1 Parts of Speech Nouns Nouns are naming words They may name persons animals plants places things substances qualities or ideas Bart armadillo Mayberry tree rock cloud love ghost music virtue ID: 758103
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Slide1
At a Glance: SentencesSlide2
Chapter
1
Parts of SpeechSlide3
Nouns
Nouns are naming words.
They may name persons, animals, plants, places, things, substances, qualities, or ideas
Bart, armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock,
cloud, love, ghost, music, virtueSlide4
Noun Indicators
The, A,
and
An
signal that a noun is ahead.Slide5
Pronoun
A word used in place of a nounSlide6
Some pronouns may represent specific persons or things:
I she they you
me her them yourself
myself herself themselves yourselves
it he we who
itself him us whom
that himself ourselvesSlide7
Indefinite
Pronouns
Refer to nouns (persons, places, things) in a general way:
each everyone nobody somebodySlide8
Pronouns that Point
O
ut Particular Things
SINGULAR
this
that
PLURAL
these
thoseSlide9
Pronouns that Introduce Questions
Who
Which
WhatSlide10
Verbs
Show action or express being in relation to the subject of a sentence.Slide11
Types of Verbs
Action verbs
:
ate, washed
Being verbs
:
is, as, were, are, am
Helping verbs
are used with main verbs to form other tenses to form verb phrases:
had sung, will be singing
Main helping verbs:
has, have, had, is, was, were, are, am
Helpers:
will, shall, should, couldSlide12
Adjectives
Modify nouns and pronouns and answer the questions
What kind?
Which one?
How many?Slide13
Adjectives
What kind
are descriptive words
red, dirty, noisy, gentle, tired
Which one
narrows or restricts meaning
my, our, other, this, these
How many
are numbering words
some, three, each, one, few
Articles
are “noun indicators”
a, an, theSlide14
Adverbs
Modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
Answer the questions
How?
Where?
When?
To what degree?Slide15
Adverbs that answer
HOW? show manner or way
WHERE? show location
WHEN? indicate time
TO WHAT DEGREE?
express extent
Hungrily, noisily
Downtown, behind, upstairs
Yesterday, soon
Entirely, somewhatSlide16
Adverbs
Most words ending in –
ly
are adverbs.
Skillfully
Courteously
Exceptions are adjectives like
lovely
and
uglySlide17
Prepositions
Are words or groups of words that function as a connective
The preposition connects its object(s) to some other word(s) in the sentence.
A preposition and its object—usually a noun and a pronoun—with modifiers make up a prepositional phrase, which will function as an adjective or an adverb.Slide18
Common Prepositions
about before but into
past above behind by
like to across below
after despite near toward
after beneath down of
under against beside for
off until among between
from on upon around
beyond in over withSlide19
Prepositions Composed of More Than One Word
According to
As far as
Because of
In spite of
Ahead of
As well as
In back of
Instead of
Along with
Aside from
In front of
Together withSlide20
Conjunctions
A conjunction shows a relationship between words, phrases, or clausesSlide21
Coordinating Conjunctions
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
SoSlide22
Subordinating Conjunctions
After because provided whenever
Although before since where
As but that so that whereas
As if if till wherever
As long as in order that until
As soon as notwithstanding whenSlide23
Interjection
Conveys strong emotion or surprise
Punctuated with an exclamation mark
Awesome!
Curses!
Cowabunga
!
Yaba
dabba
doo!
When appearing as part of a sentence, interjections are usually followed by a comma
Oh, I did not consider that problem.
Seldom appropriate for college writing.Slide24
Chapter 2
Subjects and VerbsSlide25
Subjects and Verbs
The
subject
is
who or what causes the action or expresses a state of being.
The
verb
indicates what the subject is doing or is being.Slide26
Simple Subject
Usually a single noun or pronoun
The restaurant’s
soup
of the day is clam chowder.
simple subjectSlide27
Complete Subject
The simple subject with all its modifiers
The restaurant’s soup of the day
is clam chowder.
complete subjectSlide28
Nouns
Nouns are naming words.
They may name persons, animals, plants, places, things, substances, qualities, or ideas
Bart, armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock,
cloud, love, ghost, music, virtueSlide29
Pronoun
A word used in place of a nounSlide30
Personal Pronouns
I she they you
me her them yourself
myself herself themselves yourselves
it he we who
itself him us whom
that himself ourselvesSlide31
Indefinite
Pronouns
Refer to nouns (persons, places, things) in a general way:
each everyone nobody somebodySlide32
Pronouns that Point
O
ut Particular Things
SINGULAR
this
that
PLURAL
these
thoseSlide33
Pronouns that Introduce Questions
Who
Which
WhatSlide34
The simple subject can be
single or compound:
My friend and I have much in common.
[compound subject]
My friend brought a present.
[single subject]Slide35
Implied Subjects
The command, or
imperative,
sentence has a “you” as the implied subject and no stated subject.
(You) Read the notes
.Slide36
The object of a preposition cannot be a subject.
The chairperson
[subject]
of the department
[object of the preposition]
directs the discussion.Slide37
Verbs
Show action or express being in relation to the subject of a sentence.Slide38
Action Verbs
Suggest movement or accomplishment
of an idea or a deed
He dropped the book.
[movement]
He read the book.
[accomplishment]Slide39
Being Verbs
Indicate existence
They were concerned.Slide40
Verbs may occur as single words or phrases.
He
led
the charge.
[single word]
She
is leading
the charge.
[phrase]Slide41
Compound verbs are joined by a word such as
and
or or.
