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To obtain copies of this publication, please contact:UNEP/DEWA/GRID GenevaUNEP/DEWA/GRID International Environment HouseUSGS EROS Data Centermones47914 252nd StreettelaineSioux Falls, SD 47198-001 USAGeneva, SwitzerlandTel: 1-605-594-6117 Fax: 1-605-594-6119Tel: +41-22 9178294/95 Fax: +41-22 9178029E-mail: info@na.unep.nethttp://www.grid.unep.ch/activities/sustainable/tigris/marshlands/UNEP (2001). Partow, H.Division of Early Warning and Assessmentthe legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or of the delineation of its frontiers or boundarispecial permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciateEnvironment Programme. The use of information from this publication concerning proprietary products for publicity oradvertising is not permitted. Trademark names and symbols are used in an editorial fashion with no intention of infringement ontrademark or copyright laws. 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Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................Foreword.......................................................................................................................Executive Summary..............................................................................................................1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................................12 The Tigris-Euphrates Drainage Basin..................................................................................................22.1 Hydrology of the Tigris-Euphrates Basin........................................................................32.2 River Engineering in the Twentieth Century.................................................................63 The Marshlands of Lower Mesopotamia..............................................................................................113.1 Formation of the Marshlands...........................................................................................113.2 The Major Wetland Units.................................................................................................123.3 The Marsh People.............................................................................................................153.4 Flora and Fauna................................................................................................................173.5 Archaeological Sites..........................................................................................................214 Marshland Drainage and Its Impacts...................................................................................................224.1 Drainage Works.................................................................................................................224.2 The Impacts.......................................................................................................................295 Conclusions............................................................................................................................................366 Recommendations.................................................................................................................................37References..................................................................................................................................................40Annex 1: Major Dams and Barrages in the Tigris-Euphrates Basin.....................................................45 Map 1 - Shaded relief map of the Tigris-Euphrates basinMap 3 - Mean annual precipitation in the Tigris-Euphrates basinTable 1 Area of Tigris-Euphrates Drainage Basin in Riparian CountriesTable 2 - Highly Threatened Species of the MarshlandsTable 3 - Changes in Surface Area of Mesopotamian Marshlands, 1973-76 Table 4 - Changes in the Surface Area of Hawr Al Azim, 1973-76 Fig. 1 - Keystone of the GAP project, the Ataturk dam has a reservoir capacity greater than Euphratestotal annual flow which, as a result, has significantly transformed basin ecology.Hasankeyf, as well as valuable riverine ecosystems along the Tigris.Fig. 4 - Space view of the Mesopotamian Marshlands taken by the earth observation satellite Landsat inof reeds that is a cultural legacy of ancient Sumer.Fig. 8 - Prized for their milk, butter and hides, the water-buffalo provides the main source of subsistence Fig. 10 - The marshlands support the inter-continental migration of birds.Fig. 12 - The globally threatened Marbled Teal is known to breed widely in the marshlands.Fig. 15 - The marshlands in 1990 following the aftermath of the Iran-Iraq war.Fig. 16 - Diversion of Euphrates waters downstream of Al Nasiryah by the twin canals of the which captures the waters of Tigris distributaries and channels them across themarshes to the Euphrates near its junction with the Tigris at Al Qurnah.moist to dry ground.Fig. 20 - Landsat 2000 imagery reveals the Al Hammar marshes to have been intensively partitioned intopolders, extension of work underway since 1984/85.',&- 
