The use of palmtop computers for learningA review of the literatureCar - PDF document

The use of palmtop computers for learningA review of the literatureCarol Savill-Smith research report The use of palmtop computers for learningA review of the literatureCarol Savill-Smith AcknowledgementsWewould like to thank Jill Attewell, the Learning and Skills Development Agencym-learning programme manager, for her support, advice and contribution tothe editing process, and Helen Rendell for assisting with the identification of research material for this review.Published by the Learning and Skills Development Agencywww.LSDA.org.ukInformation ServicesLearning and Skills Development AgencyRegent Arcade House19…25 Argyll StreetLondonW1F 7LS.Tel+44 (0) 20 7297 9144Fax+44 (0) 20 7297 9242enquiries@LSDA.org.ukRegistered with the Charity CommissionersISBN1 85338 862 9©Learning and Skills Development Agency 2003You are welcome to copy this publication for internal use within your organisation. Otherwise, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any formor by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the copyright owner.Further informationFor further information about the issues discussed m-learning Programme ManagerLearning and Skills Development Agency.Tel+44 (0) 20 7297 9100jattewell@LSDA.org.ukThis publication was supported by the Learning and Skills Council as part of a grant to the Learning and Skills Development Agency for a programme of research and development. The m-learning project is also supported by the European Commission Directorate-GeneralInformation Society (IST-2000-25270). Preface11Introduction and overview of the literature22Using palmtops in learning42.1Why use palmtops for learning?42.2Young adultsÕ experiences of using palmtops for learning82.3Game playing and learning92.4Palmtops and literacy skills92.5Palmtops and numeracy skills 112.6Palmtops and social issues 112.7Palmtops and special needs 122.8Educational software for palmtops 132.9Electronic books (e-books) 132.10The ownership of technology: benefits and pitfalls 142.11Problems with palmtop computers 153Examples of using palmtops for learning 173.1The Cooties game 173.2Geneyª 183.3The Docklands Learning Acceleration Project 193.4Science fieldwork 203.5Palmtops in physical and sports education 213.6Reflective logs 224Planning and design issues related to learningwith palmtop computers 234.1Selecting palmtop technologies 234.2The design and development of products 244.3Other approaches to data gathering with palmtops 285Conclusions 30about learning with palmtop computers 31Glossary 38References 40 1The use of palmtop, or handheld, computers is rapidly increasing in thedeveloped world. In the past many of these devices have been simplystandalone small computers, running relatively simple programs but with theadded feature of mobility. Now many palmtop computers have moresophisticated uses, usually running compact editions of the main officeapplications, such as word processing and spreadsheets, with larger memorycapacities, a variety of data input devices and the ability to link into wirelessnetworks. Palmtops can also act as communication devices, by incorporatinga mobile phone (cellphone) card, and entertainment devices by includingcomputer games.This research report is the result of a literature review conducted by theLearning and Skills Development Agency during the m-learning project. Thefocus is on research involving the use of palmtop computers for learning. Themotivation for this review is to inform the design and development of mobilelearning materials and systems and to inform the projectÕs research activities.makes it a useful reference for teachers, trainers, developers, researchersand others with an interest in mobile learning.The m-learning project is a 3-year, pan-European research and developmentstudy with partners in Italy, Sweden and the UK. Its aim is to use portabletechnologies to provide learning experiences relating to literacy and numeracyskill development for young adults aged 16Ð24 who are outside full-timeformal education settings, and to promote the development and achievementof lifelong learning objectives. The m-learning project is coordinated by theLearning and Skills Development Agency and its project partners include twocommercial companies and two universities based in three Europeancountries:Cambridge Training and Development Limited, United Kingdom¥Centro di Ricerca in Matematica Pura ed Applicata Ð the Centre forResearch in Pure and Applied Mathematics at the University of Salerno,ItalyLearning and Skills Development Agency, United Kingdom¥Lecando AB, Sweden¥Ultralab, Anglia Polytechnic University, United Kingdom.Further information about the m-learning project can be found atwww.m-learning.org Jill Attewellm-learning Programme ManagerLearning and Skills Development Agency 21 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATUREA review of the published literature relating to the use of palmtop computersfor learning was required by the m-learning project. It was needed to informthe project partners about various matters relating to their use, such ascurrent pedagogy, and to assist with the selection of appropriate technologiesin an emerging field, the design and development of learning materials, andalso with the underpinning research. The following research questions guidedthis review.