She
worked
for twenty-five years
and
retired.Slide42
Verbals are not verbs; verbals are verblike words that function as other parts of speech.
Singing
[gerund acting as a noun]
is fun.
I want to sing.
[infinitive acting as a noun
object]
Singing
[participle acting as a modifier],
he
walked in the rain.Slide43
Words such as
never, not,
and hardly
are not verbs; they modify verbs.Slide44
Locations of Subjects and Verbs
Although the subject usually appears before the verb, it may follow the verb.
There was
justice
in the verdict.Slide45
A verb phrase may be separated into a question.
Where
had
the defendant
gone
on
that fateful night?Slide46
Chapter 3
Kinds of SentencesSlide47
Types of Sentences
On the basis of
number
and
kinds of clauses
, sentences may be classified as
Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound-ComplexSlide48
Clauses
Clause: a group of words with a subject and a verb that functions as a part or all of a complete sentence.
There are two kinds of clauses: independent (main) and dependent (subordinate).Slide49
Independent Clauses
An
independent (main) clause
is a group of words with a subject and a very that can stand alone and make sense.
An independent clause expresses a complete thought by itself and can be written as a separate sentence.
I have the money.Slide50
Dependent Clauses
A
dependent clause
is a group of words with a subject and verb that depends on a main clause to give it meaning.
Functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
When you are ready.Slide51
Relative Clauses
A
type of dependent clause
Begins with a relative pronoun, such as
that, which,
or
who
The player
who answers the most questions
correctly wins the game.Slide52
Phrases
Groups of words that go together
Do
not have a subject and verb
Types: prepositional phrases and verbal phrases (infinitive phrases, participial phrases, gerund phrases)Slide53
Types of
Sentences
SIMPLE: One independent clause
Susan was having trouble with her spelling.
COMPOUND: Two or more independent clauses
Susan was having trouble with her spelling, and she purchased a computer with a spell checker.Slide54
Types of Sentences
COMPLEX
: One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Because Susan was having trouble with her spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX: Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Because Susan was having trouble with her spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker, and the results made her expenditure worthwhile.Slide55
Punctuation
Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) between two independent clauses.
The movie was good, but the tickets were expensive.Slide56
Punctuation
Use a comma after a dependent clause that appears before the main clause.
When the bus arrived, we quickly boarded.Slide57
Punctuation
Use a semicolon between two independent clauses in one sentence if there is no coordinating conjunction.
The bus arrived; we quickly boarded.Slide58
Punctuation
Use a semicolon before and usually a comma after a conjunctive adverb (such as
however, otherwise, therefore, on the other hand,
and
in fact
), and between two independent clauses (no comma after
then, also, now, thus,
and
soon
).
The Dodgers have not played well this year
;
however,
the Giants have won ten games in a row.
Spring training went well
; then
the regular baseball season began.Slide59
Chapter
4
Combining SentencesSlide60
Coordination
If you want to communicate two equally important and closely related ideas, place them close together, probably in a
compound sentence
(two or more independent clauses).Slide61
FANBOYS Coordinating Conjunctions
For
shows a
reason
And
shows equal
ideas
Nor
indicates a negative choice or
alternative
But
shows
contrast
Or
indicates a choice or an
alternative
Yet
indicates
contrast
So
points to a
resultSlide62
Combining Sentences by Using a Coordinating Conjunction
When you combine two sentences by using a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), drop the first period, change the capital letter of the second sentence to a small letter, and insert a comma before the coordinating conjunction.
I like your home. I can visit for only three months.
I like your home, but I can visit for only three months.Slide63
Combining Sentences by Using a Semicolon
When you combine two sentences by using a semicolon, replace the first period with a semicolon and change the capital letter that begins the second sentence to a small letter. If you wish to use a conjunctive adverb, insert it after the semicolon and usually follow it with a comma.
I
like your home. I can visit for only three months.
I
like your home; I can visit for only three months.
I
like your home; however, I can visit for only three months.Slide64
Subordination
If you have two ideas that are closely related, but one is secondary or dependent on the other, you may want to use a
complex sentence
.
My neighbors are considerate. They never play loud music.
Because my neighbors are considerate
, they never play loud music.Slide65
Punctuating Complex Sentences
If the dependent clause comes first, set it off with a comma.
Because the dog has no hands or words,
he licks me to show affection.Slide66
Punctuating Complex Sentences
If the dependent clause comes after the main clause, set it off with a comma only if you use some form of the word
though
or if the words are not necessary to convey the basic meaning of the sentence.
Edmund Hillary was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II because he was one of the first two men to climb Mt. Everest.
Other mountain climbers soon duplicated his feat,
though
they received less recognition.Slide67
Punctuation of Relative Clauses
A relative clause should be set off
with
commas when it is not
necessary
to the sentence. Do no set
the
clause off if it is necessary for the
meaning
of the sentence
.
Necessary
:
No one who failed the eye test will get a driver’s license.
Unnecessary
:
Mr.
McGoo
, who failed his eye test, did not get a driver’s license.Slide68
Coordination and Subordination
At times you may want to show the relationship of three or more ideas within one sentence. If that relationship involves two or more main ideas and one or more supporting ideas, the combination can be stated in a
compound-complex
sentence (two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.)Slide69
Punctuating Compound and Complex Sentences
Use punctuation consistent with that of the
compound and complex sentences.
Kafka produced illegible handwritten papers. At that time he had not learned how to operate a word processor. Now he hands in clean, attractive pages.