! Jean-Michel Jaquet (UNEP/GRID-Geneva); John Latham (SDRN/FAO); Jean-Yves Pirot (IUCN);(University of Wales); Abdul Aziz Al-Masri (Ministry of Irrigation, Syria); Jean Khouri (ACSAD); PeterPetrov and Nahida Bu-Tayban (ROPME); Laurent Mouvet (Swiss Committee on Dams/EPFL); NipponKoei; Harza Engineering; Hans Wolter and Parviz Koohafkan (AGLD/FAO); Ryan Reker (UNEP/Rizzolio (UNEP/GRID-Geneva); Dave Mac Devette (UNEP/DEWA); David Maidment (CRWR,University of Texas at Austin); Amy Godfrey (Middle East Insight); Joe Stork (Middle East Watch);Mehdi Kamyab (UNDP, Iran); Mehdi Mirzaee, (IRCOLD); and Willy Verheyeer, Save Hasankeyf Organization; Fig. Cover, 5, 7-11, NikWheeler; Fig. 12, Jose Luis de Lope Tizoin/Juan M15, Earth Satellite Corporation (EarthSat; www.earthsat.com); Fig. 17, 22-23, AMAR ICF; Fig. 24, GavinMaxwell Enterprises Ltd.; Back cover, raw image provided by NASA GSFC and processed by UNEP/Front Cover Photo: Mesopotamian Marshlands as described by Gavin Young in 1975: canoes are the means of transpor-tation in a world of reeds and water. BCMBillions of cubic metersDCWDigital Chart of the WorldDEMDigital Elevation ModelEIAEnvironmental Impact AssessmentESRIEnvironmental Systems Research InstituteETMEnhanced Thematic MapperFAOFood and Agriculture Organisation of the United NationsGAPGuneydogu Anadolu Projesi (Southeast Anatolia Development project)GRIDGlobal Resource Information Database (UNEP)HEPPHydroelectric Power PlantIUCNWorld Conservation UnionMODMain Outfall DrainMCMMillions of cubic metersMSSMultispectral ScannerSPOTSatellite Pour lObservation de la Terre (Satellite for Earth Observation)UNEPUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganisationUNHCRUnited Nations High Commission for RefugeesWCDWorld Commission on DamsWWFWorld Wide Fund for Nature in a rare water-world of dense reed beds andMesopotamian story is yet another wake-up callearth. We are again reminded that we need to actUNEP, as the the United Nations family, has prepared thisdegradation. These tools, however, need to bedwindling water supplies of the Tigris-Euphratesand sustainable manner. To help move thisconcept forward, UNEPWest Asia (ROWA) proposes to undertake aassessment of the Tigris-Euphrates drainageequitable sharing and optimal use of Tigris andEuphrates waters. To this end, UNEP/ROWA hasCentre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry(ROPME). We trust that this cooperation willcontinue to grow, and that all countries sharingaddress this environmental disaster.of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Such anservices of clean water, clear air and fertile soils.for any future ecological recovery plans ofSioux Falls in collaboration with ROWA, in theirTimothy W. Foresman Ð DirectorUNEP/Division of Early Warning and Assessment major international river system, the Tigris andhuman activity, but dams and drainage schemesthat have occurred in the Tigris-Euphratescontinuing into the twenty-first century. TheTurkey under the Southeast Anatolia Projects annual flow,the transboundary Hawr Al Hawizeh/Al AzimIlisu dam in Turkey.a key wintering and staging site in the inter-populations. Even though dam reservoirsmigratory birds, this only compensates in aof the drying out of the Mesopotamian &(
 nursery grounds, have also experiencedestuary, decrease in freshwater flows hascomplex ecology. In addition, the reducedMarsh Arab society, whose livelihood hasshattering blow. The numerous economicunknown conditions inside Iraq. A 5,000-year-the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in an equitableand optimal manner. The impact of damsWorld Commission on Dams and the coreInternational Watercourses. A long-termneeds to be given to the conservation of theremaining transboundary Hawr Al Hawizeh/AlAzim marshes straddling the Iran-Iraq border. biodiversity resources in West Asia, and tothere remains an opportunity to conserve theIran-Iraq border, and to undertake measurescannot, however, be overemphasised. Thedisintegration of Marsh Arab society, aenvironmental disaster.of growing water stress, with the Tigris-twenty-first century. Left unresolved, this(land-air-water-biodiversity) offers a holistic andcarrying out this analysis, GeographicInformation Systems (GIS) and satellite imageryimagery proved to be a particularly timely andserves as a UNEP contribution to the 10-yeartwenty-first century, but also of the unremittingthe water resources of the Tigris-Euphratesdrainage basin, including surface and ground &'(
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#*(2 s Regional Office for Westthe Assessment of the Euphrates and Tigriswide study. The overall aim of this project is toTigris-Euphrates river system. pulses of the twin rivers nourishing their veryexistence. As downstream receivers of water,flows. Consequently, prior to discussing themain issue of this study, being the fate of thetwentieth-century water management projects Map 1 - Shaded relief map of the Tigris-Euphrates basin &&
