The Broadest Pattern of Human History - PDF document

The Broadest Pattern of Human History earned a degree in 1961. A Professor is also Research AssoAngeles County Museum writes a Natural subject of including human distribution, and language. MacArthur Foundato 1990, he a Fellow ican Academy of the National and the has led a number from of of years, in before 354 real estate [D] at the to refer to global patterns, that Iron are “better” tribes, nor based statehood represents “progress,” nor that the tion has led attempt to decide which condition was picture. a longer also suffer extended family. investigating these differences between be dismissed as dealing with these spatial these time there must environmental factors, when I history,” I tribute anything as why rather than his enemies explain questions such as why copper tool manuearlier in emerged in brief discussion to illustrate how societies descended attributed to shall then turn most dramatic Inca emperor and the 356 The Tanner Lectures on Human Values quistador Pizarro at the Peruvian town of Cajamarca in 1532, as a starting point for understanding the more general problem of the differences between human development in the Americas and in Eurasia. Next, I shall examine whether the insights derived from that American/Eurasian collision prove useful in understanding the history of subsaharan Africa. Finally, I shall turn to the his- tories of Native Australia and Tasmania, where the insights de- rived from the American/Eurasian/African comparisons prove ir- relevant, and where additional factors emerge that may also have been significant elsewhere in the world. POLYNESIA: A MODEL FOR THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY ON SOCIETY Polynesia provides particularly clear evidence of differences between human societies conditioned by differences in geography. All Polynesian islands, plus some Pacific islands that belong geo- graphically to Melanesia and Micronesia, were settled by descen- dants of a single ancestral people. They are known archaeologically as the Lapita people, named after the archaeological site on New Caledonia where their pottery was first excavated and described. The Lapita people spread directly from the tropical Bismarck and Solomon Archipelagoes near New Guinea, and ultimately from Indonesia and Southeast Asia. Thus, the recent populations of all Polynesian islands were derived from founding groups bearing essentially the same culture, language, technology (based on stone rather than metal), and kit of domesticated plants and animals. Polynesia offers to the historian the further advantage of a mod- est time depth : human colonization of Polynesia began around 1600 B.C. and was largely completed by around A.D. 500, except for a few islands (such as New Zealand, the Chathams, and Hen- derson) settled perhaps as late as A.D. 1000. To these rather uniform human colonizing stocks, Polynesia presented huge diff erences in the environment. Polynesian islands range from sub-Antarctic to tropical, and from tiny islets to virtual IAMOND] continents. Correspondingly, recent Polynesian societies, how, within a time continent except Antarctica, with a history devoid of inevitable in multiple human inheritances, geography can cause people to Polynesian societies specialization, their their political their elaboration gatherers on Chatham Islands Zealand’s South Island, but most Polynesians varied in intensity, in animals, in storage, in aquaculture (unique to Hawaii). nization ranged household produced small isolated such as Tonga, the and Hawaii, canoe builders, navigators, stonemasons, catchers, toolmakers, Polynesian social egalitarian on highly stratified Tonga, the archipelago was about ten political organization ranged hundred people on small isolated islands, 358 one or each occupying valley of Marquesan Islands, to political organizations approached states imposed the form labor, carried public works projects, maintained ownership in the Chathams manufactured only small, individually numerous islands luxury goods produced for the have developed a considerable degree, Polynesian societies can be relevant variables can be recognized: agriculture, isolation, area, island political unit. islands were suitable Asian domesticated with them and/or the nearly sublatitudes did most of these islands, the founding obviously critical remote (Easter, is no evidence of any after the was correspondingly known place settlers could home island largest political obviously be no greater in archipelagoes many islands archipelago itself [DIAMOND] Pattern voyaging, but to other regular trade. archipelago eventually single political with trade to Fiji type varies with thin water, to high rich soil streams (e.g., have (most islands) or shallow water human population densities ranged person per Hawaii, Tonga, whether the to other Marquesas Archipelago neither were its to narrow, deep, steepwith popularolling, with no in island properties lead forwardly to in number a single political in turn 360 sification, social stratification, political and range relations have Kirch in his books Evolution in geogcan cause a single to diversify quickly economy, social products. Let in geography, operating have similarly observed diversity of among the major continents largest population shifts New World the few visits of small numbers east coast of demonstrated contact the emerging societies of continued contact Bering Straits.) single moments in Spanish conquison November meeting immediately in the led to the Inca Empire, provides a good starting point that the reasons why for the and for in recent IAMOND] Human n Pi- zarro’s) quarters to debate what should be done the following day. Few slept, and we kept watch in the square, from which the camp fires of the Indian army could be seen. It was a fear- ful sight. Most of them were on [Pizarro] Indians’] Spaniards] 362 Indians] [Atahuallpa’s] [Indians] Spaniards] litter], , huallpa] Indians] but not [DIAMOND] Human with men. plain with