Before Kafka learned how to operate a word processor, he produced illegible handwritten papers, but now he hands in clean, attractive pages. Slide70
Other Methods of Combining Ideas
Use an appositive phrase
, a group of words that immediately follows a noun or pronoun and renames it.
Garth Brooks claims Yukon, Oklahoma, as his hometown. He is a famous singer.
Garth Brooks, a famous singer, claims Yukon, Oklahoma as his hometown
.
Use
a prepositional phrase
, a preposition followed by a noun or pronoun object.
John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl victories. Both triumphs occurred in the 1990s.
John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl victories in the 1990s
.Slide71
Drop the subject in the sentence that follows
and combine the sentences.
Emily Dickinson’s poetry went mostly unpublished during her lifetime. It was finally discovered and celebrated more than half a century later.
Emily Dickinson’s poetry went mostly unpublished during her lifetime
but was finally discovered and celebrated more than half a century later
.
Use a participial phrase
, a group of words that includes a participle, which is a verbal that usually ends in –
ing
or –
ed
.
The turtle plodded without rest stops. It won the race against the rabbit.
Plodding without rest stops,
the turtle one the race against the rabbit.Slide72
Common Omissions
Subjects
Verbs
That
as a conjunction
PrepositionsSlide73
Techniques for Achieving Variety in Sentences
Types
Order
Length
BeginningsSlide74
Chapter 5
Correcting Fragments, Comma Splices, and Run-OnsSlide75
Complete Sentences
Each complete sentence must have an
independent clause
, a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, and can stand alone.
He enrolled
for the fall semester.Slide76
Fragments
Fragment: a word or group of words without a subject, without a verb, or without both
A correct sentence signals completeness; a fragment signals
incompleteness
You expect the speaker or writer of a fragment to
go on and finish the idea.
Common unacceptable fragments:
Dependent clause only:
When she came.
Phrase(s) only:
Waiting there for some help.
No subject in main clause:
Went to the library.
No verb in main clause:
She being the only person there.Slide77
Dependent Clause Fragments
A dependent clause cannot stand by itself because it begins with a subordinating word.
Because
he left.
When
she worked.
Although
they slept.Slide78
Relative Clauses as Fragments
A relative clause is a type of dependent clause.
If it is punctuated as a sentence by itself, it is incorrect.
Who don’t clean up after themselves.Slide79
Phrase Fragments
A
verbal phrase
, a
prepositional phrase
, and an
appositive phrase
may carry ideas, but each is incomplete because it lacks a subject and verb.
Verbal Phrase:
having completed his initial research
Having completed his initial research, he refined his outline
.
Prepositional Phrase:
in the store
She worked in the store.
Appositive Phrase:
a successful business
Marks Brothers, a successful business, sells clothing.Slide80
Fragments as Word Groups Without Subjects or Without Verbs
Each conventional sentence must have an independent clause, meaning a word or a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and that can stand alone.Slide81
Acceptable Fragments
Interjections:
Great! Hooray! Whoa!
Exclamations:
What a day! How terrible! What a bother!
Greetings:
Hello. Good morning. Good night. Good evening.
Questions:
What for? Why not? Where to?
Informal conversation:
(What time is it?) Eight o’clock. Really.Slide82
Comma Splices
A comma splice consists of two independent clauses with only a comma between them.
Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a bonus.
[A comma by itself cannot join two independent clauses.]Slide83
Run-ons
The
run-on
differs from the comma splice in only one respect: It has no comma between the independent clauses.
Maria exceeded her sales quota she received a bonus.
[Independent clauses must be properly connected.]Slide84
Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons
Use a comma and a
coordinating conjunction
(
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
) to correct the comma splice or run-on.
Maria exceeded her sales quota,
and
she received a bonus.Slide85
Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons
Use a
subordinating conjunction
(such as
because, after, that, when, although, since, how, till, unless, before
) to make one clause dependent and correct the comma splice or run-on.
Because
Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a bonus
.Slide86
Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons
Use a
semicolon
(with or without a conjunctive adverb such as
however, otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, also, thus
) to correct the comma splice or run-on.
Maria exceeded her sales quota;
therefore
, she received a bonus.
Maria exceeded her sales quota; she received a bonus.Slide87
Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons
Use a period to replace a comma and add a capital letter (to correct a comma splice), or use a period between two independent clauses and add a capital letter(to correct a run-on).
Maria exceeded her sales quota. She received a bonus.Slide88
Chapter 6
Balancing Sentence PartsSlide89
Parallelism
Parallelism is a balance of one structure with another of the same kind—nouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses.
Goats, chickens, and cows
[nouns]
roamed the yard and caused
[verbs]
considerable confusion.
Tanya walked into the room and out of the room with grace. [prepositional phrases]
Tanya walked into the room, and she walked out of the room with grace. [independent clauses]Slide90
Faulty Parallel Structure
Faulty parallel structure is awkward and draws unfavorable attention to what is being said.
Hitting home runs and to catch balls in the outfield were his main concerns.
should be
Hitting…and catching
or
To hit…and to catch.Slide91
Words that Signal Parallel Structure
All
coordinating conjunctions
(FANBOYS:
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
) can give such signals.
My car is inexpensive
and
plain.
My dog is ugly,
but
it is a good companion.Slide92
Combination Words that Signal Parallelism
The most common ones are
either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and,
and
whether/or.
Patsy decided that propagating plants could be either a hobby or a business but not both.
