Building in BeijingSlide13

The Role of Prince Gong

In 1862 they opened an interpreter’s school, the

Tongwen

Guan, in Peking to teach Chinese students English and French. In 1867, despite conservative protests, Gong and Wenxiang

converted the school into a full-fledge college teaching Western subjects

such as mathematics, chemistry, geology and international law.

American Missionary W. A. P. Martin was responsible for transforming the

Tongwen

Guan into a modern schoolSlide14

The Role of Prince Gong

In 1863 Gong also reformed the Imperial Maritime Customs Service in Shanghai, run by an international staff and led by Inspector-General

Sir Robert Hart

.

The office collected maritime trade taxes and provided the Beijing government with 1/3 of its entire revenue.

Prince Gong and Zongli Yamen officials even started discussions with the British to renegotiate the unfair treaties imposed on it.

First Customs House built in 1854

Hart worked closely with Prince Gong and persuaded him to establish the

Tongwen

GuanSlide15

Third Customs House as it is today in Shanghai, originally built in 1927Slide16

Initial Successes

By 1870, the Self-Strengthening Movement had managed to restore order to China, build

new diplomatic structures

, collect

huge amounts of tax, build modern warships and weapons and had partially modernised education.It appeared that the Qing dynasty could modernise and regain its former strength. However

it wasn’t to last.Slide17

Failure of Leadership

Reforms slowed in the 1870s. In 1869, the reformer Prince Gong was

removed from power

by Cixi after having one of her favourite

eunuchs executed for corruption.Key reformers also died. Zeng Guofan died in 1872 and Wenxiang

in 1876. Even the Emperor Tongzhi died in 1875.Cixi then had her 3-year-old nephew,

Guangxu

, appointed as Emperor. Cixi – a conservative opposed to reforms – was now the

ultimate political authority in China

.

Prince Gong

Emperor Guangxu

Empress Dowager CixiSlide18

The Role of Li Hongzhang

Despite a slow down in self-strengthening programs, the reform movement continued under the leadership of Li Hongzhang

until 1894.

Li was trusted by Cixi due to his loyalty in helping to get

Emperor Guangxu appointed. He was made Viceroy of Zhili and Commissioner of Trade

for the northern ports in 1871.From the 1871-1894, Li worked hard to implement economic,

educational

and

diplomatic

reforms.

Li Hongzhang

Li had worked closely

with Prince Gong and Zeng Guofan as a reformer. He also led Chinese forces during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. On his death he was replaced by Yuan

Shikai

. He has an interesting history – check him out!Slide19

Li’s Economic Reforms

He pioneered the creation of

government owned

and

privately operated businesses to boost the economy.

In 1872, he created the China Merchant Steamship Navigation Company in order to stop the domination of shipping by foreign powers.In 1877, he expanded the

Kaiping

Coal Mines

near Tianjin and built a huge

cotton mill

at Shanghai in 1878.

The

Kaiping

Mine was the most productive in China producing 38,000 tons in 1882

The China Merchant Steamship Navigation Company in Shanghai todaySlide20

Li’s Economic Reforms

Further economic reforms in the 1880s included the construction and enlargement of weapons arsenals in Tianjin

, the development in 1881 of the

Imperial Chinese Telegraph Administration

, a new dock facility in Lushun and China’s first steam train in 1881.

Nanjing

Jinling

Arsenal, originally built by Li in 1865

The docks at Lushun (Port Arthur) in 1904.

The ‘Rocket of China’ constructed in China by Englishman Claude William Kinder and Tong King Sing. Used to transport coal from the

Kaiping

MineSlide21

Li’s Education Reforms

Earlier educational reforms were carried on by Li. Students were sent overseas to the USA, UK, France and Germany to study

Western sciences

and

military theory.He also established the Tianjin Beiyang

Military Academy in 1885 which taught Western military science and was staffed by German Officers.

The Academy was destroyed in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion by international forces.

The first group of students to study in the USA in 1872. The programme was stopped by conservatives in 1881 as the students had ‘plunged themselves into American culture’Slide22

Li’s Diplomatic Reforms

Despite a lack of success, Li worked alongside the Zongli Yamen to negotiate tricky international issues.

He tried to

contain Japanese ambitions

Asia, persuading the Korean King Kojong to open his country and sign treaties

with the West to avoid Japanese domination in the 1880s.

Li Hongzhang

King

Kojong

of KoreaSlide23

Li’s Diplomatic Reforms

He did have success with Russia, signing the Treaty of St Petersburg in 1881. This gave land back to China and secured its long border with Russia.

However war broke out between

France and China in 1884

and finally between Japan and China in 1894. China’s defeat and humiliation in both wars showed that Self-Strengthening had failed.

Treaty of St.