¥How have palmtop computers been used for learning?¥What are young adultsÕ experiences of using palmtop computers?Because the aim of the m-learning project is to use mobile technologies to tryto re-engage young adults (aged 16Ð24) in learning and to start to changetheir attitudes to learning and improve their life chances, the m-learningpartners also wished to find out if studies had been conducted using palmtopcomputers with young adults who have:¥literacy, numeracy and other basic skill needs¥social and behavioural issues relating to youth education.This research review synthesises the key messages from the current literaturebase of about 140 items, mostly written between 1999 and 2003. The maincategories of information sourced have been found to be general overviews ofthe potential of palmtops for education, surveys of available technologies andsoftware, and brief descriptions of largely school- or university-based researchtrials.There was a notable lack of detailed, or comparative, research studies ofprojects and trials using handheld technologies. Some information appears tobe more easily available on project websites and so has been included but, ofcourse, such items will not have been academically reviewed. The largestarea reporting research was medicine, with medical students becoming majorusers of palmtops because their learning involves placements in hospitals andcommunity surgeries where they need to access clinical information andrecord their experiences for later reflection and assessment. Physicians alsouse palmtops as clinical organisers to make evidence-based decisions.None of the items reviewed examined the use of handheld computers by thetarget audience of the m-learning project, ie disengaged young adults aged16Ð24, but many items are still informative and may be useful to thoseconsidering implementing mobile learning with young people. Quotations fromteachers and students using handheld computers have been included toilluminate the quality of peopleÕs experiences. 3The generic term Ôpalmtop computersÕ encompasses the following types ofcomputer technology (a glossary of specialist terms can be found at the backof this report):¥palmtop computers (eg the Psion palmtop computer)¥personal digital assistants, or PDAs (eg the PalmOS¨)¥PocketPC-based handheld computers¥some specialised handheld devices: e-book readers, dictionaries and spell-checkers, graphical calculators.This review takes place during a period of rapid change in the palmtopcomputer and mobile phone market. On the one hand, mobile phones areincreasingly being designed with extra PDA-type facilities and other facilitiessuch as a camera and picture messaging. These are often referred to asÔsmart phonesÕ. On the other hand, palmtop computers are becoming hybriddevices with mobile phone functionality. Although it is difficult to predict thefuture, Smith (2003) suggests that in the next 3 years mobile phone use byyounger students will migrate to smart phones, whereas PDAs or phone-enabled PDAs will not be popular except where they support specialistcourses. Smith also suggests that the newly released Tablet PCs will remaina niche market. It does seem possible, therefore, that this review will haverelevance for people working with both types of technology (PDA and mobilephones) in the near future.I wonder why we missed an opportunity to increase the learning potential ofmobile phones. We would not have any problem convincing the students touse them. The PDA could go the same way. The potential for it to be amulti-functional device that students can take total ownership of and whichhas endless ÔcommunicationÕ applications is surely something we want?Ron Hinshaw, Hermitage School, quoted in Perry 2003This research report has not reviewed in depth the associated areas of mobilephones and computer games, as these are the subject of separate LSDApublications. 