ConservationandgrazinginAustralia ID: 241927
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RESEARCHOpenAccess ConservationandgrazinginAustralia snorth-east: thebridlednailtailwallaby FiachraKearney 1* ,RyanRJMcAllister 2 andNeilDMacLeod 2 *Correspondence: fiachra@ bntwallaby.org.au 1 BridledNailtailWallabyTrust,61 RoderickStreet,Ipswich,4305, Australia Abstract Australia svastcontinentisdominatedbysemi-aridandaridlandscapesthathave beenmodifiedtosupportthedevelopmentofanextensivelivestockgrazing wide-scalelandscapedegradationandlossofbiodiversity,includingsmall macropods.Withthegrowingappreciationofenvironmentalvaluesandecological servicesprovidedbygrazinglandscapes,theengagementofpastorallandholdersis nowcentraltocontemporaryconservationefforts.Inthispaperweexplorethe splutteringrecoveryofAustralia scriticallyendangeredbridlednailtailwallaby Onychogaleafraenata ,oncepresumedextinctbutnowsubjecttoalimited rehabilitationprograminQueensland.Weexplorethe fit betweenmanagement unitsandthescaleofconservationchallengesforthebridlednailtailwallaby,and thenusethistoframetheroleoftheprivategrazingindustryinthegovernanceof conservationactions.Acentralisedstateconservationprogramhaslargelyfailedto stopthedeclineofthespecies,whichremainscriticallyendangered.Wearguethat non-state(privately)managedgrazingpropertiesworkingwithinamulti-level governancesystemthatincludesthestatehaveagreaterchanceofconservation successbecausetheiractionscanmoreappropriatelymatchthescaleofthe problemattheimplementationlevel.Ifthespeciesrecovers,thebalanceof managementfocuswillneedtoshifttowardsbroaderscaleactionssuchthat localiseddisconnectedsub-populationscansuccessfullyinterbreed.Byanalysingthe institutionalfailuresthatsurroundthebridlednailtailwallaby,weprovide recommendationsonhowpublicinstitutionsorpoliciescansuccessfullycatalyse privatesectoractionatregionalscales.Theseincludeavoidingeconomicincentives thatmaycrowdoutlocalstewardship,avoidingoverly-authoritativestatecontrol (i.e.mono-centricity),anddevelopingamultilevelgovernancestructurethatcan strategicallyadaptitsfocustothescaleofvariousandshiftingtargets. Keywords: Background Attemptstoprotectglobalbiodiversityarerifewithexamplesofconservationfailures forspeciesforwhichsufficientscientificinformationactuallyexiststootherwisesup- portsuccessfulconservationefforts(MillenniumEcosystemAssessment2005).Eco- nomicpressureonlandscapemanagerstomaintainviableactivities(especiallyfood andfibreproductiontosatisfytheneedsofincreasinghumanpopulations)andpro- gressiveland-usechangeareleadingdriversofspecies decline.Oftenthough,these driversarethemselvessymptomsofunderlyinginstitutionalfailures.Institutionsare ©2012Kearneyetal.;licenseeSpringer.ThisisanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommons AttributionLicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninany medium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited. Kearney etal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice 2012, 2 :20 http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 thesocialnorms,andnon-regulatoryandregulatoryrulesthatgoverntheactionsthatbothdriveconservationissuesandprohibitconservationactions(seeYoung2002).InthispaperweexplorethehistoryoftheconservationoftheEndangeredbridlednailtailwallaby(Onychogaleafraenata).Thisspeciesoncewide-scalesemi-aridrangehasbeenheavilydisturbedbypredationfromferalpests(e.g.foxesanddingoes)andextensivelandclearingforpasturedevelopmentforlivestockgrazingtothepointthatitisthrea-tenedbyextinction.Thesheerscaleofhabitatlossandpredationloadissuchthat,likemanythreatenedsavannaandwoodlandfloralandfaunaspecies,thewallabypopulationcannotfeasiblyberecoveredandthenprotectedwithinthelimitednetworkofformalconservationreservesthatexistintheextensivegrazingregionsofAustralia(e.g.McIntyreandBarrett1992;Pressey1995;YoungandHoward1995).Giventhatthelargerpartofthelandscapeisnowprivatelyownedandmanagedbypastoralists,itisinevitablethatthesolutiontosecuringthewallabysfuturewillhavetobefoundonthatgrazinglandandthepastoralistcommunitywillpotentiallybekeyplayersinanyseriouseffortstorecoverthespecies.Howeverconservationeffortsforthewallabyre-mainfragmentedandpoorlycoordinatedandthebroaderpastoralistcommunity,whichderiveslittleapparentvaluefromthespeciespresenceontheirland,islargelydiscon-nectedfromboththespeciesanditsprotection.Internationalevidencesuggeststhatwherecommunitiesareexcludedfromthegovernanceoftheirlocalresourcesconservationeffortswillgenerallyfail.Forex-ample,inAfricasMaasailandpoorrelationshipsbetweenthestateandindividualenterpriseshavebeendisempoweringlocalcommunitiesthushamperingbothcon-servationandlivelihoodoutcomes(HomewoodandThompson2009).InSouthAmerica,internationalinvolvementintheeffortstoprotectthevicunahaveworkedperverselytobothendangerandprotectthespecies,butalackofcommu-nityengagementinactiverecoveryeffortsisultimatelythreateningitssustainability(LichtensteinandCarmanchahithisedition;McAllisteretal.2009a).Attheotherextreme,however,otherswarnthatsimplyseekingtoempowerlocalresourceusersprovidesnoguaranteeforachievingconservationsuccess(Bradshaw2003).Ques-tionshavebeenraisedoverthecredibilityofthesustainabilityagendasoflocalcommunitiesandtheircapacitytoactuallyimplementthem(NelsonandAgrawal2008),aswellasthecredibilityofeffortsofcentralauthoritiestotrulydevolvepowertolocalresourceusers(Bradshaw2003).Aframeworkforexploringconservationproblemsisemergingaroundtheproblemsofinstitutionalfit(seeCummingetal.2006;Folkeetal.1998).Thisframeworkiscentredontheconceptthatmanagementthatisrequiredtoputscientificinformationtogoodusewillnecessarilyoperateattemporalandspatialscalesthatarefrequentlyinappropriatefortheproblemathand.Morebroadly,theoutcomeofcollectivemanagementwilllargelybedeterminedbythesuiteofpolicyandprivateactorswhointerplayaroundparticularcon-servationissues.Thiscollectiveconstructofmanagementisreferredtoasmultilevelgo-vernance.Thekeytomanagingtheproblemofestablishingappropriateinstitutionalfitliesnotmerelyinfittingthemanagementtoaparticularscale,butratherexploitingthemulti-levelaspectofgovernancesystemsinordertoadaptivelycoordinatethevariousconserva-tionactivities.Inthiscontext,pastoralistsworkingatalocalscaleneedtobegivenauthoritytoundertakelocalconservationdecisions,butwithconnectivityandaccountabi-lityestablishedwithinabroadersystemofgovernance.etal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page2of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 