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#*(5 2.1 Hydrology of the Tigris-Euphrates BasinAn overview of the basinhighlands of Turkey, Iraq and Iran (Map 1).4,500 m near lake Van, the Euphrates traversesdrains a larger surface area (579,314 kmthe Tigris (371,562 km), an overwhelming 88-highlands of southeastern Turkey while thethat contributes little inflow. In contrast, the Map 2 - Sub-basins of the Tigris-Euphrates watershed. region in Turkey, which contributes anbalance of Tigris flows is produced by ageopolitical reality, with several countriescontrolling the upper, middle and lowercourses of the twin rivers. Geographically, theeach other, creating a classical . In this hierarchical order, theEuphrates rises in Turkey and flows throughwhose source is also in Turkey is shared withIraq and Iran (Table 1). Syria also has access toa 20 km stretch on the right bank of the Tigris,Turkey. The aforementioned difference inupper catchment, Turkey, by damming theriver, is able to exert almost full command overthe Tigris, dams in Turkey would alsoand Iraq are therefore necessary to Map 3 - Mean annual precipitation in the Tigris-Euphrates basin.&&
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 CountryEuphrates BasinIran*-Iraq282,532Saudi Arabia*77,090Syria95,405Turkey121,787Total579,314Table 1 Area of Tigris-Euphrates Drainage Basin in Riparian Countries (km(* The country includes part of the catchment area but the main river does not flow through &'(
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#*(7 occurs in winter, it falls as snow and mayat the Turkish-Syrian border for the EuphratesMCM/y (1963), while that of the Tigris at CizreMCM/y (1969). Similarly, there are steeptemporary water bodies in the flat alluvial plain2.2 River Engineering in the Twentieth CenturyTigris-Euphrates basin extend back over sixcentury. Of major impact on basin hydrologyTurkey and Syria on the Euphrates and inTurkey, Iraq and Iran on the Tigris and itscourse of the Euphrates and Tigris signalledactivity. The Ramadi barrage was built in 1951creating the Razzaza Lake. On the Tigris, theHindiyah, 1918, Al Kut 1939), those of Ramadiand Samarra created water reservoirs and respectively. Iran completed its largesttributary of the Karun River in 1962. Damthroughout the river basin. In Turkey, work onthe Euphrates, the Tabaqa dam.development occurred in 1977, when Turkey Map 4 - Dams on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.&&
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#*(9 referred to by its Turkish acronym GAP) andhydropower plants in the upper Tigris andnetwork serving 1.7 million hectares of land.Set to double the country$32 billion (Olcay, 1998). The lynchpin of theand the Sanliurfa water transfer tunnels toKarun river. Originally modelled on the famousriver engineering programme of the TennesseeValley Authority, the Karun River Developmentagriculture (Whitely and Gallagher, 1995). Inreservoir on the Karkheh river, which is(Tehran Times, 1999, 2001). Plans are alsounderway to transfer water from the KarkhehFig. 1 - Keystone of the GAP project, the Ataturk dam has a reservoir capacity greater than Euphrates total annual flowwhich, as a result, has significantly transformed basin ecology. Euphrates and Tigris, including the latterEuphrates in Turkey is 90.9 BCM; and it will goSyrian border. In Iraq and Syria, the combinedtwo off-river reservoirs of Habbaniyah andannual flow. Although on the Tigris waterreservoir accounts for 69% of the country105.95 BCM gross storage capacity, which is Fig. 2 - The planned Ilisu dam threatens to inundate theimportant archaeological treasures of Hasankeyf, as well as Fig. 3 - Comparison of the discharge regime for the Euphrates River at Hit-Husabia, Iraq, during the pre-dam 1937-1973 and post-dam 1974-1998 periods. (Source: ACSAD)&&
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#*(1; River of 52.6 BCM. Turkey presently has astorage capacity of 3.95 BCM on the Tigris.TurkeyTurkish-Iraqi border. In terms of active or usablestorage capacity, the planned dams in Turkeyannual discharge at the Turkish-Syrian borderthat humankind can now exercise on Tigris-on human activity, but equally on overallfor their survival. Prior to intensive dam/sec in May. As aresult of dam construction, however, maximumwinter (January-February) months. By reducingdownstream flow (i.e. intensity, timing andfrequency), storage reservoirs have invariablyquality. The main cause of degradation is salinequality likely to occur, but the latest1998; Iraq Ministry of Irrigation, 2000). It isclear, however, that with thousands of hectares ofthe Euphrates and Tigris at their confluence hasShatt-al-Arab estuary. Finally, a