fields of were killed. fallen and the horsemen were continuing sounded a us to reassemble went to congratulate on the two hoursthose troops were day, six thousand Indians their arms cut that we man killed in was his was very over many his councillors. Cajamarca died. there were came in bodyguard were a time, when he had with our own this extraorfollowers, instead and killing followers? After mounted on shall then next most proximate to be at all; how Pizarro came there; and into what hindsight, to been such For each these questions, we whether the identified in also played a broader role 364 factors responsible for the that we have identified. military advanin steel guns (Pizarro only stone In other confrontations throughout the on other continents, steel weapons and guns lacking those weapons. other advantage that the gained from their eyewitness accounts. it permitted, and the nearly helpless in the Similarly, Cortes’s conquest Empire was carried armed with swords, muskets, horses was due to the terror in soldiers fighting against for the time of the Great Inca Rebellion 1536, the to defend horsemen in like all other soldiers, were the open. Yupanqui, the Inca emperor in 1536 two squadrons Spanish cavalry charged a much larger Indian commanders in Quizo’s army. A similar 26 horseSpaniards in IAMOND] Human first speakers European lanpermitted people before a superior Horses proceeded Mongols to warfare in the Great Plains, we forget that only in and eighteenth to transform only Plains making it to follow migrating herds these examples their military value applied on all military dominance cavalry finally Atahuallpa Cajamarca? would probably have Aztecs, even capture there on second day his conhis army came because they just won battles in a that left the vulnerable. Pizarro those diviexploited them that an on the Inca emperor Capac in 366 then immediately killed tating the had not for the united empire. factors in settled peoples lacking munity. Smallpox, measles, influenza, plague, and Europe decimated many peofactor in European example, a smallpox epidemic devastated first Spanish attack in 1520 emperor who Throughout the introduced with peans spread in advance an estimated Indian population, highly organized between 1492 and the when Europeans first of decimated AborigiAustralians began. A wellover Fiji when a Similar epidemics characterize Hawaii, and impression, however, that the history was confined to Africa, India, European conquest European colonization those areas. come European maritime technology, which IAMOND] Human took him to Panama, then in Panama to Peru. themselves, his presence also depended on equip the Another related them with sailing directions. European spread to other peoples (e.g., along the Atahuallpa Armed with hindwho captured him were equally surprised information about their power and intent. little information in 1527 occur to that the attack him and that offered his ransom in failed to understand than an in these Francisco Pizarro’s Pizarro persuaded leading general deliver himself Spaniards’ power. emperor Montezuma when he 368 into the other native Europeans were New World to the Old World, of course behavior. Pizarro too arrived than what interrogating the encountered in However, while happened to literate tradition. Spaniards knew modeled his ambush who had emperor Montezuma. Spaniards heirs huge range history unavailable knowledge encouraged Pizarro set his trap, and factors in European horses; infectious endemic in pean maritime political organization wealthy European advantages came Europe rather than the [D] Huanimals more formidable than bear diseases lacked resistance, have oceangoing ships political organization, to be rather than the starting point evolved many more infectious than had owe their evolution to large human populations a small the whole population, to die there are no more people human population sustain an infectious disease such as and the familiar modern could have sustained themselves only human populations cities. For requires a diseases evolved association. For parum malaria ing that, whereas Europeans many diseases in Amerindians, mains uncertain syphilis arose 370 east/west ,y ,!::*~, .;li :y$ 3::'' '?$ g and animal I large, dense, sedentary, stratified societies horses guns, ocean- political epidemic steel going organization, diseases swords ships writing IAMOND] New World Old World. more importantly, it paucity of New World domesticates consisted solely of the dog throughout the guinea pig and the Muscovy duck tropical South wide range ticated animals pig, and throughout Eurasia; local domesticates, such and water buffalo; domesticated small mammals, notably rabbits domesticated birds, more animal domesticated in Eurasia wild bird more wild mammal Americas offered species over only a fraction has been sucdomesticated. Domestication requires that an animal be bred in to make it more useful a suite breed in captivity, humans rather within groups or a behavior can be transferred to humans; and a diet dian elephants and cheetahs, have tamed but ago, humans domesticated almost there have our suite wild mammals in modern much effort into attempts to species such 372 most domesticated because, as world’s largest difference was magnified the end 80% South America. extinctions included several species that might been expected to furnish such as camels. As result, Amerindians species of wild mamEurasians, leaving them the llama species) as domesticates. domesticated mammals all, although World/New in domesticated plants are qualitatively similar much less Americans did yield many of which maize, potatoes, tomatoes, spread worldwide. However, in contrast numerous producOld World Americas yielded that the a productive crop required thousands than did and plant species was due to the greater pool in Eurasia, these broad bands, wild [D] Human adapted to climate replace other longitudinally range from broad down to a result, particular parts Eurasia were able within the to which they were