Therefore,pastoralistsholdingthestatusofownersandmanagersofthegreaterpro-portionoflocalgrazinglandscapesneedtobekeypartnersinmanagingthoseland-scapesforconservationoutcomes.However,grazingperseisbynomeansthesaviourofAustraliasthreatenedbiodiversity.Thegrazingindustryworkingwithinthecontextofalonghistoryofpolicysupporthasundertakenextensivelandclearingandpasturedevel-opmentactionsthathavehadadramaticeffectonlandscapeecologicalvalues(McIntyreetal.2002;WoinarskiandFisher2003)andsoilfunction(Kauretal.2007).Highgrazingin-tensityreducescoverandtherebyincreasessedimentlosses(Bartleyetal.2010);reducestotalsoilnitrogenandorganiccarbon(Beyeretal.2011);interruptsnaturalfirecycles(e.g.Hodgkinsonetal.1984);andreducestheabundanceofbirdspecies(Martinetal.2005)andsmallmammals(WoinarskiandFisher2003).Nevertheless,whilesubstantialenvironmentaldegradationinAustraliahasbeenattributedtolivestockgrazing(NLWRA2002;TothillandGillies1993),thegrazingin-dustryispotentiallyacriticalresourceandapartnertonationaleffortstoconservebio-diversity(Campbell1995),andparticularlysomehighlyendangeredspecies.Thereisnotechnicalpossibilityofre-creatingpre-EuropeanrangelandsystemsofAustralia,norwoulditbeeconomicallysensibletoattempttodoso(Pannell1999,2000).Thesevastlandscapesneedtobeactivelymanagedtoachieveeithersustainableproductionorconservationoutcomes,andpoliciesofcompleteabandonmentwillofferlimitedbenefittoanyparty.Assuch,workingactivelywiththepastoralindustryintothefutureises-sentiallytheonlyrealisticoptionopenforimprovingbiodiversityoutcomesacrosslargetractsofthelandscape.WefocusonanorthernAustralianrangelandcase-study,whereacommercially-orientedlivestockgrazingland-usesystemhaslargelyreplacedoneoftraditionalAboriginalresourceuse.Specificallywerecountconservationeffortsofthebridlednail-tailwallaby.Itisimportanttonotethatforbridlednailtailconservationtherearelim-itedtangibleco-benefitswithgrazing.Hencetheproblemisoneofco-existence,andofhowtostructureagovernancesystemspecificallytargetedforamulti-scaleconserva-tionproblemsthatincorporatesactioningrazingenterprises.Wearguetheexistenceandeffectofinstitutionalinadequaciesusingscalemis-matchesasouranalyticalframe-work.Akeyfocusofthereviewisonhowandwhyconversationofthespeciesonnon-state,privatelymanagedgrazingpropertiesmayhavesomesuccessifmanagedappro-priatelyandhowstateinstitutionsmightworktosuccessfullyupscalesuchnon-statesuccesses.HistoryofthedemiseofthebridlednailtailwallabyThebridlednailtailwallabyisasmall,solitaryash-greymacropodwithstrikingmark-ingsacrossitsshouldersresemblingawhitebridle,andadistinctblack-stripealongitsspine(Figure1).Malesandfemalesweigh5-8kgand4-6kgrespectively.Ofthethreespeciesinthegenus,thenorthernnailtailwallaby(O.unguifera)ispresentlysecureinstatus(Ingleby1991),thecrescentnailtailwallaby(O.lunata)isPresumedExtinct(Burbidge1983)andthebridlednailtailwallabyisclassifiedasbeingEndangered(EvansandGordon2008).ThebridlednailtailwallabywasoncedistributedacrossmillionsofsquarekilometresrangingfromChartersTowersinnorthQueenslanddowntotheMurrayRiverontheNewSouthWales-Victorianborder.Habitatforthespeciesvariesthroughopengrassetal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page3of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 woodlands(Eucalyptdominant)todenseshrublands(Acaciadominant),althoughit generallyshowsamarkedpreferenceformorefertileareasofthelandscapeandespe- ciallytransitionareaswheredenseshrublandandgrassywoodlandsmeet(EvansandGor- don2008;GordonandLawrie1980).Theanimalappearstoprefertoshelterinthethick shrubsandfallentimberbydayandnocturnallygrazeshorterpastures,andwhenfeeding inopenpasturestaysclosetotheedgeofthethickershelterhabitatpresumablytoevade detectionbypredators(EvansandGordon2008;Tierney1985). Likemanysmall-mediumsizedAustralianmammalsthepopulationsofthebridled nailtailwallabysufferedprecipitousdeclinesfollowingEuropeancolonisationandthe expansionofpastoralismacrossthecontinent(Gordon1983).Infact,therewereno confirmedsightingsofthewallabybetween1937and1973andtheanimalwasgener- allythoughttohavebecomeextinct.Therearemanyfactorsunderlyingthedramatic declineinwallabynumbersacrossitshistoricrange,andthesearethoughttohavebeen mutuallyreinforcing,suchassignificantlyincreasedpredationratesfollowingtheintro- ductionoffoxesandferalcats,extensiveclearingofnativevegetation(especiallyAcacia shrublands)forpasturedevelopmentandthealterationofhabitatstructureandcom- positionbyfurthervegetationmanagementandselectivegrazingbylivestockwhere someoftheoriginalhabitatremained(LaveryandTierney1985). Grazingbysheephasbeenspecificallyimplicatedasadriverfortheearlyphasesofthe declineinthewallaby srangebecausetheanimalreliesheavilyuponherbsandforbsfor forage,withsomeselectionofnativegrasses,andthespeciesoccupiesafairlynarrowniche inthetrophicsystem(GordonandLawrie1980).Sheepgrazingcreateddirectcompetition forfoodandultimatelyleadtoabroad-scalecompositionalchangewithintheshrubland andadjacentwoodlandunderstory.Inthenorthernpartofthewallaby sformerrange,beef cattlelargelydisplacedsheepastheprincipalgrazinganimalandthecompetitiveeffect possiblycamemorethroughstructuralmodi ficationoftheshrubunderstorythrough animalmovementandtramplingratherthandirectcompetitionforforageandconsequent compositionalchangeofthegrassandforbscommunities. Themajorstructuralchangeinthenorthernh