significantthe Tigris and Euphrates, estimated at 105behind the multiple dams (UNEP, 1995). ecosystem in the Middle East and Westernhistory. They also provide habitat forinter-continental flyway ofmigratory birds, and inof the Earth. Most recently,the World Wide Fund forpriority conservation (the a transboundary ecosystem undershared responsibility.3.1 Formation of the Marshlandstopography of the lower Tigris-Euphrates Fig. 4 - Space view of the Mesopotamian Marshlands taken by the earth observation satellitepatches, while red elongated patches along river banks are date palms. (Mosaic of fourLandsat 1 and 2 false-colour, near-infrared images, Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) Bands4, 2 and 1, taken on 16 February 1973, 14 February 1975 and 27 May 1976). &'(
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#*(12 km over the last 300 km, while the Tigris has aand flares out into multiple distributaryWater extraction by an elaborate irrigationwater flow, and contributes to the riverslower Mesopotamian plain becomes verylarge alluvial fan of Wadi Batin and the AlTigris, whose waters eventually overflow intothe Shatt-al-Arab via Al Suwaib River. For itsrivers, but particularly the latter, carry a largethe Gulf, the Wadi Batin/Al Dibdibah, thedoing, the natural drainage of the Tigris andcomplex and a marine estuary.As mentioned earlier, a notable feature ofboth the Tigris and Euphrates is the largeSpring floods, occurring form February toMay, are caused by snowmelt in the headwaterregion in Turkey and the Zagros Mountains inresult of the flat topography, the flood pulseschanging extent, may dry up completely inreplenishment and very existence.3.2 The Major Wetland Units overflow one into another. During periods ofwater. Consequently, some of the formerlyseparate marsh units merge together, formingarea around the confluence of the Tigris and Map 5 - Major wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia.&' #( &'(
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#*(15 comprise the focus of this study.Arab in the east. To the south, along theirseasonal and temporary inundation. Aleutrophic and shallow. Maximum depth at lowhigh water mark (Maltby, 1994). During thesummer, large parts of the littoral zone dryplaces. Fed primarily by the Euphrates River,water from the Tigris River, overflowing fromof the most important waterfowl areas in theand species diversity. The vast and dense reedconcentrations of migratory waterfowl havebeen recorded during winter, and althoughnot properly surveyed, the area is likely to hostwetland ecosystem. Bounded by the Tigrisan array of Tigris distributaries, most of whichMajar-al-Kabir, as well as the Euphrates alongotherwise densely covered in tall reed beds. Alapproximately 3 m deep (Thesiger, 1964).networks of distributary deltas are the site ofvariety of waterfowl species. Difficulty ofaccess, however, has limited comprehensiveTigris River, straddling the Iran-Iraq border.Tigris River near Al Amarah, the Al Musharah Tigris may directly overflow into the marshes.alternating with open stretches of water. Large(Maltby, 1994). Marsh water flow finally joinsthe Al Swaib River.breeding and wintering habitat for waterfowl.Only limited surveys have been undertaken inof several migratory waterfowl species haveancient Mesopotamia. Ethnically, the Fig. 5 - A typical marsh landscape. Villages are built on artificial floating islands by enclosing a piece of swamp,and filling it in with reeds and mud. For flood protection, more layers are added each year to strengthen theplatform &'(
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#*(17 and Arab Bedouins to the west (Thesiger,with reeds and mud (Fig. 5). Typically,Water-buffalos play a pivotal role into Bedouin Arabs (Thesiger, 1957).manure (Fig. 8). Fishing, waterfowl depicting an ancient reed houseFig. 7 - Marshmen gather under the cathedral-like arches of the guesthouse made completely of reeds that is a cultural legacy of ancient Sumer. (Al-Jwaybirawhie, 1993, Thesiger, 1964;Young, 1977).Until the outbreak of the First World War inGradually, as the influence of the centralcountry and through increased trade, greaterlarger Iraqi society. By the early 1930s, manyEducational and health services began to(Young, 1977). With the outbreak of the Iran-Subsequently, they were faced with a massiveTypha augustataseasonal zone. Temporarily inundated mud- Fig. 8 - Prized for their milk, butter and hides, the water-buffalo provides the main source of subsistence in &'(