PetersbergSlide24

Why did Self-Strengthening fail?

The movement failed to strengthen China sufficiently to be able to ensure survival

from

imperialist encroachment

.There are many factors for the failure of the movement. These include:Lack of Central Leadership

Role of CixiCorruption of Officials

Resistance of Conservative Officials

Anti-Western Sentiment

Hostile Imperialist Powers

Are there any other factors missing from this list?Slide25

1. Lack of Central Leadership

The Imperial Court was divided over both the necessity and nature of reform that was needed.

The divide between

Conservatives

led by Cixi and Reformers led by Prince Gong resulted in poorly planned reforms.The Emperor’s Tongzhi and Guangxu were also

too young to rule and politics became dominated by Cixi.Slide26

2. Role of Empress Dowager Cixi

Cixi often worked against and

limited the potential

of the Self-Strengthening Movement, being

ignorant of the outside world.Her ambitions led to her removing Prince Gong from power who was a key reformer. She even

diverted funds from reform projects to build a summer palace for herself!Slide27

3. Corruption of Officials

Many regional officials were corrupt and often

diverted money

away from reform projects and modernisation.

Lack of oversight also led to officials competing in the same industry, leading to inefficiencies.Many officials had

purchased their positions during the Taiping Rebellion, often being unqualified, so they were therefore

resistant to any modernisation

in society.Slide28

4. Resistance of Conservatives

Many Confucian scholars and government officials were resistant to Westernisation.

They believed that learning from ‘

barbarians

’ wouldn’t work and would undermine the Confucian system of culture and government.Many were unwilling to contemplate

political or social reforms.Slide29

5. Anti-Western Sentiment

Anti-Christian sentiment and a belief that Westerners were uncultured barbarians influenced the views of many Chinese and prevented changes.

Anti-Christian anger

and riots prevented many Chinese

from learning Western ideas and education in missionary schools.Slide30

6. Hostile Imperialist Powers

Unfortunately for China, many imperialists nations from the West and Japan sought to undermine and control

China.

Western nations

dominated trade in China, putting domestic industries out of business and forcing the Qing state into debt.

Arguably, Self-Strengthening may have worked if it wasn’t for the major defeats of the Sino-French War

of 1844-45 and

Sino-Japanese War

in 1894-95.Slide31

Historiographical Issues – Your Views

Was the Tongzhi Restoration and Self-Strengthening Movement the

beginning of the end

for Qing China or did it rather

give a declining dynasty another 60 years it would not have had without it?Did the Restoration begin the process of declining state power?Were

internal or external pressures more to blame for the decline of the Qing dynasty?

Source A:

"Not only a dynasty but also a civilization which appeared to have collapsed was revived to last for another sixty years by the extraordinary efforts of extraordinary men in the 1860s. This was the

T'ung-chih

Restoration." 

By Historian Mary Wright 

Source B:

"That the Qing managed to survive both domestic and international attacks is due largely to the policy and leadership changes known as the Qing Restoration."

By Historian John FairbankSlide32

Plenary

Why was Self-Strengthening needed

?

Who were the

leaders of the movement?What were the aims of the reformers?

What achievements did the reformers make until 1894?

Why did the Self-Strengthening Movement

fail

?

Was the failure of the movement

inevitable

?

Make a table showing the

successes and failures

of the Self-Strengthening Movement using the following headings:

social/cultural; political; economic; military

Did we meet our learning objective?

L/O – To identify the key features of the self-strengthening movement and to evaluate the reasons for its failureSlide33

Paper 3 - Exam Question 1 (2010)

Compare and contrast the Self-Strengthening Movement in China (1861-1894) and the reforms under the Meiji Restoration in Japan (1868-1894).

The question requires candidates to analyse economic and military modernization, as well as the degree of social and political change in both China and Japan. Expect reference to the philosophical aims of both reform movements; to the different systems of government; to the underlying cultural attitudes that influenced the impact of modernization upon each society and to the nature of the actual reforms. Candidates may note that in Japan a political revolution occurred producing a new and dynamic leadership capable of sweeping reform on a national level, whereas China’s government was reluctant to embrace change and unable to promote a sense of national unity. For China candidates may discuss: the Tongzhi (

T’ung-chih

) Restoration of Confucian government; the concept of self-strengthening; the weakness and conservatism of the central government;

Cixi’s

(

Tz’u-hsi’s

) power; roles of Zeng Guofan (Tseng

Kuo

-fan), Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-

chang

), Zuo Zongtang (Tso

Tsung-t’ang) and Prince Gong (Kung); the success or failure of the various reforms undertaken. For Japan: the Meiji Restoration, the Regency and Imperial rule; “Western science and Eastern ethics”; Shintoism, Confucianism and Buddhism; readiness for reform; the Constitutions of 1868 and 1889; political, cultural, economic, military and social change. Candidates may cite the Sino–Japanese War (1894–1895) as evidence of Japanese success and Chinese failure. Many answers will focus on contrasts, but comparisons should also be identified.