abitatassociatedwithexpandingcattle numberslargelycamethroughthewidescaleclearingoftheAcaciashrublands (especiallyBrigalow- Acaciaharpophylla) andsowingofbuffelgrass( Cenchrus ciliaris )pasturesundervariouspubliclysponsoredlanddevelopmentschemesfrom Figure1 Bridlednailtailwallaby:(A)showingstripedmarkingsonback(©ProjectKial),(B)with livestockonAvocetgrazingenterprise(©BrianSiebel2008)and,(C)monitoring(©BrianSiebel 2008). Kearney etal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice 2012, 2 :20Page4of17 http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 theearly1960 s(QLAC1968).Buffelgrasstypicallyalterstheshrubunderstorystruc- tureand,ifleftunmanaged,cancreatedense physicalbarriersthatextendoverareas thatarelargeenoughtopreventtheeffectivemigrationandimmigrationofsmaller animals(Eyreetal.2009;Smythetal.2009).Thisparticulargrassspeciescanalsoout- competenativegrassesandforbs,therebydecreasingfoodavailabilityandselectionfor thebridlednailtailwallaby.Buffelgrasscanalsosupporthotterfiresthanthe maximumtemperaturethattheacaciaoverst orycanwithstand,thusfurtherremoving suitablehabitatforthewallabies(Milleretal.2010). Aremnantpopulationofthespecieswasrediscoveredontwograzingpropertiesin CentralQueenslandin1973(GordonandLawrie1980)inwhatisnowTauntonNational Park(Scientific)(seeFigure2E).Thisremnantpopulationwasimmediatelysurveyed,the twopropertiesonwhichitresidedwereacquiredandastate(QueenslandGovernment) conservationprogramwasinitiatedbytheNationalParksService.Atthetimeofacquisi- tion,thewallabypopulationwasestimatedatapproximately1400individuals,withmost oftheanimalslocatedwithintheboundariesofTauntonNationalPark.Fromthattime, Figure2 KeylocationsofbridlednailtailwallabypopulationswithinQueensland:(A)GoldCoast;(B) AvocetGrazing;Property;(C)Townsville;(D)IdaliaNationalPark;(E)TauntonNationalPark;(F) GregoryMine;(G)privatebreedingfacility. Shadingindicatestheapproximatehistoricalrange. Kearney etal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice 2012, 2 :20Page5of17 http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 however,thereappearstohavebeenasubstantialdeclineinwallabynumbersdespitestateplanstoprotectthespecies.Mis-matchesinscaleasananalyticalframeworkThefailuretoconserveaspecies,andparticularlytosaveitfromextinction,canbeseensimplisticallyasafailureinhumanbehaviour.Topositivelyinfluencespe-ciesconservationefforts,humanbehavioursneedtobeunderstoodintermsoftherulesthatgovernthem-socialnorms,andregulatoryandnon-regulatoryrulesthatareappliedbymultiplescalesofgovernment.Theserulesareinstitutionscanbeencategorisedaseitherrulesonpaperswhichrefertotheliteralinterpret-ationoflegislativerulesaboutwhatactionscanbeenacted,orrulesinusewhichrefertohowpeoplewillinterpretthewrittenrulesandhowtheycombinewithso-cialnorms(Young2002).Institutionsalsofacilitatecooperation,andbuildfutureconsequencesintootherwisemyopicdecisionmaking(Cummingetal.2006).Institutionalsettingshavebothspatialandtemporalscales,andwhereconservationeffortsdofail,itisoftenarguedthattherootcauseofthefailureliesinthescaleofin-stitutionalsettingsnotbeingalignedtothescaleoftheecologicalprocessesthattheypurporttomanage(e.g.Cummingetal.2006;duToit2009;Folkeetal.1998).Webrieflyconsidertheconceptofmis-matchesinscalesandsummarisetheirimplications,beforeusingthisframeworktoexplorethehistoryofconservationeffortsforthebridlednailtailwallaby.Scalerelatestotheextentoverwhichprocessesbearinfluence.Werefertotheecologicalspatialscaleasthegeographicalextentoffundamentalecologicalpro-cesses(seeCummingetal.2006).Thesociologicalspatialscalereferstotheextentofthecollectiveinfluenceofrules,policesandinformalandformalculture,wherethiscollectivizationoccursthroughlevelsofsocialandjurisdictionalorganisation.Sociologicalspatialscalesthereforealsorefertothegeographicalex-tentofinfluence(e.g.stateboundaries,neighbourhood).Cummingetal.(2006)notethat,therearebothempiricalandsubjectivemeasuresofscale.Becausethesociologicalscalesinvolvecompositesofmanyactorsandmanyinstitutions(e.g.Lubelletal.2010)drawingscalarboundariesisnecessarilymoresubjective.Infacttheformationofmanyinstitutionsisactuallyindirectlyresponsetotheneedtomatchecologicalandmanagementscales(e.g.seeMcAllisteretal.2009b).Temporalscalesareequallyimportantinaframeworkforconsideringmis-matchesofscale,andtendtobeevenmoresubjectiveastheyrelatetothememoryorpersist-enceofparticularactions.Forexample,temporalscalesmaybedrivenbydiversefac-torssuchasthelongevityofpoliticaldecisionsorthelengthaparticularspeciesbreedingcycle.Thecruxoftheframeworkisthatwherethescaleoftheecologicalprocessesisnotalignedtothescaleoverwhichmanagementisattempted,effectiveconservationma-nagementisunlikelytoemergeandpooroutcomesaremostlikelytoprevail.Twopar-ticularmis-matchesofscalesarecommonwhenattemptingtoaddressconservationproblems.Thefirstmis-matchofscaleinvolvespoliticallydrivensociologicaltimescalesthataremuchshorterthanthetimecommitmentrequiredtosuccessfullyfulfilaparticularconservationaction(Table1).Thesecondmis-matchofscaleconcernsetal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page6of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 