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#*(19 Carex). Deeper,Vallisneria and back swamps, floating vegetation of water-Rechinger, 1964).biodiversity, the marshlands supportLocated on the inter-continental flyway ofmigratory birds, they are particularlystaging area for waterfowl travelling betweeneast Africa. Known as the West Siberian-Caspian-Nile flyway, it represents one of threemajor waterfowl migratory routes in theWestern Palaearctic Region. Two-thirds of West Fig. 9 - Wild boars on the run.Fig. 10 - The marshlands support the inter-continental migration of birds. Pelicans congregate in Incomplete ornithological surveysthreatened (Table 2). ParticularlyCormorant, Marbled Teal (Fig. 12),White-Tailed Eagle, Imperial Eagle,the Slender-billed Curlew and anTachybaptus ruficollistwo species, the Basrah Reed Warbler and Iraqpopulation of Grey Hypocolius (Maltby, 1994;the wake of the First World War. The last lionGrey Wolf, the Long-fingered Bat and a sub-notably the Honey Badger, Striped Hyena,Previously, the most common mammal in themarshes was the Wild Boar, which posed ainclude the Caspian Terrapin, a soft-shellMonitor, previously common in desert regionsbordering the marshes, has been over-huntedand is now rare (Maltby, 1994). Fig. 12 - The globally threatened Marbled Teal isknown to breed widely in the marshlands. Fig. 11 - Storks are common migrants to the marshlands. &'(
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#*(2; importance. In 1990, the FAO estimated thatSilurus He (Merodach-Baladan, King of Babylon)fled like a bird to the swampland(Sennacherib, King of Assyria) sent my warriors and they searched     BirdsTurdoides altirostrisBasrah Reed WarblerAcrocephalus griseldisAnhinga rufa chantreiArdea goliathMarbled TealMarmaronettaangustirostrisPhalacrocorax pygmaeusThreskiornis aethiopicusSlender-billed CurlewNumenius tenuirostrisTailed EagleGrey WolfErthyronesokia bunniiSoft-shelled TurtleVaranus griseusInvertebratesTable 2 - Highly Threatened Species of the Marshlands(Source: Banister, 1994; Maltby ,1994; Scott, 1995) Fig. 14 - Relief showing life in the marshlands in ancient times.Tenualosa ilishaaffinis) between the Arabian Gulf and nurserygrounds in the marshlands (Banister, 1994).3.5 Archaeological SitesRich with historical legacy, the wetlands are the14). On its shores, the legendary Epic ofmajor significance in the history of the threemonotheistic religions: Christianity, Islam andsite of the legendary landscape. World-renowned archaeologicalsites on the fringes of the marshes include Ur,amongst these are the sites of Agar, Qubab,Ishan, Azizah, Dibin and Waquf (Roux, 1993).s land cover,military activity and oil exploration, have 4.1 Drainage WorksGaining a certain masteryover the waters of the Tigrishowever, had been made totwentieth century. Initially,surveys commissioned byhowever, reveal that thedegradation, Haigh proposed to build a surfaceand sub-surface drainage network to drawlands in the interfluve region. The logic of thisthe entry of poor-quality residual waters.Nonetheless, the study also made preliminarysuggestions on controlling the lower Tigris Fig. 15 - The marshlands in 1990 following the aftermath of the Iran-Iraq war. Alarge eastern swath of the Central and Al Hammar marshes as well as thenorthwestern and southern fringes of the Al Hawizeh marshes (red outline) haddried out by then as a result of the construction of causeways to ease militarytransport in an otherwise difficult terrain. (Mosaic of two Landsat 5 false-colour, near-infrared images, Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) Bands 4, 2 and 1, seaÓ. However, no specific engineering plansWork on a Main Outfall Drain (MOD) tovariously as the Third River and Saddam River,however, was done in several stages andcapturing the flow of the lower Tigrisvia the Shatt-al-Arab. These works, however,The transboundary Al Hawizeh marshes werein fact disrupted more by military activity thanFollowing the end of the second Gulf War inFebruary 1991 and the ensuing civil unrest inMap 6 - Drainage schemes in southern Iraq. ' 
! ( interfluve of the Mesopotamian plain (Map 6)southeast of Al Nasiryah, where it burrowsQasr via the Khawr-al-reserves (Europa, 1999,Ministry of Foreignhowever, a dam wasfor 70 km was raised to prevent overflow fromgreatly accelerated the drying out of the AlHammar Marshes. Moreover, building of theseimpoundment of Turkeyhad reduced Euphrates flow to an all-time low.Water influx into the marshlands was further Fig. 16 - Diversion of Euphrates waters downstream of Al Nasiryah by the twin canals of theThird River and . (Landsat 7 true colour image derived by merging ofpanchromatic ETM Band 8 with Bands 7, 4 and 2, taken on 4 May 2000). Euphrates River, into the depression creating alarge flooded lake (Iraq Ministry of Foreign(Umm-al-Maarik). Work on this canal started inApril 1994 (Iraq Ministry of Information,Nasiryah, the canalFinally, in December(Wafaa lil-Qaid)was simultaneously underway in 1992. A largeof armoured units during the Iran-Iraq war.Initially, control structures such as locks andinclude the Adel and Wadiyah, which branchoff from the Majar Al-Kabir, the Keffah and Fig. 17 - Clearly visible in this SPOT image recorded in December 1993 is the 2-km wide andProsperity River which captures the waters of Tigris distributaries and channelsthem across the marshes to the Euphrates near its junction with the Tigris at Al Qurnah. 27&'(