If only China or Japan is addressed, mark out of a maximum of

[7 marks]

. Slide34

Paper 3 - Exam Question 2 (2013)

“Japan’s self-strengthening reform during the Meiji period was successful because it was directed from the top, but the self-strengthening movement in China failed because it was not.” To what extent do you agree with this statement up to 1895?

This question requires candidates to analyse the process of reform in both Japan and China during the respective periods and assess the success of these reform movements with reference to the degree of political, social, cultural, economic and military modernization that was achieved. Both movements were rooted in the concept of self-strengthening in order to withstand the demands and aggression of the West. Themes that may be used to compare and contrast could be: the philosophical aims of both reform movements; the different systems of government; the underlying religious and cultural attitudes that influenced the impact of modernization upon each society; geographic and demographic factors; the roles of individuals or groups in each society; and the nature of the actual reforms. Candidates may note that in Japan a political revolution occurred producing a new and dynamic leadership capable of sweeping reform on a national level, whereas China’s government was reluctant to embrace change and unable to promote a sense of national unity. For Japan candidates may discuss: the Meiji Restoration, the Regency and Imperial rule; “Western science and Eastern ethics”; Shintoism, Confucianism and Buddhism; the readiness for reform; the Constitutions of 1868 and 1889; the extent of the political, cultural, economic, military and social changes. For China candidates may discuss: the Tongzhi (

T’ung-chih

) Restoration of Confucian government; the concept of self-strengthening; the weakness and conservatism of the central government; the Regency and the extent of

Cixi’s

(

Tz’u-hsi’s

) power; the aims of Prince Gong (Kung) and his conflict with Cixi (

Tz’u-hsi

); the choice of another boy Emperor, Guangxu (

Kuang-hsu

) in 1875; the roles of Zeng Guofan (Tseng

Kuo

-fan), Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-

chang

), Zuo Zongtang (Tso

Tsung-t’ang

); the localized nature of many of China’s reforms; the success or failure of the various reforms undertaken. Candidates may cite the Sino–Japanese War (1894–1895) as evidence of Japanese success and Chinese failure. Better answers may challenge the assumption in the quotation and identify a number of successful ventures in China and that resistance to change also existed in Japan. Many answers will focus on contrasts, but comparisons should also be identified.

If only Japan or China is addressed, mark out of a maximum of

[12 marks]

. Slide35

Paper 3 - Exam Question 3 (2002)

“China’s Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1894) is often regarded as a failure.” To what extent do you agree with this assessment?

[7 marks]

for a descriptive list.

[8 to 10 marks] for awareness that there were substantial achievements, particularly in the

years 1860 to 1874, and some optimism for the future.[11 to 13 marks] for which some analysis to establish the degree of success or failure will beexpected.

[14 to 16 marks]

for candidates who develop this further into an assessment of the entire

period and who give a relevant conclusion. Better candidates will realise that the final

measure of success or failure was the war against Japan and that

China.s

efforts at

modernisation have perhaps been unjustly dismissed in their entirety because of their defeat.

[17+ marks]

for a sophisticated analysis and an awareness that the statement may be

questioned.Slide36

Paper 3 - Exam Question 4 (2004/2007)

To what extent do the careers of Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang and Li Hongzhang demonstrate the weakness of the Qing government of China between 1864 and 1895?

1864 marks the defeat of the Taiping Rebellion; 1895, the defeat of China by Japan. Zeng (Tseng), Zuo (

T’so

) and Li rose to prominence because of their roles in defeating the Taiping and other rebellions and became leaders of the Self-Strengthening Movement. While recognising that the Self-Strengthening Movement had its successes, candidates should concentrate upon the revealed weaknesses of the Qing (Ch’ing) government. Self-Strengthening was largely a provincial affair: central planning and direction were lacking; Confucian-trained scholars despised the modernisers and undermined their authority. Corruption was rife; rebellion diverted attention; provincialism undermined cooperation.

[0 to 7 marks]

for narrative or lists of events from their careers.

[8 to 10 marks]

for a fairly complete account of the careers of the three officials or for an

incomplete account which recognises some of the weaknesses of the regime.

[11 to 13 marks]

for a simple analysis in which the weaknesses of the regime are illustrated by

reference to the careers of at least two of the three officials.

[14 to 16 marks]

for more detailed analysis of the weaknesses and failures of the regime with

reference to the three officials, but focussing upon Li as the most active, long-lived and powerful.

[17+ marks]

for sophisticated running comparison and analysis based upon sound knowledge of the

weaknesses and failures of the regime.