ecologicalproblemsoccurringatbroadspatialscalesthatareaddressedbymanage-mentactionsthatareappliedwellbelowtherequiredspatialscale(orconfiguration).Howthesemis-matchesofscaleswillactuallyplayoutinpracticerelatestothecon-ceptofgovernance.Withinanyconservationagenda,thereinevitablyexistsmultiplemanagementactionsoccurringatvariousscalesthataretheresponsibilitiesofmultipleactorswhomlikewiseoperateatmultiplescales.Governancecantakemanyforms.Forexample,powercanbevestedentirelywithacentralisedauthority(i.e.mono-centric)orbedistributedbetweenpublicandprivateactorsoperatingacrossarangeofscales(i.e.multi-level),andeachapproachhasadvantagesanddisadvantages(seeTermeeretal.2010).Whenappliedtothecontextofaddressingconservationproblems,itisne-cessarytothinkaboutwhatgovernancearrangementmayworkbestinthecontextofhavingasetofrequiredconservationactionstoproducedesiredoutcomes.Itisalsonecessarytoconsiderwhatgovernancearrangementswillfacilitatethebestlevelofco-ordinationacrossthosenecessaryactions.Thiscoordinatingrolecanalsotakevariousforms.Traditionally,underthemono-centricgovernancemodelthecentralauthoritytypicallyundertakesallcoordinationactivities.Underthemulti-levelgovernancemodel,thecoordinationroleadaptivelyemergesthroughtheinterplaybetweenvariouslevelsofgovernanceandacrossvariousscales(seeCashetal.2006;Lubelletal.2010).Ourpurposehere,however,isnottospecificallyinterrogatevariousmodelsofgo-vernance,buttousethisasaframeworktoconsiderthepotentialroleofpastoralistsaslocallandmanagementagentsformitigatingproblemsofinstitutionalfitwithinthesebroadergovernancesystems.Mono-centricconservationofthebridlednailtailwallabyInQueensland,thefocusofthiscaseexample,allnativefaunaandfloraaretheexclu-sivepropertyofthestate(i.e.ownedonbehalfofthepublicbytheGovernmentofQueensland),includingthebridlednailtailwallabyonbothpublicandprivatelyownedland.Astate-basedconservationprogramhasbeenoperatingforthewallabyinQueenslandfromthetimethattheremnantpopulationwasre-discoveredin1973,Duringthattimeasomeecological,biologicalandmanagementresearchhasbeenundertakenrelatingtothespecies(e.g.Davidson1991;Ellisetal.1992;EPA/QPWS1998;Fisher1998;GordonandLawrie1980;HorsupandEvans1992;Lundie-JenkinsandLowry2005).Manymanagementrecommendationshavebeendevelopedforcon-servationofthebridlednailtailwallabyfromthisbodyofknowledge,andsomehavebeenimplemented.Forexample,feralcatsarerecognisedtobemajorpredatorsof Table1Implicationsofscalarmis-matches,adaptedfromCummingetal.(2006)Scalarmis-matchesImplicationsSpatialscalesbroadsociologicalfineecologicalToomanymanagers.Micromanagersyndrome;lackoflocalknowledgeleadstopooradaptabilityfinesociologicalbroadecologicalNosolutionsforglobalproblems,inconsistencyandcompetitionacrossregionsTemporalscaleslongsociologicalshortecologicalResponsetimestoslowshortsociologicallongecologicalManagementdecisionslackcontinuityandconsistency,andlimitedconsiderationforthefutureetal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page7of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 youngwallabiesandthoughttoberesponsibleforsuppressingjuvenilerecruitment,anddingoesareheldresponsibleforthemajorityofadultdeaths(Lundie-JenkinsandLowry2005).Therefore,effectivepredatorcontrolisconsideredtobeessentialforcon-servationsuccessofthespeciesandhasbeenarecurringrecommendationalthoughonlylimitedresourceshaveactuallybeenmadeavailablebythestatetocarryitout.Acaptive-breedingpopulationofwallabieswasestablishedin1991atastaterunfa-cilityinnorthQueensland.In1992and1997,twoadditionalstatecontrolledcaptive-breedingcentreswereestablishedontheGoldCoastandatGregoryMine,andalsoaprivatezoofacilityatRockhampton(Figure2).SomeanimalswerealsotranslocatedfromTauntonNationalParkwiththeaimofestablishingtwoadditionaldiscretepopu-lations,whichisastandardsecuritymeasureforhighlyendangeredspecies.Thetrans-locationsiteswerelocatedatIdaliaNationalPark(commenced1996)andAvocetwhichis5,500-haprivatelyownedandoperatedcattlegrazingpropertylocatednearSpringsureinCentralQueensland(commenced2001)(MacLeodetal.2010).Bothtranslocationsiteswereconsideredtomeetthenecessaryhabitatrequirementsforthebridlednailtailwallabyandalsooffergoodscopefortheimplementationofnecessarymanagementprocedures.Acaptive-breedingfacilitywasalsoestablishedattheIdaliaNationalParksite,albeittemporaryinnature.Substantialfinancialresourceshavebeenexpendedonthestaterecoveryprogramforthebridlednailtailwallaby-AUD$3.39millionbetween2005and2009,equatingtoap-proximatelyUS$2.7millionin2009-(Lundie-JenkinsandLowry2005),includinglandacquisition,humanandotherresources,educationandprotectedareamanagement.Inaddition,thestatehasinvestedinresearchintotheecology,behaviourandconserva-tionneedsofthespecies.Thestatedoperationalgoaloftheresponsibleagencyissignificantlyimprovetheconservationstatusofthebridlednailtailwallaby....(4thedi-tionoftherecoveryplanforthebridlednailtailwallaby,2005-2009).Therewere8spe-cifictargetstobereachedwhichinclude(1)toenhanceormaintainexistingfree-rangepopulationsofbridlednailtailwallabiesatTauntonandIdaliaNationalParks,andAvo-cetNatureRefugeand(2)toestablishtwoormoreadditionalpopulationsofthespe-cies�(100individuals)withinQueensland.AsignificantshareoftheconservationresourcesweredirectedtoTauntonNationalParkwhichholdsthesourcepopulationforallrecoveryefforts.TheTauntonpopulationisalsothemostcriticalgenetically(Sigg2006)becauseitcontainsthehighestallelicdiversity(Seddon2008).Popleetal.(2001)consideredthetranslocationofanimalstoIdaliatobeasuccessbecausethepopulationtherewasestimatedtohaveincreasedfrom133founderstoinexcessof400individuals.However,allcaptivebreedingprogramsareexpensiverequiringchal-lengingandintensivemanagementtomaintaingeneticdiversity(Stockwelletal.1996)andtoensurethatthetranslocatedpopulationsarenotoverlycompromised.Sigg(2006)hassubsequentlyreportedprogressivegeneticlosswithinthetranslocatedpopu-lationinIdaliarelativetothesourcepopulationatTauntonNationalPark.TheestimatedTauntonwallabypopulationdeclinedmarkedlybetween1991and1994,fromapproximately1400individualstoaround450individuals(Popleetal.2001),therapiddeclinebeingblamedprimarilyonfolderdeficienciesrelatingtoseveredroughtconditionsthatprevailedintheregion(ClancyandPorter1993).In2008theTauntonpopulationwasestimatedtohavedeclinedfurthertoonly75individuals(SE63-93,95%(TauntonNationalPark,unpublishedworkshopreport).ThebreedingfacilityatGregoryetal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page8of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 