[A noun follows each of the combination words.]Slide93
Chapter 7
VerbsSlide94
Standard Usage
Standard usage
is appropriate for the kind of writing and speaking you are likely to do in your college work and future career.Slide95
Regular and Irregular Verbs
Whereas
regular verbs
are predictable—having an
–
ed
ending for past and past participle forms—
irregular verbs
, as the term suggests, follow no definite pattern.
raise, raised, raised
[regular]
see, saw, seen
[irregular]Slide96
Present Tense
Present tense verbs show an action or a state of being that is occurring at the present
time.
For
he, she,
and
it,
regular verbs in the present tense add an
-s
or an
-
es
to the base
word.
If the verb ends in
-y,
you might have to drop the
-y
and add
-
ies
for
he, she,
and
it.Slide97
Past Tense
Past tense verbs show an action or a state of being that occurred in the past
.
For regular verbs in the past tense, add
-
ed
to the base
form.
If the base form already ends in
-e,
add just
–d.
If the base form ends in a consonant followed by
-y,
drop the
-y
and add
-
ied
.Slide98
Past Participles
The past participle uses the helping verbs
has, have,
or
had
along with the past tense of the verb.
For regular verbs, whose past tense ends in
-
ed
,
the past participle form of the verb is the same as the past tense.Slide99
“Problem” Verbs
Certain verbs (present tense here) can be troublesome and should be studied with care.
lie, lay
sit, set
rise, raiseSlide100
Twelve Verb Tenses
SIMPLE TENSES
present
past
future
PERFECT TENSES
present perfect
past perfect
future perfect
PROGRESSIVE TENSES
present progressive
past progressive
future progressive
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
TENSES
present perfect progressive
past perfect progressive
future perfect progressiveSlide101
Community Dialects
Expressive and colorful
May not adhere to the rules for standard usage
Often not appropriate for college and professional writingSlide102
If the subject
is singular, the verb should be singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb should be plural.
The
price
of the shoes
is
high.
The
advantages
of that shoe
are
obvious.
Subject-Verb AgreementSlide103
Consistency in Tense
There are no inflexible rules about selecting a tense for a certain kind of writing, but you should be consistent, changing tense only for a good reason.
The present tense is customarily used in writing about
literature.
The past tense is likely to serve you best in writing about your personal experiences and about historical events
.Slide104
Voice
The active voice expression (subject, active verb, and sometimes object) is usually preferred over the passive voice expression (subject as the receiver of action, with doer unstated or at the end of a prepositional phrase.)
She read the book.
[active]
The book was read by her.
[passive]Slide105
Strong Verbs
In your revision,
replace weak
verbs with strong ones.
He
was the first to leave.
[weak verb]
He
left first.
[strong verb]Slide106
Chapter 8
PronounsSlide107
Pronouns and Pronoun Case
A
pronoun
is a word that is used in place of a noun.
Case
is the form a pronoun takes as it fills a position in a sentence.Slide108
Subjective Pronouns
Subjective-case pronouns
are
I, he
, and
she
(singular) and
we
and
they
(plural).
Who
can be either singular or plural.
Subjective case pronouns can fill subject positions.
We
dance in the park.
It was
she
who spoke.
[referring back to and meaning the same as
the subject]
Others are in incompletely stated clauses (signaled by
than
or
as
)Slide109
Objective Pronouns
Objective-case pronouns
are
me, him
, and
her
(singular) and
us
and
them
(plural).
Whom
can be either singular or plural.
Objective-case pronouns fill object positions.
We saw her in the library.
[object of a verb]
They gave the results to us.
[object of a preposition]Slide110
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use
If you have a compound element (such as a subject or an object of a preposition), consider only the pronoun part.
They will visit you and (I, me).
[Consider: They will visit me.]Slide111
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use
If the next important word after
who
or
whom
in a statement is a noun or pronoun, the word choice will be
whom
; otherwise, it will be
who
. Disregard qualifier clauses such as
It seems
and
I feel
.
The person
whom
judges like will win.
The person
who
works hardest will win.
The person
who
, we think, worked hardest won.
[ignoring the qualifier clause]Slide112
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use
Let’s
is made up of the words let and us and means “
You let us
”; therefore, when you select a pronoun to follow it, consider the two original words and select another object word—
me
.
Let’s you and
me
go to town.Slide113
Pronoun Agreement
A
pronoun agrees with its
antecedent in
person, number, and
gender
.Slide114
Pronoun Agreement
Avoid needless shifting in person, which means shifting in point of view, such as from
I
to
you
.
“I was having trouble. You could see disaster ahead.”
Change to
“I was having trouble. I could see disaster ahead.”Slide115
Pronoun Agreement
Most problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement involve number. The principles are simple: If the antecedent (the word the pronoun refers back to) is singular, use a singular pronoun. If the antecedent is plural, use a plural pronoun
.
Roger forgot
his
notebook.
Many students cast
their
votes.
Someone lost
his
or
her
[not
their
] book.Slide116
Pronoun Agreement
The pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, if the gender of the antecedent is specific. Masculine and feminine pronouns are gender-specific:
he, him, she, her
. Others are neuter:
I, we, me, us, it, they, them, who, whom, that, which
.Slide117
Pronoun Agreement
The words
who
and
whom
refer to people.
That
can refer to ideas, things, and people but usually does not refer to individuals.
Which
refers to ideas and things but not to people. To avoid a perceived sex bias, you can use
he
or
she
or
his
or
her
instead of just
he
or
his
; however, many writers simply make antecedents and pronouns plural.
Everyone should revise
his
or
her
composition carefully.