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#*( appear as olive to grayish-brown patches (red outline) indicating low vegetation on moist to dry ground. The verylight to grey patches are bare areas with no vegetation and may actually be salt evaporites of former lakes. (Mosaicof four Landsat 7 false-colour, near-infrared images, ETM Bands 4, 3 and 2, taken on 26 March and 4 May 2000).along the northern boundary of the main west of its confluence with the Tigris at thethe marshes (Pearce, 1993). Finally, the (Tajj al-Maarik) played animportant role in diverting Tigris waters fromdomain - the transboundary marshes -the other areas were undergoing. Initially, itsupply originated from the Karkheh River, Fig. 19 - In 2000, the lower stem of the North-South Canalhad largely dried-up leaving a narrow connecting canal to theEuphrates. (Landsat 7 false-colour image derived by mergingof panchromatic ETM Band 8 with Bands 4, 3 and 2, taken on26 March 2000). was initially overshadowed by the temporary4.5 km north of Al Kumayt, diverts Tigris watersthe Tigris River. This canal starts off byand continues along the east bank of the Tigris,(Maltby, 1994).By 1994, however, the Al Hawizeh Marshestwo main Tigris distributaries replenishing themarshes back. This in turn led to the dryingwaters to the Shatt-al-Arab via the Swaib River,six km south of the Tigris-Euphrates Fig. 20 - Landsat 2000 imagery reveals the Al Hammar marshes to have been intensively partitioned into polders,extension of work underway since 1984/85. Canals and dikes further divide the polders into smaller blocks so thatremaining water is drained quickly or left to evaporate, leaving large tracts salt encrusted. (Landsat 7 true colourimage derived by merging of panchromatic ETM Band 8 with Bands 7, 4 and 2, taken on 26 March 2000). impound its largest reservoir dam onhas a gross reservoir capacity of 7.8dwindling water supply.marshlands have been extraordinary,Hammar Marshes are now dry land. TheHammar, formerly the largest Lake in the lowertransboundary Al Hawizeh Marsh in Iraq hasFig. 21 - The Shatt Al Basrah Canal transports the combined flow of theThird River and the and into the Khawr al Zubayr which empties into the Gulf. (Landsat 7true colour image derived by merging of panchromatic ETM Band 8 withBands 7, 4 and 2, taken on 26 March 2000). ' 
! ( been relegated to the history books, aComparative analysis of Landsat imagery from1973-76 and 2000 enabled a quantifiedfrom surrounding desert. The results, however, Moreover, the calculations presented areconservative since they have not included thesummary of the findings is provided in Table 3. of primary wetlands(excluding the seasonal and temporary flooded Most of the change, however, occurred betweenin 2000. Moreover, most of this residue isreduction in its surface area. Nonetheless, itfor 21% of its total area (Table 4). As a result ofextensive drainage in Iraq, however, Hawr Al Marshland73-7620002000 as % of 73-76Permanent Marshes2,85369.82.4Permanent Lakes1125.75.1Seasonal/Shallow Lakes15622.514.4Total3,12198.03.1Permanent Marshes2,715837.430.8Permanent Lakes186129.469.4Seasonal/Shallow Lakes17558.133.3Total3,0761025.033.3Permanent Marshes1,67527.91.7Permanent Lakes36288.724.5Seasonal/Shallow Lakes69257.28.3Total2,729173.96.4Total Wetlands8,9261,296.914.5Table 3 - Changes in Surface Area of Mesopotamian Marshlands, 1973-76 Hawr Al Azim1973-7620002000 as % of 73-76Permanent Marshes622.8295.6Permanent Lakes3.01.0Seasonal/Shallow Lakes15.40.3Total641.2296.946.3Table 4 - Changes in the Surface Area of Hawr Al Azim, 1973-76 water from its reservoir to Kuwait.Finally, in light of the fact thatKhawr al-dropped around Warbah Islandrapidly dry out in the earlyWatch, 1993, 1994; United Nations, 1993, 1994,1999; Wood 1993). Of the 95,000 southernof the Gulf War in 1991, an estimated 40,000 Fig. 23 - Approximately 40,000 Marsh Arabs are living in refugee camps inKhuzestan province, southwestern Iran.hastily built reed shanties straddle the four kilometre causeway leadingout of the Iraqi marshlands to the frontier post of Himmet in Iran. displaced (AMAR ICF, 2001; UNHCR, 1996).unique human community and a 5,000 year-oldpermanently, because of a potential4.2.3 Wildlife Decline and Extinctionwildlife and biodiversity. These gowintering area for migratory birds on theWestern Siberia-Caspian-Nile flyway, the effectsReed Warbler and the regional population ofMarbled Teal may have declined by 50%. InPelecanus onocrotalus Fig. 24 - This sub-species of the endemic smooth-coated otter is now considered Ardea purpureaIxobrychus minutes�, 10%), Tufted Duck (Circus aeruginosusacts as a conduit for a wide range of migratorynursery grounds in the marshlands. It iscatch originates from the marshes. The dryingbe modified. Temperatures will