Minewasalsoclosedduetonutritionaldegradationofthenaturalfoodson-siteduringaprolongeddrought(Lundie-JenkinsandLowry2005).Fromthelate1990stheNGO,AustralianWildlifeConservancy,hasconductedabridlednailtailwallabybreedingprogramonaprivatelyowned,managedandfullyenclosedandpredatorfreefacilityknownasScotiaSanctuary,insouthwesternNewSouthWales.Asoftheendof2011thesanctuaryisreportedtobeholdinginexcessof1500+individualanimals(AWC2011).Whilethisparticularcaptive-breedingeffortappearstohavebeensuccessfulintermsofthenumbersofindividualanimalspro-duced,theresidentpopulationisyettobeexposedtonaturalpredationlevelsandappearstobeconfrontedwithsubstantialgeneticlossesinmanyoftheindividualanimals(Seddon2008).Averylimitednumberoftheseanimalsmaybeabletobeuti-lisedtoaugmentotherpopulationsifthenecessarystateapprovalcanbeobtained,butthecoreofthewallabyconservationeffortsandallremnantandwildtranslocatedpopulationspresentlyremaininQueensland.In2011thebridlednailtailwallabystillremainsonQueensland,Australianandinter-nationalendangeredspecieslists,nonewpopulationshavebeenestablished,andtheexistingpopulationsappeartostillbedeclining.Itwouldseemfairtoconcludeatthisstagethatthepresentmono-centricconservationapproachthathasbeenadoptedforthebridlednailtailwallabyhasnotbeenparticularlysuccessful.Analternativeapproachwouldseemtowarrantfurtherscrutiny.Multi-levelconservationonprivatelymanagedgrazinglandsFrom2001,theownersofthe5,500hagrazingpropertyAvocethaveworkedwiththeQueenslandGovernment(ParksandWildlifeService)toestablishaquasi-statemanagedpopulationofbridlednailtailwallabiesonaformalreserveofapproximately1,100ha(seeprevioussection).Thisactionhasinvolvedconsiderablecostsbeingbornebypri-vateindividualshavingcontinuedtoforgothefulluseofthehabitatreservelandwhichispotentiallyproductivegrazingland,andincurringongoinglandmanagementcostsasso-ciatedwithmaintainingthereserve(e.g.firebreaks,fencing).Severalnon-stateinitiativeshavealsoworkedwithAvocet.Anorganisationofindependentandvoluntarylicensedshooters(ConservationandWildlifeManagementQueensland)wasestablishedinordertocounterferalanimalpredationonnativeendangeredspecies.Thisutilisestrainedindi-vidualvolunteershootersusingtheirownequipmenttocontrolferalcats,foxesanddogsonconservationreserves.Asmallpubliclyregisteredconservationtrustdedicatedtobridlednailtailwallabyconservationwasalsofounded(BridledNailtailWallabyTrust)tofacilitateandapplyresearch,coordinateconservationeffortsofnon-stateactors,lobbythestateanddrawattentiontothefailingsofconservation.BothorganisationsapproachedtheownerofAvocettoassistwiththemanagementofthespecies,andamulti-levelcon-servationapproachwassubsequentlyformedtoachievethatgoal.AvocetprivategrazingpropertyispresentlytheonlylocationinQueenslandwhereappropriatespeciesandhabitatmanagementpracticescanbeactivelyappliedbynon-stateactorswithoutbeingsubjecttothesignificantconstraintsthatarepresentlyimposedonnon-governmentorganisationsoperatingonstatecontrolledland.Thepri-vateland-NGOpartnershipoffersmuchgreaterflexibilityandtheopportunitytoactpro-activelyinthespeciesconservation.Avocetsowner/manager,withsupportfromNGOs,hasinitiatedaseriesofconservationmanagementactivitiesatalevelofeffortetal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page9of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 thathasnotbeenpreviouslyemployed.Avocetissurroundedbyothergrazingenter-prises,andhencethereisunrealisedpotentialtoengagewithsurroundingpastoraliststoaddresscoordinationofmanagementconservation.Whilewehypothesisebelowthatthisgovernancemodelhasthegreatestpotentialtoleadtosustainedconservationout-comes,successhasnotyetbeenachieved.AresearchstudyconductedonAvocetin2008foundapproximately40individ-ualanimals(Kingsley2009),whichwasfarlowerthanexpectedgiventheprogres-sivereleaseof166animalsfrom2001.ThereasonfortheapparentlackofsuccessofthetranslocationeffortonAvocetremainsunclearbecausetherehavenotbeenadequatepost-releasesurveysconducted,butarangeofbioticandabioticfactorsarelikelytohavehadanimpactonthebridlednailtailwallabypopulationsincetranslocationactivitiescommenced.Asaconsequence,amajorfocusonAvocethasbeendirectedtodevelopinginstitutionalcapacityandstructureinawaythatmaypromoteaneffectiveconservationoutcomeinthefutureviz.effectivepopu-lationmonitoring,applicationofresearchrecommendations,immediateresponsetodiseaseorfireemergencies,formaladaptivemanagementactionsthatareactuallyLocalconservationactionsonAustralianprivatelymanagedgrazingenterprisesarecritical,butfrombothapragmaticoralegalperspectivetheyaloneisunlikelyconservethebridlednailtailwallaby,evenwithsupportfromNGOs.TheNGOsthatmaypart-nerprivategrazingenterprisesaresmallandhavealimitedprivatesupportbase,andalsooperateinacongestedspaceintermsofpublicsupportforconservationinitiatives(e.g.GreeningAustralia,BushHeritage,KoalaFoundationappealsetc.).Fundingistyp-icallyaconstantchallengeforconservationprojectsthatarefocussedonrelativelylittle-knownspecies(Seddonetal.2005).Henceforaspectsofthreatenedspeciesma-nagementthatarecostlyandrequirehighlyspecialisedskills,suchasgeneticdiversitymanagement,theroleofstateisalsocritical.However,arrangingandthenmanagingstate-NGOpartnershipscanbechallenging.Publiclobbyingonbehalfofeitherthespe-ciesoritssupportingNGOcancreatetension,andnoformalmechanismsexisttoco-operateonconservationefforts.Nonetheless,asprivategrazinglandoffersconsiderablepotentialtofacilitatetheimplementationofeffectiveconservationpro-gramsitiswellworthproceedingwithorwithoutstatecooperationinsofarasthisispossible.Potentialwin-winsWhilegenerallyweconsiderthatconservationofthebridlednailtailwallabycanco-existencewithgrazing,buffelgrassmanagementprovidesatleastoneexamplewherepas-toralistmanagementcanassistinmeetingbothconservationandgrazinggoals.BuffelgrassisawidelyplantedpasturespeciesthroughoutthegrazinglandsofcentralandwesternQueensland,ishighlyinvasive,andisconsideredamajorpestspeciesbymanyconserva-tionbodies(Milleretal.2010).However,itisalsoanimportantfodderspeciesforbeefcat-tleproduction(Humphries1967).NowfoundacrossvasttractsofnorthernandcentralAustralia,itscontrolonconservationlandsishighlyproblematic,andithasbeenimpli-catedintheongoingdeclineofthebridlednailtailwallabypopulationonTauntonNationalPark(TauntonNationalPark,unpublishedworkshopreport).etal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page10of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 