Students should revise
their
compositions carefully.Slide118
Pronoun Reference
A pronoun must refer clearly to its
antecedent
. Because a pronoun is a
substitute
word, it can express
meaning
clearly and definitely only if its antecedent is easily identified.Slide119
Chapter 9
Adjectives and AdverbsSlide120
Adjectives
Adjectives
modify (describe) nouns and pronouns and answer the questions
Which one?
What kind?
How many?Slide121
Adverbs
Adverbs
modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs and answer the questions
Where?
When?
Why?
How?
To what degree?
Most words ending in –
ly
are adverbs.Slide122
Making Comparisons with Adjectives
Some adjectives follow a regular pattern.
nice, nicer, nicest
lonely, more lonely, most lonelySlide123
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective Forms
Add –
er
to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of two.
Jethro
is shorter than Cy.
Add –
est
to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of more than two.
Senator Goodyear is the brightest
person in Congress.
c. Add the word more to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of two.
Your state is more prosperous than mine.Slide124
More Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective Forms
Add the word most to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of three or more.
Your state is the most prosperous state in the West.
Some adjectives are irregular in the way they change to show comparison.
good, better, best
bad, worse, worstSlide125
Making Comparisons with Adverbs
Some adverbs follow a regular pattern.
sadly, more sadly, most sadly
carefully, more carefully, most carefullySlide126
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb Forms
Add
–
er
to the comparative form and
–
est
to the superlative form.
Pierre
works hard.
[positive]
Pierre
works harder than Simon.
[comparative]
Pierre
works hardest of all students in the class.
[superlative]Slide127
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverbs Forms
Add the word
more
to adverbs of two or more syllables for the comparative form and the word
most
to adverbs of two or more syllables for the superlative form.
Sultana proofread carefully.
[positive]
Sultana proofread more carefully than
Venny
.
[comparative]
Sultana proofread most carefully in all the class.
[superlative]Slide128
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb Forms
In some cases the word
less
may be substituted for
more
and the word
least
for
most.
Martelle
examined the contract
less carefully
during her second reading.
[comparative]
Martelle
examined the contract
most carefully
during her third reading.
[superlative]Slide129
Double Negatives
Avoid double negatives. Words such as
no, not, none, nothing, never, hardly, barely
, and
scarcely
should not be combined.Slide130
Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs
Do not confuse adjectives with adverbs. Among the most commonly confused adjectives and adverbs are
good / well
bad / badly
real / reallySlide131
Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs
The words
good, bad
, and
real
are always adjectives.
The words
badly
and
really
are always adverbs.
Well
is usually an adverb.
Well
is sometimes an adjective.Slide132
Incorrect:
Clint did
good
.
[Good is not an adverb]
Correct:
Joline
felt
good
.
[
Good
does not address the matter of feeling; it indicates the condition of the subject,
Joline
.]
Correct:
Clint did
well
.
[Used here as an adverb,
well
modifies
the verb
did
.]
Correct:
Sigmund said, “Carl, you are not a well
person.”
[Used here as an adjective,
well
modifies
the noun
person
.]Slide133
Incorrect:
Elvis was
real
happy with his new disguise.
[
Happy
is an adjective modifying the noun Elvis, and
real
modifies that adjective.
Because only adverbs modify adjectives, we need
the word
really
.]
Correct:
Elvis was
really
happy with his new disguise.Slide134
Incorrect:
I feel badly.
[Badly is an adverb but here indicates the condition of the subject; therefore, it modifies the pronoun I.]
Correct:
I feel
bad.
[Bad is an adjective modifying the pronoun I.]
Correct:
I explained that
badly
.
[Badly, an adverb, modifies the verb explained.]Slide135
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier gives information but fails to make clear which word or group of words it refers to.
Incorrect:
Ignoring the traffic signals, the car crashed into a truck.
[The car is not ignoring; the driver is.]
Correct:
Ignoring the traffic signals, the driver crashed his car into a truck.Slide136
Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is placed so that it modifies the wrong word or words.
Incorrect:
The monkeys attracted the attention of the elegant women
who picked fleas off one another
.
Correct:
The monkeys
who picked fleas off one another
attracted the attention of the elegant women
.Slide137
Chapter 10
Punctuation and CapitalizationSlide138
Three Marks of
End Punctuation
.
Periods
– use after a statement or common abbreviations.
Questions marks
– use at the end of a direct question, not indirect questions.
She asked me what caused the slide.
Exclamation points
– use after a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling. Don’t overwork it or use double exclamation points.Slide139
Commas
The
comma
is used to separate and set off sentence elements.
Use a comma to separate main clauses joined by one of the coordinating conjunctions
—for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
We went to the game, but it was cancelled.
Use a comma after long introductory modifiers. The modifiers may be phrases or dependent clauses.
Before she and I arrived, the meeting was called to order.Slide140
Commas
Use a comma to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series.
He ran down the street, across the park, and into the forest.
Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives not joined by and that modify the same noun.
I need a sturdy, reliable truck.Slide141
Commas
Use a comma to separate sentence elements that might be misread.
Outside, the thunder rolled.
•
Use commas to set off nonessential (unnecessary for the meaning of the sentence) words, phrases, and clauses.
Maria, who studied hard, will pass.Slide142
Commas
Use commas to set off nouns used as direct address.
What do you intend to do, Hamlet?
Use commas to separate the numbers
in a date.
November 11, 1918, is a day worth remembering.
Use commas to separate the city from the state. No comma is used between the state and the ZIP code.