invariably rise,Strong and dry winds reaching temperatures ofwill blow unhindered (Maltby, 1994). With saltcrusts and dry marshland soils exposed, wind-emanating from the drying out of the Aral Sea(such as respiratory illnesses, cancers andincreased infant mortality, made worse by heavy Construction of large dams on the Tigris andcentury has led to a decisive change in theecosystem. Wetland fertility and ecosystemmarshland disappearance, however, was mainlyGulf War in 1991. It is also noteworthy that thesatellite imagery has shown that the marshlandarea of the transboundary Hawr Al Hawizeh/Alin Turkey. The impact of marshland desiccationgo down in history along with other human- objectivity and transparency. The urgency ofconservation of the remaining transboundary6.1 International Agreement(s) on the Sharing ofTigris and Euphrates Watersthe sharing of Tigris and Euphrates waters.water-sharing agreement(s) needs to beKarkheh and Karun rivers and other Tigristributaries. To underpin this process, UNEPproposes to carry out a comprehensivescientific assessment of the Tigris-EuphratesDownstream Ecosystemstiming of stream flow. Another alternative forperformance are required. These includeanticipating and avoiding impacts by carryingthe World Commission on Dams (WCD, 2000)Watercourses (1997), is also necessary before Mesopotamian delta. Specifically, this calls forecological data. Such a model is necessary forrestoration. In the preliminary stages, pilotfeasibility, as well as avoid unforeseen negative6.4 Protecting Water QualityHabbaniyah/Razaza reservoirs due to theirand propose necessary remedial measures.Engineering Worksin Turkey and northern Iraq. In particular, thereservoirs of the Tharthar and Habbaniyah/removed as necessary to ensure adequate water6.6 Designation of Protected AreasMesopotamian marshlands and a veryimportant sanctuary for endangered wildlifeand migratory birds, the importance ofinitiating immediate conservation measures bytransboundary Hawr Al Hawizeh/Al Azimsuch as a transboundary designation as a Ramsar Convention or WordBiosphere (MAB) or national reserve(s). Experience has shown that for conservationIt is estimated that the drying out of the6.8 Data Collection, Monitoring and Long-Termcollection, remote sensing imagery and aerialphotographic surveys should be developed andShatt-al-Arab estuary;marshland drying on the regional investigate contamination of surfacemilitary conflict. Surface Water Resources in the Euphrates andTigris RiversSalaaman Aytuha Al-Ahwar: LamahatTarikhya wa Jeoghrafiya wa Turathya on You Marshlands: Notes on History,Geography and Folklore). Ministry ofIraqi Marshlands: Prospects(Draft Report). AMAR ICF,Aydogu, M. (2000)Dams for Development in Turkey,Workshop Proceedings on Dams, Developmentand Environment, 14-16 February 2000, SaoTurkeyWater Resources DevelopmentVol. 13, No.4, pp. 567-581.Banister, K., Backiel, T. Bishop, J. (1994)The present state and likely future of the fishes ofthe Tigris-Euphrates Basin. report. Wetland Ecosystems ResearchGroup, University of Exeter.The old social classes and the revolutionaryand commercial classes and of its Communists,Baathists, and Free Officers.Beaumont, P. (1978)Problem of Water Resources DevelopmentEnvironmental Conservation, Vol.5, No. 1.Conservation, Switzerland.Beaumont, P. (1996)Turkey and Syria and their political and , Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 137-157.Beaumont, P. (1998)Restructuring of Water Usage in theTigris-Euphrates Basin: The Impact ofModern Water Management ProjectsTransformation of Middle Eastern NaturalEnvironments: Legacies and LessonsJane Coppock and Joseph A. Miller. YaleUniversity, New Haven.Bosshard, P. (1999)A case study of the Ilisu hydropower project[Online], Available: http://www.evb.ch/Bruner, J-M. (2000) (Water in Iran). Published byBBC World Service (1997)vice (1997)Available: http://www.bbc.org.uk/Centre for Research in Water Resources,University of Texas at Austin (1998)GIS Hydro. University of Texas Water from Dams in Syria.om Dams in Syria.Available: http:/www.cnn.com/Dauody, M. (1999)Water, Institutions and Development inEuphrates and TigrisWorld Commission on Dams. [Online],Available: http://www.dams.org/Environmental Refugees. UNEP,[Online], Available: http://www.britannica.com/Agricultural Benefits of Turkish Dams toConcerns About DamsTurfanThe Middle East and North AfricaFAO (1990)Iraq: Assistance in Aquaculture development.Report no. 12/90 TA-IRA 2. TCP/IRQ/FAO (1997a). [Online], Available:http://www.fao.org/FAO (1997b). [Online], Available:http://www.fao.org/FAO (1997c). 