2USING PALMTOPS IN LEARNING2.1Why use palmtop computers for learning?2.1.1Palmtops are relatively (2001), personal pupils seem to remember the procedures for using the applications farmore easily than those on a PC. Possibly their size and comparativesimplicity makes them less daunting Ð more like a Gameboyª [aportable handheld games console] perhaps?Graham 1997The results of a recent UK schools trial (Perry 2003) also suggest that2.1.2Palmtops offer the possibility of environment taking notes (Ubaydli and Dean 2001).2.1.3Palmtops offer access to information and promote thealmtops offer access to information and promote the,which they consider to be at the heartof lifelong learning. Furthermore, referring to the work of Bailey and Lumley(1999), they state: ÔIn the coming century, the ability to identify, access, applyand create information will be the equivalent of literacy.ÕThisconceptseemsrelevanttoresearchfocusingonbasicskills,asitputsthebasicnotionofliteracy(readingandwriting)intothecontextofusing2.1.4Palmtops offer the possibility of (2002) support this view in their categorisation of the objectivesLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4 ProductivityFlexible physical Sample applications ¥Local database¥instructionData collection¥Data synthesis¥Mobile library¥Real-time chat¥Data sharing¥Wireless e-mail Content-intensiveUsers: IndividualMostly asynchronousHardware-centredUsers: GroupMostly synchronousNetwork-centredInterconnection MaLTS project using the PiCoMap program (Luchini 2.1.5Palmtops offer the possibility of 2.2Young adultsÕ experiences of using palmtops forInastudyconductedforPalmªbyCrawfordetal.(2002),somestudentopinionwassoughtfrom170Grade7Ð12students(agedapproximately12Ð17)abouttheiruseofhandheldcomputers.Althoughstudentswerenotaskedabouttheimpactofusinghandheldcomputersontheirlearning,itwasreportedthat88%agreedorstronglyagreedthatÔusingaPalmmadelearningmorefunÕ,andinafreeresponsesection64%notedthatgameplayingwasHowever,AlfordandRuocco(2001)noteintheirpilotstudywithmilitaryacademycadetstakingacomputersciencecourse,thatÔthereislittlemiddleground.StudentseithertotallyembracetheuseofPDAs,ortheyignorethem 2.3Game playing and learning (2001) point out the importance of play for learning, as shownPrensky (2001) considers that handheld computers are an important platform2.4Palmtops and literacy skillsHennessy 1998), and has been extended to primary-age students (McTaggart 10School trials with palmtops generally suggest strong benefits for the writtenwork of students, such as the speed with which students can enter text,enhanced presentation, and use of the spellchecker to correct elementarymistakes. In one Australian study (Schibeci and Kissane 1995) although suchbenefits were found, there was little change in studentsÕ writing expertise overthe project but on the other hand there was no evidence of an overall declinein writing that some people feared to be a consequence of such use (thisstudy involved Year 5 pupils).Palmtops can be motivational simply because of their novelty value. Forexample, according to a primary school teacher, quoted in OÕGrady (2003):ÔBoys are now much less reluctant to engage in reading and writing activities.Using handhelds motivates and engages them. It doesnÕt seem to deter girlseither.ÕThey have also been found to assist the writing process of high-achievingstudents, when written material created on a palmtop computer is comparedwith handwritten texts (Callan 1994). In this study the opinions of the 14-year-old students relating to the advantages of using handheld computers if theywere extended to use by every student were reported as follows:¥better organised notes¥less paper used by schools¥all work is typed and therefore neater, easier to read for student andteacherwould teach generic computer skills, including programming¥data is entered in a universal language that can be transferred to any othercomputer without recopying¥improved essay writing with spell-check and grammar-check featureseasily used on imported text¥offers the same advantages as a full computer only in a more portabledevicetakes the power of a computer anywhere¥homework can be completed on a school bus converting travel time towork time¥gives a professional look to all the studentÕs work.The word-processing tools of palmtops provide assistance to students throughthe use of wireless technology. Here enhanced effects can be claimed wherestudents work collaboratively, beaming documents to each other to share andcriticise each otherÕs writing. This is claimed to support the learning cycles ofdoing and reflecting by encouraging students to revisit written work frequentlyand to share and comment on each othersÕ drafts as a reflective discoursewhich increases the quality of the finished product (Soloway et al. 2001; Becta2003; Perry 2003).A useful reference is the website of the