Boston, MA 02110Slide143
Semicolons
The
semicolon
indicates a longer pause and stronger emphasis than the comma. It is used principally to separate main clauses within a sentence.Slide144
Semicolons
Use a semicolon to separate main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.
You must buy that car today; tomorrow will be too late.Slide145
Semicolons
Use a semicolon between two main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (such as
however, otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, accordingly, thus
).
It was very late; therefore, I remained at the hotel.Slide146
Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are used principally to set off direct quotations. A direct quotation consists of material taken from the written work or the direct speech of others; it is set off by double quotation marks. Single quotation marks are used to set off a quotation within a quotation.
He said, “I don’t remember if she said, ‘Wait for me.’”Slide147
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks to set off slang, technical terms, and special words.
The “platoon system” changed the game of football.
[technical term]Slide148
Italics
Italics
(slanting type) are also used to call special attention to certain words of groups of words. In handwriting or typing, such words are underlined.Slide149
Italics
Italicize (underline) foreign words and phrases that are still listed in the dictionary as foreign.
modus operandi
perestroikaSlide150
Italics
Italicize titles of books; long poems; plays; magazines; motion pictures; musical compositions, newspapers; works of art; names of aircraft and ships; and letters, numbers, and words referred to by their own name.
War and Peace
Apollo 12
Leaving the second o out of
sophomore.Slide151
The Dash
The
dash
is used when a stronger pause than a comma is needed. It can also be used to indicate a break in the flow of thought and to emphasize words (less formal than the colon in this situation.)
I can’t remember the town—now I do—it’s Tupelo.Slide152
The Colon
The
colon
is a formal mark of punctuation used chiefly to introduce something that is to follow, such as a list, a quotation, or an explanation.
These cars are my favorites: Cadillac, Chevrolet, Toyota, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac.Slide153
Parentheses
Parentheses
are used to set off material that is of relatively little importance to the main thought of the sentence. Such material—numbers, parenthetical material, figures, supplementary material, and sometimes explanatory details—merely amplifies the main thought.
The
years of the era (1961-1973) were full of action.
I
paid twenty dollars ($20) for that
mousepad
.Slide154
Brackets
Brackets
are used within a quotation to set off editorial additions or corrections made by the person who is quoting.
“It [the Yalta Agreement] contained many mistakes.”Slide155
The Apostrophe
The apostrophe is used with nouns and indefinite pronouns to show possession, to show the omission of letters and figures in contractions, and to form the plurals of letters, figures, and words referred to as words.
man’s coat
girl’s clothes
can’t
five
and’s
it’s [contraction]Slide156
The Hyphen
The
hyphen
is used to link two or more words together into a single compound word. Hyphenation, therefore, is essentially a spelling problem rather than a punctuation problem. Because the hyphen is not used with any degree of consistency, it is best to consult your dictionary to learn current usage.Slide157
Uses of the Hyphen
Use a hyphen to separate the parts of many compound words.
about-face go-between
Use a hyphen between prefixes and proper names.
all-American mid-July
Use a hyphen with spelled-out compound numbers up to ninety-nine and with fractions.
Twenty-six one hundred two-thirds
Use a hyphen to join two or more words used as a single-adjective modifier before a noun.
First-class service hard-fought game
sad-looking motherSlide158
Use English Conventions for Capital Letters
Capitalize the first word of a sentence
Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns such as the names of persons, countries, nationalities and races, days of the week, months, and titles of books
Capitalize words denoting family relationships when they are used before a name or substituted for a name.
The minister greeted Aunt May, my grandfather, and Mother.Slide159
Chapter 11
Spelling and Commonly Confused WordsSlide160
Spelling Tips
Do not omit letters.
Incorrect:
libary
Correct:
library
Do not add letters.
Incorrect
:
athalete
Correct:
athlete
Do not substitute incorrect letters
for correct letters.
Incorrect:
technacal
Correct:
technical
Do not transpose letters.
Incorrect:
perfer
Correct:
preferSlide161
Spelling Tips
Apply the spelling rules for spelling
ei
and
ie
words correctly.
Use
i
before
e
Except after
c
Or when sounded like
a
As in
neighbor
and
weigh
Exceptions:
either, financier, height, leisure, neither, seize, species, weirdSlide162
Spelling Tips
Apply the rules for dropping the final
e
or retaining the final e when a
suffix
is added.
Correct
:
come comingSlide163
Spelling Tips
Apply the rules for doubling a final
consonant
before a suffix beginning with a vowel if the final syllable is
accented
.
Correct
:
transfer transferredSlide164
Spelling Tips
Study the list of frequently
misspelled
words.Slide165
Confused Spelling/Confusing Words
Some words are sometimes
misspelled
because they are
mispronounced
or share a
pronunciation
with another word.
Incorrect
:
alright
Correct:
all
right
Two words with the same sound and different meanings
: hear hereSlide166
Avoiding Wordy Phrases
At the present time
Due to the fact that
Until such time as
I personally feel that
At that point in time
In this day and ageSlide167
Chapter 12
The Writing Process: Paragraphs and EssaysSlide168
The Paragraph
A
paragraph
is a group of
sentences that relate to a single idea.
The controlling idea is stated in the topic sentence.
All of the other sentences explain or support the topic sentence.Slide169
The
Essay
The essay
contains multiple paragraphs.
It begins with an introductory paragraph that presents the main idea (thesis).
The main idea is developed in several paragraphs that make up the body of the essay.