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(1998)and Water: The Southeastern AnatoliaProject (Gap) of TurkeyAverting aPearce, F. (1993)Pearce, F. (2001)Pons, L.J. and Wulfraat. S. (1994)The Marshlands of Southern Iraq: SoilWetland Ecosystems Research Group,University of Exeter.Prime Ministry, Republic of Turkey (1999)Project (December 1998)Ministry, Ankara.Rechinger, K. (1964)Ltd., NewYork.Euphrates and Tigris, Mesopotamian Ecologyand Destiny. Dr. W. Junk bv. Publishers,Wildlife of the Mesopotamian Marshlands.Unpublished report. Wetland EcosystemsResearch Group, University of Exeter.A Directory of Wetlands in the Middle East.etlands in the Middle East.Available: http://www.gap.gov.tr/Tehran Times (1999), Sunday, October31, 1999. [Online], Available: http://www.tehrantimes.com/Tehran Times (2001)Operational Today, Thursday, April 19,2001. [Online], Available: http://www.tehrantimes.com/Thesiger, W. (1957), Vol. CXIII, No. 204-Thesiger, W. (1964) Water Quality of World River Basins. 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(1977) CountryName of DamUseRiverDate ofGrossSurfaceHPHeight CompletionStorageArea (km)(MW) (m)TurkeyAdiyamanHPGoksuPlanned1.887607590TurkeyAtaturkHP, IrrigationEuphrates199248.708172400166TurkeyBirecikHP, IrrigationEuphrates20001.2256.2567253TurkeyCamgaziIrrigationEuphrates19980.0565.55-39TurkeyDerik-DumulcaIrrigationEuphrates19910.0222.23-24TurkeyHacihidirIrrigationEuphrates19890.0624.4-32TurkeyHancagizIrrigationEuphrates19880.1007.50-45TurkeyKahtaHPKahtaPlanned1.887100-125TurkeyKarakayaHPEuphrates19879.582681800158TurkeyKarkamisHP, Flood ControlEuphrates19990.15728.418921.2TurkeyKayacikIrrigationEuphratesUC0.1162.91-45TurkeyKebanHPEuphrates1975316751330163SyriaBaathHP, Irrigation,Euphrates19880.0927.1575SyriaTabaqaHP, IrrigationEuphrates197511.761080060SyriaTishrineHPEuphrates19991.916663040SyriaUpper KhaburIrrigationKhabur19920.9881.37--IraqAl Hindiyah BarrageFlow DiversionEuphrates1918, rebuilt 1989---IraqAl QadisiyahHP, IrrigationEuphrates19848.250066057IraqFallujah BarrageIrrigationEuphrates1985---IraqBaghdadiFlow RegulationEuphratesPlanned---IraqRamadi-HabbaniyahFlood ProtectionEuphrates19483.3426--IraqRamadi-RazazaFlood ProtectionEuphrates1951261850-- Also called the Great Khabur, the project is made up of three dams: Al-Khabur (Basil Al-Assad), West Al-Hasakah (8 March Dam), Barrage diverting flows into natural depression via Warrar canal. CountryName of DamUseRiverDate ofGrossSurfaceHPHeight CompletionStorageArea (km)(MW) (m)TurkeyBatmanHP, IrrigationTigris19981.17549.2519871.5TurkeyCag-CagHPTigris----TurkeyCizreHP, IrrigationTigrisPlanned0.362124051.4TurkeyDevegecidiIrrigationTigris19720.20232.14-32.8TurkeyDicleHP, IrrigationTigris19970.5952411075TurkeyDipniTigris1.024690TurkeyDilimiIrrigationGreat ZabUC0.05912.41-70TurkeyGarzanHP, IrrigationTigrisPlanned.9834680113TurkeyIlisuHPTigrisPlanned10.41299.51200138TurkeyGoksuIrrigationTigris19910.0623.9-46TurkeyKralkiziHPTigris19971.91957.590113TurkeySilvanHP, IrrigationTigrisPlanned0.82164150165IraqAl-AdheemHP, IrrigationAl-Adheem19991.5IraqAl-Amarah BarrageFlow RegulationTigrisUC----IraqAl-FarisHP, IrrigationGreat ZabNot Completed3.30561600200+IraqAl-Kut BarrageFlow diversionTigris1939----IraqDerbendikhanIrrigationDiyala19623.0121-128IraqDibbisIrrigationLittle Zab19653.032-15IraqDiyala BarrageIrrigationDiyala1969---12IraqDokanIrrigationLittle Zab19616.8270-116IraqHamrinIrrigationDiyala19803.95440-40IraqSaddamHP, IrrigationTigris198511.1371320126IraqSamarra-ThartharFlow diversionTigris195472.82170--IraqSennacheribFlow RegulationTigris0.5--IranBazoftBazoftUnder DesignIranDez HP, IrrigationDez19623.460-520203IranGarm-abKarkhehUnder DesignIranKarkhehHP, Irrigation,Karkheh20017.795400128IranKarun-1HP, IrrigationKarun19773.13954.81000200IranKarun-2HPKarunUC-20051000IranKarun-3HP, Flood controlKarunUC 20012.7502000 (3000)205IranKarun-4HP, Flood controlKarunUC-20062.1901000222IranKhersan IHPKhersanUnder Design0.520750180IranKhersan IIHPKhersanUnder Design0.500500180IranKhersan IIIHPKhersanUnder Design0.730750165IranMarunIrrigation, HPMarun19981.225145165IranMasdjied-e-SoleimanHP, IrrigationKarunUC-20010.2281000(2000)177IranSaz-e-bonKarkheh2004500IranShushtarHPKarunUC 20054.532000180IranSimarehHPKarkhehUC-2004500IranTang-e-mashorehKarkhehUnder DesignIranUpper GotvandHPKarun1000 (2000)Formerly called Aski Mosul dam. depression via canal. Formerly called Badush dam. Shahid Abbaspur. Formerly called Karun-4 (Godar-e-Landar).   


  
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$"%This report was prepared by Hassan Partow with overall supervision by Ron Witt, and the valuable support of GeneÔEver the river has risen and brought us the flood,the mayfly floating on the water.then all of a sudden nothing is thereÕ. 
 !"#$% &'(! )!*+! !)4"'44430 Concerted action by Tigris-Euphrates basin countries is urgently required to protect Early Warning and Assessment Technical Report
   
 !"#$% &'(! )!*+! !)4"'44430 Concerted action by Tigris-Euphrates basin countries is urgently required to protect Early Warning and Assessment Technical Report
   
 !"#$% &'(! )!*+! !)4"'44430 Concerted action by Tigris-Euphrates basin countries is urgently required to protect Early Warning and Assessment Technical Report