National Literacy Association, who areundertaking some work with palmtop computers, at www.nla.org.uk 2.5Palmtops and numeracy skills2.6Palmtops and social issuesfound to help teacherÐparent communication (Strom and Strom 2002). In this 2.7Palmtops and special needs 2.8Educational software for palmtopssoftware for palmtops. According to Loh (2001), the educational Ôkiller appÕ (a2.9Electronic books (e-books) 2.10The ownership of technology: benefits and pitfalls [G]iving children a PDA lights up their enthusiasm, though whether this will 16Palmtops are currently designed primarily with the interests of adultindividual users in mind, generally those who are business-oriented. Twoissues arise directly from this.¥Palmtops are generally provided with Ôhot syncÕ cradles to communicatewith desktop computers (the device is dropped into the cradle and there isan automatic synchronisation of the contents of the palmtop memory withthe palmtop folder on the PC). This usually works well for an individualuser, but is much less appropriate where a large number of students needto transfer data at the same time.¥The second issue is the lack of good educational software for palmtops,which is subject to a ÔCatch-22Õ effect (schools will not invest in palmtoptechnology until good educational software is available, softwarecompanies cannot find a market for educational software until schoolsinvest in palmtops), but as the education market slowly grows, software isbecoming more available (see more in Section 3).Other general pitfalls with using palmtops in the classroom include practicaltasks such as printing Ð ie where all 30 pupils are trying to beam documentsto a printer at once (Shields and Poftak 2002). The importance of keepingbatteries re-charged is also important, otherwise work could be lost (Perry2003). In another study, after 2 months of using palmtops in their residencymedical students found it difficult to carry cumbersome modem cords, useincompatible platforms (noted above), get internet access at times becauseof the limited capabilities of the browser, find analogue telephone lines andsynchronise with home computers (Beasley 2002). 3EXAMPLES OF USING PALMTOPS FOR LEARNING3.1The Cooties game 3.2 Geneyª . 2001).3.3The Docklands Learning Acceleration ProjectThe Docklands Learning Acceleration ProjectBecause they can use the spell-check andthe thesaurus, it leaves mefreeto work on the content of their work. ItalsonotedthatbecauseofthesmallnessofthepalmtopdisplayÔitwasdifficulttoseetheoverallshapeoftheevolvingtext,tolocateinformationordetecterrorsonthescreenÕ,sothechildrenpreferredtorevisetextonhard3.4Science fieldworkGraham (1997) describes a project involving primary schools in Birmingham (2002) report on a pilot study of four palmtop computer applications report on a pilot study of four palmtop computer applicationsto learningÕ. Gay et al. state the importance of considering how technologymeets usersÕ needs and how it affects the process of learning (theircategorisation of the objectives which motivate the use of mobile computershas been reported in Section 2.1.4). Further work by these researchers isdescribed at www.hci.cornell.edu/3.5Palmtops in physical and sports educationbeam their reports to their tutor. Brown (2001) reports on this kind of use byThe paper by Juniu (2002) gives an overview of palmtop hardware and 3.6Reflective logsby Lester (2003) looks at what happens with blogging in a community of users 4PLANNINGAND DESIGN ISSUES RELATED TOLEARNING WITH PALMTOP COMPUTERSSmith (2003) suggests that the biggest growth will be in smart phones, since 4.2The design and development of products4.2.1Guidelines for the design of interfaces and presentation ofAccording to Hayhoe (2001), the most significant design restrictions ofRealizethatreadingonlineatlowresolutionreducesreadingBepreparedtodisplaytextinlargertypethanyouareaccustomedEmploygraphicsinveryminorsupportingrolesratherthanasaWhendesigningWebpagesforreadingonhandhelddevices,rememberthatthescreenorientationisportraitnotlandscape,and 4.2.2Design issues for handheld computers in learning (2001) and Mandryk (2001) note the following design guidelines for palmtopMenus:The Palm environment uses a menu model in which menus areBeaming:All students were able to understand and utilize beaming inGraffiti¨:Given that Palm devices lack a keyboard, a stylus is requiredScrolling:Because of the limited screen space on Palm devices,Consistency:Consistency can be viewed from several perspectives forFeedback:As in most interface design, feedback is an important issue. Undo Facility:The need to provide robust and pervasive canceling andCustomization and Creativity:Many of the children indicated that theyMany of