An essay usually ends with a concluding paragraph that gives a feeling of finality.Slide170
The Writing Process
Using prewriting techniques to explore a topic
Limiting and then developing the topic, usually with an outline
Writing a first draft
Revising the draft as often as necessary
Editing the materialSlide171
Prewriting
Prewriting includes activities you do before writing your first draft or whenever you need new ideas.
These strategies help you get started and develop your ideas.
Prewriting strategies:
freewriting
, brainstorming, clustering, defining a topic, and outliningSlide172
Freewriting
Write without stopping, letting your ideas tumble forth.
Helps you
get your project underway and deal with writer’s block.Slide173
Generating key words and phrases related to the topic
Begin by asking
Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How?
questions about your subject or by merely listing ideas concerning your subject.
BrainstormingSlide174
Clustering
Start
by double-bubbling your topic.
Then
ask “What comes to mind?” and single-bubble other ideas on spokes radiating out from the double bubble.Slide175
The Topic Sentence
An effective topic sentence has both a subject and a focus. The subject is what you intend to write about. The focus is what you intend to do with your subject.
Example:
Wilson High School
subject
offers a well-balanced academic program.
focusSlide176
Outlining
Pattern for showing the relationship of ideasSlide177
Topic sentence
I. Major support
A. Minor support
B. Minor support
1. Details or examples
2. Details or examples
II. Major support
A. Minor support
B. Minor support
Slide178
Writing Your First Draft
First (or rough) draft = your initial writing
As you write, pay close attention to your outline
But do not get caught up in correcting and polishing your writing during this
stageSlide179
Revising Your Writing
Rearrange and polish the writing
Put sentences in the best possible order and come up with the best possible words
The main points of revision are contained in the acronym CLUESS.Slide180
CLUESS
C
oherence:
Does the material flow smoothly, with each idea leading logically to the next?
L
anguage:
Are the words appropriate for the message, occasion, and audience?
U
nity:
Are all ideas related to and subordinate to the topic sentence?
E
mphasis:
Have you used techniques such as repetition and placement of ideas to emphasize your main point(s)?
S
upport:
Have you presented material to back up, justify, or prove your topic sentence?
S
entences
: Have you used some variety of structure and avoided fragments, comma splices, and run-ons?Slide181
Editing:
Examine
your work carefully.
Look for problems in
C
apitalization,
O
missions,
P
unctuation
, and
S
pelling.
(COPS)Slide182
Using the Writing Process Worksheet
Explore your topic, organize your ideas, and write your paragraphs using the Writing Process Worksheet as your guide.
Photocopy the blank form in the book or print it from the Student Companion site.Slide183
Chapter 13
Combined and Specific Patterns of Writing and Writing TopicsSlide184
Combined Patterns of Writing
Patterns can help you organize your thoughts so that your audience can easily understand your message.
A well-written essay is usually a combination of different patterns: Descriptive Narration, Exemplification, Analysis by Division, Process Analysis, Cause and Effect, Comparison and Contrast, Definition, ArgumentSlide185
Descriptive Narration
Include these points:
Situation
Conflict
Struggle
Outcome
MeaningSlide186
As appropriate, use the following in narratives:
Images that appeal to the senses (sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch) and other details to advance action
Dialogue
Transitional devices to indicate chronological
orderSlide187
Transitional Words for Narratives
FOR DESCRIPTION:
Place
:
above, over, under, below, nearby, near, across, beyond, among, to the right, to the left, in the background, in the foreground, further, beside, opposite, within sight, out of sight
FOR NARRATION:
Time:
after, before, later, earlier, initially, soon, recently, next, today, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, until, currently, when, finally, not long after, immediately, (at) first, (at) last, third, previously, in the meantime, meanwhileSlide188
In narration,
Give details concerning action
Be consistent with point of view and verb tense
Keep in mind that most narratives written as college assignments will have an expository purpose; that is, they explain a specific ideaSlide189
Exemplification
Using examples to
Explain
Convince
AmuseSlide190
Characteristics of Good Examples
Vivid examples attract attention
Specific examples are identifiable
Representative examples are typical and therefore the basis for generalizationSlide191
In exemplification
Tie your examples clearly to your thesis
Draw your examples from what you have read, heard, and experienced
Brainstorm a list or cluster of possible examples before you writeSlide192
Transitional Words for Exemplification
For example, as an example, another example, for instance, such as, including, specifically, especially, in particular, to illustrate, as an illustration, that is, i.e.
(meaning
that is
),
e.g.
(meaning
for example
)Slide193
Analysis by Division
Almost anything can
be analyzed
by
division:
How
parts of the ear work in hearing
How parts of the eye work in seeing
How parts of the heart work in pumping blood throughout the bodySlide194
Procedure for Analysis by Division
Step 1 – begin with something that is a unit
Step 2 – state the principle by which that unit functions
Step 3 – divide the unit into parts according to the principle
Step 4 – Discuss each of the parts in relation to the unitSlide195
To
apply that procedure
to
a new boss:
Unit
Manager
Principle of function
Effective as a leader
Parts based on the
Fair, intelligent, stable,
principle
competent in the field
Discussion
Consider each part in
relation to the person’s
effectiveness as a managerSlide196
Transition Words for Analysis by Division
Time or numbering:
first, second, third, another, last, finally, soon, later, currently, before, along with, another part
(
section, component
)
Space:
above, below, to the left, to the right, near, beyond, under, next to, in the background, split, divide
Emphasis:
most important, equally important, central to the, to this end, as a result, taken collectively, with this purpose in mind, working with the, in fact, of course, above all, most of all, especially, primarily, without questionSlide197
Two Types of Process Analysis
Directive process analysis
explains how to do something; it usually addresses the reader as “you”
Informative process analysis
explains how something was (is) done by giving data; does not use the words
you
or
yourSlide198
Basic Forms for Process Analysis
Directive
Preparation
A.