already For example, ducks domesticated in Southeast Asia quickly reached horses domesticated in European and WestEurope; and the Mideast spread Romans already enjoyed Asian peaches addition to from the Americas, however, llama, alpaca, guinea pig, southern Central reach Mexico, Mesoamerican civilization remained entirely animals. Correspondingly, domesticated in the Andes. South America its origins in but it took thousands to transform evolved in adapted to thus to feed the America’s Mississippian civilization Various domesticated species, such as in both spreading through unfavorable these seemingly independently in South America. animals were human population political organization. Domestication allows people sedentary, whereas most move seasonally or more Domestication favors time available other than obtaining per acre a result, farmers and higher population diseases of Domesticated mammals been significant ready source meat. Horses, cattle, and donkeys revoland transport, permitting people to travel faster much heavier loads, than domesticated mammals useful products such as for an to plough land faster, to plough otherwise have been uneconomical to plough, dense, sedentary populations made plant and domestication were political organization several reasons. First, a in wars its territory at the numerous people. European invasion population shifts the last involved expansions much lower gatherers related to Khoisan peoples (soover much equatorial Africa and herders; and the [D] Human throughout Indonesia, the tend to be relatively inherited chiefs) level of tribe, whereas moderateFinally, in a a politiclass can surplus food from primary producers through taxation. writing, and other Food surpluses can also be to support last consideraZealand’s wellMaori population. were able victories, they maintain a profesin the were eventually worn down Thus, the plants and such species could spread through suitable Old World, advantages resulting in horses; its suite nonexposed peoples, its higher human populaits earlier emergence centralized states. to the more rapid 376 in Eurasia and the New World, pendently in certain and the immediately south coffee, which was has now spread around cultigens include like ensete, were indigenous to (and Africa included can rice, and the oil palm. equatorial Africa has no native plant addition, writing, herding, Saharan Africa but entered from the outside. Most equatorial Africa was Khoisan hunterfarmers. Agriculture invaders themselves: Bantu peoples, whose hisOriginating from the area Africa now Nigeria and Bantu spread several ago to East Africa, whence suddenly exover almost pansion carried over a miles in from the African lakes south pansion over plant and axis of greatly slowed such species north to south. [DIAMOND] Human plants halted their invasion Africa before for the introduction to African domesticated animals more detail. Almost all entered from sole indigenous subSaharan domestiguinea fowl. horses, even Saharan Africa indigenous domesticated animals first seem famous big wild mammals proved domesticatable; breeders have had no the eland, large antelope. Consider how wild African mammals are to prove domesticatable. African though the Eurasian horse, a member mammalian order toed hoofed a member same genus zebra, was momentous military results already famous antelope and goats hoofed mammals) did prove suitable Among the world’s pigs, only Africa’s indigenous forest pig, New World. what the zebras, rhinoceroses, 378 Human north/south A.D. [DIAMOND] Broadest Pattern HumaFour examples beyond which length. Instead, beyond which 380 crops themselves. until after [D] Human but then that that 382 continent inhabited tools. IAMOND] domesticated in also occur (but were not domesticated) in a small northeast Australia. Australia had only a small miles, compared notoriously low in as its ability support hunterbut only a Aboriginal Australians at the only small contrasting habitats facing barriers. Contact outside humans, following Guinea (formerly Australian continent) ago, appears to been confined Cape York Guinea features entered Australia. Although there trade along island chain in Torres Guineans on Australians was tenuous and did not diffuse beyond Cape York. seasonally visited northwestern Australia, their metal products have areas. was tenuous, have begun only Indonesians did plants and with them. resulting hunterprevailing throughout at the 384 about in [D to their 386 opposite Australian [DIAMOND] Human Nevertheless, fishing and are sense can losses? Just as some pologists have tried to argue respects was bone tools fishing were Tasmanians were These radefy common lost these An interpretation Jones goes which they abandon useful practices. For example, peoples islands have temporarily decided to were their sole edible land mammal other several instances people killing their island, only eventually pigs were useful after all to import a new islands. Similarly, ancestral derived Polynesian pottery, a suggest a such senseless losses arise in an area with some societies a given time. will retain model or for the to repent with mainland could have bone tools, might have 388 Bounty IAMOND] Pattern Human son of Australians, persame principle also contributed differences between of much Africa, the and the for the whirlwind tour through our endifferences between different continents terms plant and those species could spread mates have contributed varying rates of rise herding. Agriculture and herding to human population societies gives us that the societies itself a factor in a biologist home in laboratory am acutely can be dismissed objection can reason why comfortable about social science, which is Nevertheless, remember Latin word “experiment” but from Latin word whatever means many fields which no one sciences, even fields such as astronomy, paleontology, 390 cannot manipulate evolving dinosaurs, then, to to understand gives us more insight into the past humans than really can eventually arrive for the