Chapter 1 The Science of Development Defining Development The science of human development seeks to understand how and why peopleall kinds of people everywhere of every agechange over time ID: 584776
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Slide1
PSYC 2314 Life-growth/development
Chapter 1– The Science of Development Slide2
Defining Development
The science of human development…
seeks to understand how and why people—all kinds of people, everywhere, of every age—change over time.Slide3
Understanding How and Why
Five basic steps of the scientific method:
On the basis of theory, prior research, or a personal observation,
pose a question
.
Develop a hypothesis
, a specific prediction, that can be tested.
Test the hypothesis
. Design and conduct research to gather empirical evidence (data).
Draw conclusions
. Use the evidence to support or refute the hypothesis.
Report the results
. Share the data and conclusions, as well as alternative explanation.Slide4
The Nature-Nurture Debate: HOW do they interact?
Nature refers to the influence of genes which we inherit.
Nurture
refers to environmental influences, such as:
health and diet of the embryo’s mother
family
school
community
societySlide5
Critical and Sensitive Periods
A critical period is a time when certain things
must occur
for normal development (limb development).
A
sensitive period
is when a particular development occurs most
easily (language).Slide6
3 parts of definition
how and why = scientific methodall kinds of people = different, not inferior
change over time
= all transformations AND consistencies, from conception until deathSlide7
The Life-Span Perspective
Development is multidirectional
Over time, human characteristics change in every
direction (height & weight – many things can affect these).
Several major theorists describe stages of development: Freud, Erickson, Piaget.
Others view development as a continuous process.
Slide8
The Life-Span Perspective
Development Is Multicontextual:
2 main contexts
HISTORICAL
SOCIOECONOMICSlide9
The Life-Span Perspective
Development Is Multicontextual
HISTORICAL CONTEXT- All persons born within a few years of one another are said to be a
cohort,
a group defined by the shared age of its members.Slide10
The Life-Span Perspective
Socioeconomic Context socioeconomic status (SES)
A person’s position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence.Slide11
The Life-Span Perspective
Development Is MulticulturalCulture - patterns of behavior that are passed from one generation to the next.
Vygotsky
described the interaction between culture and education.
Ethnic group - People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and
religion (but may not share culture); race is a social (not biological) constructionSlide12
The Life-Span Perspective
Development Is Multidisciplinary
Genetics and neuroscience are two of the newer disciplines in lifespan research.
Every trait—psychological as well as physical—is influenced by genes.Slide13
The Life-Span Perspective
Development Is PlasticHuman traits can be molded (as plastic can be), yet people maintain a certain durability of identity (as plastic does).
Mirror neurons-
Cells in an observer’s brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had actually performed that action.Slide14
Theories of Human Development
A developmental theory is a systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older.Slide15
Theories of Human Development
Psychoanalytic TheoryA theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.
Psychoanalytic theory originated with Sigmund Freud (1856– 1939
)
each stage includes potential conflicts
how a person experiences and resolves conflicts determines personality and patterns of behaviorSlide16
Theories of Human Development
Erickson’s StagesErik Erikson (1902–1994)
Described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental
crisis.
His first five stages build on Freud’s theory; but, he also described three adult stages.Slide17
Theories of Human Development
Erickson’s Stagestrust vs. mistrustautonomy vs. shame
initiative vs. guilt
industry vs. inferiority
identity vs. role diffusionintimacy vs. isolation
generativity
vs. stagnation
integrity vs. despairSlide18
Theories of Human DevelopmentSlide19
Theories of Human Development
BehaviorismA theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorism is also called learning theory, because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.
Conditioning
-
According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place.Slide20
Theories of Human Development
Classical conditioning - Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
(also called
respondent conditioning
), a process in which a person or animal
learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, gradually reacting to the neutral stimulus with the same response as to the meaningful one.Slide21
Theories of Human Development
Operant conditioning - B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)
(also called
instrumental conditioning
) a learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated).Slide22
Theories of Human DevelopmentSlide23
Theories of Human Development
Social Learning Theory - Albert Bandura
(b. 1925)
An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior.Modeling
- people learn by observing other people and then copying them.
Self-efficacy
- (how effective people think they are when it comes to changing themselves or altering their social context.Slide24Slide25
Theories of Human Development
Cognitive TheoryThoughts and expectations profoundly affect action.Focuses on changes in how people think over time.
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)Slide26
Theories of Human DevelopmentSlide27
Theories of Human Development
Assimilation, in which new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideasAccommodation
, in which
old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiencesSlide28Slide29
Theories of Human Development
Systems TheoryChange in one part of a person, family, or society affects every aspect of development
Ecological systems approach
- Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005)
The person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life.Slide30
Theories of Human Development
Five Components of Bronfenbrenner’s Systemmicrosystems
(elements of the person’s immediate surroundings, such as family and peer group)
exosystems
(local institutions such as school and church)
macrosystems
(the larger social setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes)Slide31
Theories of Human Development
chronosystem (literally, “time system”), which affects the other three systems
mesosystem
, consisting of the connections among the other systemsSlide32
What Theories Can Contribute
Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of importance of early childhood experiencesBehaviorism has shown effect of immediate environment on learning
Cognitive theory helps us understand how intellectual process and thinking affect actionsSlide33
Using the Scientific Method
Scientific Observation requires the researcher to record behavior systematically and objectively.May be done in a naturalistic setting such as a home, school, or other public place.
May be done in a laboratory.Slide34
Using the Scientific Method
The Experiment establishes causal relationships among variables.independent variable
-
the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable.dependent variable
- the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds.Slide35
Using the Scientific Method
experimental group- gets a particular treatment (the independent variable).comparison group
(also called a control group), which does not get the treatment.Slide36
How to Conduct an ExperimentSlide37
Using the Scientific MethodSlide38
Using the Scientific Method
The SurveyInformation is collected from a large number of people by interview, questionnaire, or some other means.
Acquiring valid survey data is not easy.
Some people lie, some change their minds.
Survey answers are influenced by the wording and the sequence of the questions.Slide39
Studying Changes over Time
Developmental research must be able to deal with changes that continue over timeresearch design allows researchers to include time, or age, as a factorthree basic designs:
cross-sectional, longitudinal, cross-sequentialSlide40
Studying Development over the Life Span
Cross-sectional ResearchGroups of people of one age are compared with people of another age.
Longitudinal Research
Collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age.
Cross-sequential Research
Study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and follow them over the years (a longitudinal approach).Slide41
Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, and Cross-Sequential Research: Which is Best?Slide42
Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, and Cross-Sequential Research: Which is Best?, cont.Slide43
Cautions from Science
Correlation and CausationA correlation
exists between two variables if one variable is more (or less) likely to occur when the other does.
A correlation is
positive
if both variables tend to increase together or decrease together.
A correlation is
negative
if one variable tends to increase while the other decreases.
A correlation is
zero
if no connection is evident.
Correlation
does not imply causationSlide44
Ethics
Each academic discipline and professional society involved in the study of human development has a code of ethics.Researchers must ensure that participation is
voluntary, confidential, and harmless
.
Subjects (participants in research) must give
informed consent
- they must understand the research procedures and any risks involved.