B.
Steps
A.
B.
C.
Informative
Background/context
A.
B.
Sequence
A.
B.
C.Slide199
Transitional Words for Process Analysis
Order will usually be chronological (time-based) in some sense:
first
,
second
,
third
,
then
,
soon
,
now
,
next
,
finally
,
at last
,
therefore
,
consequently
Words used to show the passage of time such as hours, days of the week, and so on (especially for informative process analysis)Slide200
Cause and Effect
Determine whether your topic should mainly inform or mainly persuade
Use the right tone for your purpose and audienceSlide201
Using Listing to Develop Cause and Effect
Event, Situation, or Trend
Causes
1.
2.
3.
4.
Effects
1.
2.
3.
4.Slide202
Decide whether to concentrate on
Causes
Effects
Combination of Causes and EffectsSlide203
Basic Structure for Paragraph
A typical outline might look like this:
Cause or Effect 1
Cause or Effect 2
Cause or Effect 3Slide204
Emphasis in Cause and Effect
Lend emphasis to your main
concern(s
)—causes, effects, or
a combination—by
repeating key words,
such
as
Cause
Reason
Effect
Result
Consequence
OutcomeSlide205
Kinds of Causes and Effects
Primary (
main)
Secondary
(contributing)
Immediate
RemoteSlide206
Order
Time
Space
EmphasisSlide207
Transitional Words for Cause and Effect
Cause:
as, because, because of, due to, for, for the reason that, since, bring about, another cause, for this reason, one cause, a second cause, another cause, a final cause
Effect:
accordingly, finally, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus, as a consequence, as a result, resultingSlide208
Comparison and Contrast
Use the 4 P’s:
Purpose
Points
Pattern
PresentationSlide209
Purpose
Decide whether you are writing a work that is primarily comparison, primarily contrast, or balanced.
During
the exploration of your topic,
define
your
purpose (inform or persuade)
clearly.Slide210
Points
Indicate your points of comparison or contrast, perhaps by listing
Eliminate irrelevant pointsSlide211
Pattern
After considering your topic and the planned focus, select the
Subject-by-subject pattern
Point-by-point pattern
Compose an outline reflecting the pattern you select.Slide212
Basic Subject-by-Subject
Pa
ttern
Subject X
A. Point 1
B. Point
2
Subject Y
A. Point 1
B. Point 2Slide213
Basic Point-by-Point P
attern
Point 1
A. Subject X
B. Subject Y
Point 2
A. Subject X
B. Subject Y
Slide214
Presentation
Give each point more or less equal treatment.
Attention
to each part of the outline will usually ensure balanced development
.
Use
a carefully stated topic
sentence
for a paragraph and a clear thesis for an essay.Slide215
Transitional Words for Comparison and Contrast
Comparison:
in the same way, similarly, likewise, also, by comparison, in a like manner, as, with, as though, both, like, just as
Contrast:
but, by contrast, in contrast, despite, however, instead, nevertheless, on
(
to
)
the contrary, in spite of, still, yet, unlike, even so, rather than, otherwiseSlide216
Definition
Simple Definition
Extended DefinitionSlide217
Simple Definition
No two words have the same meaning.
Forms of simple definitions: basic dictionar
y definitions, synonyms, direct explanations, indirect explanations, and analytical definitions.
For formal or analytical definition, specify the term, class, and characteristic(s).
Avoid “is where” and “is when” definitions, circular definitions, and the use of words in the definition that are more difficult than the word being defined.Slide218
Capitalism
is an economic system
term
class
characterized by investment of
characteristics
money, private ownership, and
free enterprise
.Slide219
Extended Definition
Use clustering to consider other patterns of development that may be used to define your term
Narration
•
Description
Exemplification
•
Analysis by Division
Process Analysis
•
Cause and Effect
Classification
•
Comparison and ContrastSlide220
Extended Definition
Use clustering to consider other patterns of development that may be used to define your term
Narration
•
Description
Exemplification
•
Analysis by Division
Process Analysis
•
Cause and Effect
Classification
•
Comparison and ContrastSlide221
Order
The organization of your extended definition is likely to be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on subject material.
You may use just one pattern of development for the overall sequence.Slide222
Ways to Introduce a Definition
Question
Statement of what it is not
Statement of what it originally meant
Discussion of why a clear definition is important
Combination of these waysSlide223
Developing a Definition
Development is likely to represent one or more of the patterns of narration, description, exposition, and argumentation.
Whether or not you personalize depends on purpose and audience. Slide224
Transitional Words for Definition
originates from, means, derives from, refers to, for example, as a term, as a concept, label, similar to, different from, in a particular context, in common usage, in historical contextSlide225
Questions to Ask When Developing Ideas for Argument
Background:
What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?
Proposition
(
the thesis of the essay
): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?
Qualification of proposition:
Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with expectations?
Refutation
(taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness):
What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?
Support:
in addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?Slide226
Basic Form for Paragraph of Argument
Proposition (topic
sentence or thesis)
I. Support 1
II. Support 2
III. Support 3Slide227
Transitional Words for Argument
it follows that, as a result, causes taken collectively, as a concession, even though, of course, in the context of, in the light of, in the final analysis, following this, further, as additional support, moreover, consequently, according to, in support of, contrary to, therefore, naturally