the children indicated that theydeveloped by these researchers]. The ability to customise and expresstheir creativity was important to the children. This is common forchildrenÕs interactions in general and has been commented on inprevious research on childrenÕs technologyDaneshet al. 2001The design guidelines suggested by Jipping and Dieter (2001) are ¥display an image of high enough quality to be experienced as aÔpictureÕ rather than an icon¥have sound quality and volume enough for clearly hearing promptsin outdoor environments¥be robust both as a software platform and as hardware: to minimizefocus on the tool and maximize the use of the tool¥have affordances ÔchunkyÕ enough for not so finely co-ordinatedfingers [we interpret the term affordance to be how the design of thepalmtop computer influences its interactive relationship with theuser]¥provide positive feedback of visual or auditory nature to indicatethat controls have been activatedKing 1999 quoted in Carmien 20024.3Other approaches to data gathering with palmtops4.3.1Electronic logging4.3.2Student sampling and questionnairesThe report of Ubaydli and Dean(2001) presents one projectÕs experiences 29A notable feature of this project was the use of screening interviews to targetstudents with some commitment to the aims of the project, ie they needed tobe a Ôtechnology enthusiastÕ but also an enthusiast for the subject matter ofthe study. 5CONCLUSIONS METHODUSEDFORFINDINGRESEARCHSTUDIESABOUTLEARNING1Keywords used2Inclusion/exclusion criteria applied 3Literature searches undertakenActive Learning (1994+Note:This journal began in 1994, and so the 33Association for Learning Technology www.alt.ac.uk¥Becta (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency)www.becta.org.uk/index.cfmBritish Computer Society www.bcs.org.uk/¥Digital Library and Archives http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/¥From Now On (The Educational Technology Journal) www.fno.org/¥International Journal of Technologies for the Advancement of Knowledgeand Learning (TechKnowLogia) www.techknowlogia.org/welcome.asp¥IPCT-J (International Computing and Technology Journal)http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~ipct-j/National Education Computing Archive www.ultralab.ac.uk/projects/neca¥National Grid for Learning www.ngfl.gov.uk/¥National ICT Research Centre www.learninglab.org.uk/¥Tech Learning www.techlearning.com/¥The Information Network on Education in Europe (EURYDICE)www.nfer.ac.uk/eurydice/The following are the academic journals and internet sites searchedwhich focus on the acquisition of basic skills (which include literacy andnumeracy):Basic Skills (1995+)¥Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy¥Journal of Literacy Research¥Literacy and Learning (1997+) ¥Literacy Today (1994+)¥Numeracy in Focus (1995+) ¥Written Language and Literacy (1998+) ¥Basic Skills Agency www.basic-skills.co.uk¥National Learning Network www.National Literacy Trust (and its research database)www.literacytrust.org.ukThe Australian Journal of Language and Literacy (2001+) www.alea.edu.au/pubs.htm#ajllThe following are the academic journals and internet sites searchedwhich focus on the post-compulsory education sector:¥Adults Learning¥College Research Journal (1997+)¥Journal of Access Studies (to 1997)¥Journal of Further and Higher Education¥Journal of Vocational Education and Training¥Research in Post Compulsory Education (1996+) 34Scottish Journal of Adult and Continuing Education (1994+)¥Studies in Continuing Education¥Studies in the Education of Adults¥Vocational Training¥Widening Participation and Lifelong Learning (1999+)¥Adult, Career and Vocational Education Clearinghouse (ACVE)http://ericacve.org/searchinput.aspCampaign for Learning www.campaign-for-learning.org.uk/¥Further Education Funding Council for Wales (FEFCW)www.wfc.ac.uk/fefcw/index.htmlFurther Education Resources for Learning (FERL) http://ferl.becta.org.uk/¥Learning and Skills Council www.lsc.gov.uk/¥National Advisory Council for Education and Training Targets (NACETT)www.countyweb.co.uk/cards/nacett/National Advisory Group for Continuing Education and Lifelong Learning(NAGCELL)www.niace.org.uk/Organisation/advocacy/NAGCELL/NAGCELL.htmNational Centre for Vocational Educational Research, Australia (NCVER)www.ncver.edu.au/National Information and Learning Technologies Association (NILTA)www.nilta.org.uk/National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE)www.niace.org.uk/Planning Exchange (The Information Providers for Regeneration andDevelopment) www.planex.co.uk/¥Scottish Further Education Funding Council (SFEFC) www.sfefc.ac.uk/¥Scottish Further Education Funding Unit (SFEU) www.sfeu.ac.uk/¥Standing Conference on