Cattlegrazing,especiallyusingintensiveperiodicshortdurationgrazingcycles,isacceptedasanimportantmanagementtoolforcontrollingbuffelgrass(ButlerandFairfax2008).Whilefurtherbuffelintroductionsmayseverelyhinderconservationefforts,cattlegrazingisanimportantmanagementtoolwherethisandotherintro-ducedgrassspeciesalreadyexist,andworkingwithpastoralistssympathetictoconservationgoalsontheirpropertyisimperative.ConservationethosWhileprofitistheunderpinningmotivatorofmanypastoralistsbehaviour(Richardsetal.2005),evidencesuggeststhatmostpastoralistsalsohaveastrongenvironmentalstewardshipethic(e.g.GreenandMacLeod2002;GreinerandGregg2011).Thisethosneedssupporttoachievetherequiredconservationgoals.Yetthereispotentialforoverlycentralisedpolicytosmotherthisstewardshipbydisempoweringandultimatelyde-motivatinglocalstakeholders,andinducingcomplacencyfromlocalpastoralistsconcerningspeciesconservationeffortsontheirholdings.Furthermore,insightsfromtheemergingdisciplineofexperimentaleconomicssuggestthatattemptingtomonetar-isealtruisticbehaviours,suchasenvironmentalstewardship,riskscrowdingoutsuchactions(seeReesonandTisdell2008).Thispointstosomevalueinthedevolutionofdecision-makingpowertolocalstakeholderswherethiscanencouragepastoralistsexistingstewardshipmotivations.DiscussionGoverningfromthebottom-upOurframeworkforunderstandingconservationfailuresfortheendangeredbridlednailtailwallabyhasfocussedonanexaminationofinstitutionalfailuresinthedominantparadigmaswellasadvancingalternativesthatoffergreaterpotentialsuccess.Acriticalquestionthathasbeenraisediswhetherornotbridlednailtailwallabyconservationmanagementissuesandresultantactionsarenecessarilybeingtargetedatascalethatisappropriatetoeffectivelyaddresstheproblem.Weareparticularlyinterestedinthepo-tentialroleofpastoralistsineffectivelandscaperesourceconservation,includinglocalprotectionofendangeredspecies,andsotheframeworkseekstounderstandtheirrolewithinthebroadersystemofgovernance.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatsuchaninstitutionalframeworkdoesnotassumethatthereisasinglepanaceatosolveallcon-servationproblems.Regardlessofthepurpose,institutionsarerarely,ifever,perfect.Institutionsthatarecreatedtoaddressaspecificpurposearenotmerelytheproductofasingleissue.Institutionsnecessarilyrespondtogeo-politicalcontexts,ecological Table2Majorconservationsub-tasksandassociatedscalesSubtasksSpatialscalerequiredTemporalscale1.CaptivebreedinghaYears2.Isolatednaturalhabitpopulations400-600haDecadesgrazingproperty3.GeneticinterplaybetweenpopulationsConnectionsbetweenthesystempartsDecadesQueensland4.Connectednaturalhabitpopulations-29;.70; 500,000haCenturiesNowhere-unlikelyetal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page11of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 andeconomicdrivers,pathdependenciesandalsotoforcesfromothercompetingandcomplementaryinstitutions.Complexitycanfosterresilience,butnotperfection.Fur-thermore,conservationissuesanddriverschangecontinually,soaperfectinstitutionalsolutionwillonlybeperfectforparticularmomentsintimeandspace.Therefore,intheabsenceoffindingpermanentlyperfectinstitutionstoresolvecomplexconservationproblems,astrongcaseexistsforconsciouslybuildingadaptivecapacityintothegov-ernanceofsuchproblems.Singleconservationissuesgenerallyinvolvearangeofmanagementproblemsthatin-dividuallyoperateacrossmanyscales(Table2).Forthebridlednailtailwallaby,captivebreedingandon-propertylandscaperestorationcanmaintainlocalisedandisolatedsub-populations,whichisspatiallyasmall-scaledproblem.However,totrulyrecoverthespeciesacrossasignificantrangeisalarger-scaleproblemthatrequiresgeneticinterplaybetweentherecoveringsub-populations.PriortoEuropeansettlement,thisgeneticinteractionwasnaturallymaintainedthroughspeciesmobilityacrossanunfrag-mentedlandscape.Thisisnolongerpossible,ofcourse,andnowrequiresconsciousandintensivemanagement.Underamono-centricgovernancemodel,speciesmanagementmayinvolvelargesociologicalscales,yetistypicallydrivenbypoliticalagendasdrawnonrelativelyshorttemporalscales.Effectiveconservationmanagementisnecessarilybuiltaroundmuchlongertimehorizons.Inthespecificcaseofconservationneedsofthebridlednailtailwallaby,institutionalcoordinationcouldrealisticallybecentredaroundthestateactionplanforthespecies,witheachactor/institutionagreeingonclearresponsibilityforcer-tainachievements.However,ourgovernance-basedframeworkwouldsuggestthatalackmanagementcontinuityandconsistency,andlimitedconsiderationforthefuturearelikelytobeencounteredasmajorproblems(Table1).Acrosstheentireconserva-tionagenda,somespatialmis-matchesseemprobablegivenvariousactionshavediffe-ringrequirementsintermstothescaleofmanagement(Table2).Thereisaclearneedforbroadsociologicalscaledmanagementthatcanefficientlycoordinatethegeneticinterplayacrosssub-populations,includingthoselocatedondis-parateprivatelyownedandmanagedgrazingpropertiesandincaptivebreedingsites.Yet,ifabroadsociologicalscaledinstitutionweretomanageallaspectsofbridlednail-tailwallabyconservation,itwilllikelybetoobroadtopromoteeffectivelocalactionbasedonadaptivemanagementprinciples-localconservationactionswouldlikelybeineffectivelymicro-managedfromaboveandbasedondecisionsthatlacklocalknow-ledgeandtheabilitytotakeshort-termactionsasdictatedbyevolvinglocalcircum-stances.Insum,suchmanagementlackadaptability(Table1)andareunlikelytobeeffective.Amono-centricformofconservationgovernanceistroublinginthiscontextbecauseevenwhereconservationactionsarelocallydriven,thecentralisationofpowercaneffectivelyscaleallactionstothatofthestate-based,broadsociologicalscaledmanagement.Thiscanbeclearlyillustratedbycasesinwhichlocalscaleconservationactionsarehavingsomesuccess.Avocetdemonstrateshowconservationeffortsonprivatelyownedandmanagedgrazingpropertiescanworkattheimplementationlevelbecauseatthatscalethelocalmanagershaverelativelymoredecision-makingautonomythanisthecasefortakinglocalactionsonstatemanagedland,andhasexternalsupporttowhichthelandholderalsohasdirectinput.Privatelandholder-NGOpartnershipscanetal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page12of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 