University Teaching and Research in theEducation of Adults (SCUTREA) www.scutrea.ac.uk/¥The Universities Association for Continuing Education (UACE)www.uace.org.uk/The following are the academic journals and internet sites searchedwhich focus on the youth issues:¥Children and Society¥Health Education Journal¥International Journal of Adolescence and Youth¥Journal of Adolescence¥Journal of Youth and Adolescence¥Journal of Youth Studies¥Young People Now¥Youth Action¥Youth and Policy, the Journal of Critical Analysis¥Youth and Society Wales Youth Agencyhttp://www.wya.org.uk/ 36Scope www.scope.org.uk/¥Technology for Disabilities Information Centre www.techdis.ac.uk/¥The Canadian National Institute for the Blind Library www.cnib.ca/library/¥The Deaf Resource Library www.deaflibrary.org/The following are the general citation indexes, electronic databases andgateways which were searched:¥Arts and Humanities Citation Index¥British Education Index (BEI) www.leeds.ac.uk/bei¥British Humanities Index (BHI Net)¥British Library Electronic Table of Contents Online (ZETOC)http://zetoc.mimas.ac.uk/index.htmlEducational Resources Information Centre (ERIC)¥Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) www.jisc.ac.uk/¥National Information Services and Systems (NISS) www.niss.ac.uk/¥Periodicals Contents Index (PCI)¥Social Science Information Gateway (SOSIG) http://sosig.ac.uk/The following are the literature abstracts which were searched:¥Contents Pages in Education¥Educational Research Abstracts¥Educational Technology Abstracts¥Special Educational Needs AbstractsThe following are other UK research/governmental/miscellaneousorganisations which were searched:¥DENI (Department for Education, Northern Ireland) www.deni.gov.uk/¥DfES (Department for Education and Skills) www.dfes.gov.uk/index.htm¥Learning and Skills Development AgencyÕs library databasewww.lsda.org.uk/National Assembly for Wales www.wales.gov.uk/¥National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) www.nfer.ac.uk/¥Scottish Executive Education Departmentwww.scotland.gov.uk/who/dept_education.aspScottish Executive Enterprise and Lifelong Learning Department(SEELLD) www.scotland.gov.uk/who/elld/¥University for Industry/learndirect www.ufi.comThe following are European organisations which were searched:¥European Association for Research on Learning and Instructionwww.earli.eu.org/European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training) (CEDEFOP)www.cedefop.eu.int/ 37European Commission Community Research and DevelopmentInformation Service (CORDIS) www.cordis.lu/en/home.html¥Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)www.oecd.org/United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation(UNESCO) www.unesco.org/The following are research bodies which were searched (principally forpapers presented at annual research conferences):¥American Educational Research Association www.aera.net/¥Association for Learning Technology (Alt-C) www.shef.ac.uk/alt¥Australian Association for Research in Educationwww.aare.edu.au/index.htmBritish Educational Research Association www.bera.ac.uk/¥European Educational Research Association www.eera.ac.uk/¥European Information Society TechnologiesÕ Conferenceswww.cordis.lu/ist/ Link with European Commission CORDIS website atwww.cordis.lu noted earlier under ÔEuropean organisationsÕ¥Online Educa www.online-educa.com/¥Scottish Council for Research in Education www.scre.ac.uk/¥The New Zealand Council for Educational Researchwww.nzcer.org.nz/search/Searchsite.htmThe following are online newspapers which were searched:¥British Newspaper Index (BNI) (1995+)¥Times Educational Supplement www.tes.co.uk/¥Times Higher Educational Supplement www.thes.co.uk/The following are internet search engines which were used to search forgrey literature (ie literature produced by academics, business andindustry in print and electronic formats, but not controlled bycommercial publishers, eg on the internet) where the main emphasis ison finding research studies noting young peoples experiences ofmobile technologies)¥AltaVista uk.altavista.com/¥Google www.google.com/search¥Yahoo www.yahoo.com/ BeamingUsing infra-red communications to exchange dataEPOCªOperating system of the now discontinued PsionMultitaskingA feature of an operating system which allows morePalmOS¨The operating system used by the majority of PDAs,PocketPCOperating system by Microsoft for handheld SymbianªA consortium of PDA and mobile phoneA consortium of PDA and mobile phone(EPOC)Tablet PCA Tablet PC is a wireless PC that allows a user to takeTamagotchiªTamagotchi is a tiny virtual reality pet creature, and 40Alderson TSJ and Oswald NT (1999). 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