helptosupportconservationeffortsbecausetheyoperateatthescalewheredirectac-tionisrequired.Importantly,operationatlocalscalesrequiresmorethansimplylocalmanagershavinglocalissuesastheirfocus.Privatelandholder-NGOpartnershipspo-tentiallyhavetheabilitytomakedecisionsatlocalscalesbecausetheyoperateinadecision-makingenvironmentthatisrelativelyfreefromtheinertiaofbureaucracy.Sucharrangements,therefore,haveacapacitytomakeandapplysounddecisionsinatimelymanner,andtheabsorptionoflandmanagementcostsbytheparticipatingpas-toralistsispartoftheirdailybusiness.Theprivateland-NGOpartnershipbasicallyoffersconsiderablymoreflexibilityandtheopportunitytoactproactively.Thechallengethenishowtogetthebestofbothworlds?Thatis,howdoyouallowlocalisedconservationtoremainunhinderedbyslowerbroaderscalemanagement,whileatthesametimecoordinatinglocalscalemanagementactivitiesinordertoen-surethattheecologicalfunctionofadispersedpopulationcanbere-created.Inthisinstance,byanalysingtheinstitutionalfailures,andshowinghowtheprivatesectorcanbeaneffectiveconservator,weproviderecommendationsonhowpublicinstitutionsorpoliciescancatalyseprivatesectoractionatappropriateregionalscales.Thecaseofthebridlednailtailwallabyprovidesafewclearmessagesforspeciescon-servationthatmaybegeneralised.Strongcentralisedstatecontrolisunlikelytobetheanswerforeffectiveconservationmanagementbecausethispotentiallybreaksthenecessarymatchofscalesbetweenlocallandmanagementactionandlocalisedconservationneedsandoutcomes.Rather,thebroadaimforeffectivegovernanceshouldestablishstructuresthatwillfosterlocalconservationmanagementactionandautonomy,andtoplacelocalactorswithinabroadermulti-levelgovernancesystemstillrequiresaccountability(butnotnecessarilyinahierarchicalsense).Economicincentivesareanimportantconsiderationintermsofcreatinglocalactionbypastoralists,especiallywheredesirableconservationoutcomescarrysignificantele-mentsoftheprovisionofpublicgoods(Willis1997),butcautionisneededindesigningsuchrewardsystems.Pastoralistsalreadyhaveastrongstewardshipethic(GreinerandGregg2011)andthisclassofstakeholdersisnotdisinterestedinenvironmentalout-comesthatflowfromtheirdecisionmakingactionsthatarelargelycentredonproduc-tionissues(e.g.GreenandMacLeod2002).Economicincentives,whileappropriatetoaddressingexternalitiesinvolvingunder-provisionofenvironmentalservicessuchasbiodiversityconservation(Pannell2008),needtobecarefulnottocrowdoutpastora-listsintrinsicconservationethics(GreinerandGregg2011)andaltruisticbehaviours(seeReesonandTisdell2008).Henceratherthanfocusingexcessivelyontheneedtocreatepaymentsforconservation,theaimshouldbeonharnessingincreasedcommit-mentofpastoraliststoundertakingadditionalconservationeffortsbymitigatingthecostsofdoingso,andtoformallyacknowledgetheiralreadysignificantcontributiontolandresourcestewardship(CurtisandDelacey1998).Themostchallengingissueforimplantingthismodelofgovernanceisrelatedtoorganisingthebroadsociologicalmanagement,particularlyintermsofco-ordinatingtherolesandactionsoftheprospectivepartners.Ifweaccepttheargu-mentthatamono-centricgovernancemodelisunlikelytopromoteeffectivecon-servationactionsforendangeredspeciessuchasthebridlednailtailwallaby,thensomeformofdecentralisedcoordinationisrequiredtoensurethatthedynamicetal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page13of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 interactionsbetweenmultipleactorsacrossmultipleforumsdoesleadtogoodcon-servationoutcomes.Policydecisionsandplansdonotalwayshavetheirintendedimpact,norshouldtheyrealisticallybeexpectedto.Thereasonisthatisrarelyafunctionofasinglepolicy,butinsteadisdeterminedbyasystemofmultiple,overlappinginstitutions.Theinterplaybetweenthemultipleinstitutionsislargelydeterminedbythewaysinwhichvariouspolicyactorschoosetoengagewitheachotherandthetargetissuesacrossthesemultipleinstitutions.Further,themotivationforpol-icyactorstoengageinparticularinstitutionsiscommonlyoneofselfinterest(Lubelletal.2010).Withnounifyingmasterplan,whileanemergentcoordinatedapproachtopolicycanbemanaged,itcannotbestrictlycontrolled.Regardlessofthecontext,theinfluenceofanindividualactorislargelydeterminedbytheextenttowhichtheirparticipationinagivenissuemodifiesthedynamicactor-institutionalnetworksthatemergearoundsuchsettings.Thestructureofthesepolicynetworks,thatsupportbridlednailtailwallabyconservation,needgreaterattention.Thereisnosinglecorrectsolutiontothisissue,andpolicynetworkscanrangefromtop-downtobottom-upanddesignedorself-organized(seeHahn2011).Theimport-antconsiderationforeffectivenessisthatnetworksthatareestablishedcombinetherequirementsofaccountability,andlegitimacyofvariousresponsibilities.ConclusionsGiventhelargescalesoverwhichthelandscapesoftheAustraliancontinenthavebeenmodifiedtosupportanextensivegrazingindustry,incontrasttothelimitedscaleofthepublicconservationreservesystem,itisclearthatthefutureeffective-nessofresourceandnatureconservationeffortsmustnecessarilyliewiththeap-plicationofenvironmentalstewardshipatthelocalscale.SuccessiveAustraliangovernmentshavesoughttodevolvenaturalresourcemanagementpowerstolocalcommunities(e.g.Landcare),butmanyquestionssurroundthelegitimacyofdevo-lutionandwhetheritisjustanalternateformofcentralisedintervention(Laneetal.2009;Marshall2009).Nevertheless,adequatedevolutionofresponsibilityanddecision-makingpowersisessentialifvulnerablespeciesandhabitatsaretobead-equatelyconserved.Thestate-basedconservationprogramforthebridlednailtailwallabyhaslargelyfailedtodatetoincreasethepopulationsize,distributionandgeneticdiversityofthespecies,despitesomeindividualsuccesses.Anexaminationofthescalesofmanagementsuggeststhatforconservationoutcomesonprivatelymanagedgrazingenterprisestobepositive,anewmodusoperandiforconservationgovernanceisurgentlyneeded.Thisnewmodelshouldbeonethatenableseffect-ivemulti-levelcoordinationofactorsandactionsandreducesthedownsidelimitsofstatemono-centricity.Suchmodusoperandiaretakingshape.Thereisnostrongevidenceasyetthatsuchgovernanceisalreadyleadingtosuccessfulongroundconservationoutcomes.Yetwithoutnewmodelstheriskisstrongthatawidecommunityofotherwisepotentiallywillingpastoralistswillbede-motivatedfromundertakingseriousconservationeffortsontheirholdings,theareaoflandundereffectiveconservationmanagementwillultimatelybereduced,andpersonaletal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page14of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 accountabilityforfailurewillremainweak.Asrangelandenvironmentalvaluesareincreasinglyrecognisedoutsideoftheregionsinwhichtheyaregenerated,increasedaccountabilityoflocalstewardshipactionswillberequired.Thisneedstobebalancedwithagenuinelyinclusivegovernancestructureinwhichthevariousaspectsofcomplexconservationproblemscanbemanagedconcurrentlyatappro-priatescales.CompetinginterestsFKisadirectorofthenon-profitBridledNailtailWallabyTrustwhileRRJMwasadirectorbetween2007and2010.FK,RRJMandNDMco-authoredthemanuscriptwithrespectivefocionlandscapeecology,governanceandinstitutions,andgrazingenterprises.Allauthorsreadandapprovedthefinalversionofthemanuscript.AcknowledgementsManythankstoHugoSpoonertheownerof,thecollectivemembershipofConservationandWildlifeManagement(Qld)andtheindividualswithintheQueenslandStateGovernmentfortheircommitmenttotheconservationofthebridlednailtailwallaby.RRJMacknowledgesfeedbackfromparticipantsoftheARCCentreofExcellenceforEnvironmentalDecisionsWorkshop22-26August.ThankstoBruceTaylorandAngelaGuerreroGonzalezforhelpfulcommentsonthemanuscript.AuthordetailsBridledNailtailWallabyTrust,61RoderickStreet,Ipswich,4305,Australia.CSIRO,EcosystemSciences,POBox2583,Brisbane,4001,Australia.Received:18October2011Accepted:27January2012Published:28September2012AWC.2011.Scotia:newhorizonsfortheBridledNailtailWallaby.AustralianWildlifeConservancy.WildlifeMatters2011(12):12Bartley,R.,J.P.Corfield,B.N.Abbott,A.A.Hawdon,S.N.Wilkinson,andB.Nelson.2010.Impactsofimprovedgrazinglandmanagementonsedimentyields,Part1:Hillslopeprocesses.JournalofHydrology389:237248.doi:10.1016/j.Beyer,S.,A.Kinnear,L.B.Hutley,K.McGuinness,andK.Gibb.2011.Assessingtherelationshipbetweenfireandgrazingonsoilcharacteristicsandmitecommunitiesinasemi-aridsavannaofnorthernAustralia.54:195200.doi:10.1016/j.pedobi.2011.03.002.Bradshaw,B.2003.Questioningthecredibilityandcapacityofcommunity-basedresourcemanagement.Geographer-GeographeCanadien47:137Burbidge,A.A.1983.CrescentNailtailWallabyOnychogalealunata.InTheAustralianMuseumCompleteBookofAustralianMammals,206thed,ed.R.Strahan.Sydney:AngusandRobertson.Butler,D.W.,andR.J.Fairfax.2008.BuffelGrassandfireinaGidgeeandBrigalowwoodland:AcasestudyfromcentralEcologicalManagementandRestoration4:120Campbell,C.A.1995.Landcare:ParticipativeAustralianapproachestoinquiryandlearningforsustainability.JournalofSoilandWaterConservation50:125Cash,D.W.,W.N.Adger,F.Berkes,P.Garden,L.Lebel,P.Olsson,L.Pritchard,andO.Young.2006.Scaleandcross-scaledynamics:Governanceandinformationinamultilevelworld.EcologyandSociety11:12.Clancy,TF,andGPorter.1993.Bridlednailtailwallaby(Onychogaleafraenata)recoveryplanprogressreportNo.1.EPA/QPWSConservationStrategyBranch.UnpublishedreporttoANPWS,June1993.Cumming,G.S.,D.H.M.Cumming,andC.L.Redman.2006.Scalemismatchesinsocial-ecologicalsystems:causes,consequences,andsolutions.EcologyandSociety11:14.Curtis,A.,andT.Delacey.1998.Landcare,stewardshipandsustainableagricultureinAustralia.EnvironmentalValues78.doi:10.3197/096327198129341474.Davidson,C.1991.Recoveryplanforthebridlednailtailwallaby(Onychogaleafraenata).ANPWSEndangeredSpeciesProgram:UnpublishedreporttoANPWS.December1991.duToit,J.T.2009.Addressingthemismatchesbetweenlivestockproductionandwildlifeconservationacrossspatio-temporalscalesandinstitutionallevels.InWildrangelands:conservingwildlifewhilemaintaininglivestockinsemi-,ed.J.T.duToit,R.Koch,andJ.C.Deutsch.JohnWiley&Sons:Chichester.Ellis,B.A.,P.J.Tierney,andT.J.Dawson.1992.Thedietofthebridlednailtailwallaby(Onychogaleafraenata):siteandseasonalInfluencesanddietaryoverlapwiththeblack-stripedwallaby(Macropusdorsalis)anddomesticcattle.WildlifeResearch19:65EPA/QPWS.1998.TauntonNationalPark(Scientific)(BrigalowBeltbiogeographicregion):managementplan.Brisbane:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Evans,M.,andG.Gordon.2008.BridledNailtailWallaby.InTheMammalsofAustralia,3rdEditionthed,ed.S.VanDyckandR.Strahan.Sydney:NewHolland.Eyre,T.J.,J.Wang,M.F.Venz,C.Chilcott,andG.Whish.2009.BuffelgrassinQueensland'ssemi-aridwoodlands:responsetolocalandlandscapescalevariables,andrelationshipwithgrass,forbandreptilespecies.31:293305.doi:10.1071/rj08035.etal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice:20Page15of17http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20 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Submit your manuscript to a journal and bene t from: 7 Convenient online submission 7 Rigorous peer review 7 Immediate publication on acceptance 7 Open access: articles freely available online 7 High visibility within the eld 7 Retaining the copyright to your article Submit your next manuscript at 7 springeropen.com Kearney etal.Pastoralism:Research,PolicyandPractice 2012, 2 :20Page17of17 http://www.pastoralismjournal.com/content/2/1/20