How a lack of shared assumptions and expectations if not explicitly developed can hinder effective communication The importance of seeing the forces operating on the boss from the bosss perspective ID: 329964
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Slide1
Jamie Turner: Key Lessons
How a
lack of shared assumptions and expectations
, if not explicitly developed, can hinder effective communication. The importance of seeing the forces operating on the boss from the boss’s perspective.
How
differences in personal managerial styles
(e.g., Turner’s self-absorption; Cardullo’s conflict avoidance/mercurial nature) can cause a subordinate-boss relationship to degenerate.
To appreciate the
importance of managing upwards and laterally
.
How to communicate: Don’t present litany of your complaints; learn to appreciate the other’s perspectiveSlide2Slide3Slide4Slide5Slide6Slide7
Social NetworksSlide8Slide9
Page 9
Source: Bearman et. al. 2004Slide10Slide11
Small Worlds and The Oracle of Kevin Bacon
Craig, Brian, and Turtle, boozey undergrads at Allbright College, in PA: Is Kevin Bacon at the center of the Hollywood universe (about 800,000 actors)?
Kevin Bacon at center of Hollywood?
Bacon number: 2.946
Connery number: 2.731
Steiger, Rod: 2.67
Lee, Christopher: 2.68
Sutherland, Donald: 2.70
http://www.cs.virginia.edu/oracle/
bacon number
# of actors
0
1
1
1806
2
145024
3
395126
4
95497
5
7451
6
933
7
106
8
13Slide12
Small Worlds
In a highly clustered, ordered network, a single random connection will create a shortcut that lowers
L
dramaticallySlide13
Data Control Systems
Communications Technologies
Field Design
Software
Krackhardt
& Hanson, 1993Slide14
Assess Your Intelligence System1=Not at All; 5=Very Much
Do you feel you tend to be “in the know”? Do you find out quickly about key decisions, activities, events?
Are you relatively central or marginal within the informal communication network in your work group?
Do you have personal contacts in a wide range of groups?
Do you actively share information with superiors, subordinates, peers?
Do you maintain ties with work related/professional contacts?
Do you know and talk regularly to peers within your workgroup?
Are you well connected to your formal workgroup leader?Slide15
© Michael E. Wasserman, 2010
15
Allen &
Henn
, 2007Slide16
The Advice Network
R
eveals the Experts
Krackhardt
& Hanson, 1993Slide17
But When it Comes to Trust…
Krackhardt
& Hanson, 1993Slide18
How the CEO Views the Trust Network
Krackhardt
& Hanson, 1993Slide19
Who are the key players in a
network?
Note
: each node in network is a
p
erson; lines represent regular work-related communication (but could represent other relations, such as trust, advice, and so on)
Source: Steve
BorgattiSlide20
© 2005 Steve Borgatti
Example # 1
Trust ties in a Global Consulting Firm
Data from: Cross, R., Parker, A., & Borgatti, S.P. 2002. Making Invisible Work Visible: Using Social Network Analysis to Support Strategic Collaboration.
California Management Review
. 44(2): 25-46
K
%
KP-Set
1
31
{KR}
2
53
{BM,BS}
3
72
{BM,BS,NP}
4
81
{BM,BS,DI,NP}
5
84
{BM,BS,DI,KR,NP}
6
91
{BM,BS,DI,HB,KR,TO}
7
94
{BM,BS,BS2,DI,HB,PS,TO}
8
97
{BM,BS,BS2,CD,DI,HB,PS, TO}
9
100
{BM,BS,BW,BS2,CD,DI,HB,PS,TO}
Trust ties among employees
{
BS,BM,NP
}
Major
change initiative is planned. Which small set of
employees should we select
for intensive
indoctrination?
in hopes they will diffuse positive attitude/knowledge to others
Network
influenceabilitySlide21
Network Theory
Goals
Mechanisms
Performance
Homogeneity
Connectionist
(pipes)
Resources flow through ties
Influence & transmission
Cognitivist
(prisms)
e.g., Association with high status others
Pygmalion effects
Structuralist
(girders)
Occupying exploitable positions
Substitutability & competition
Source:
Borgatti
et al. 2009Slide22
Questions that a network study would help address
What is the current state of actual interpersonal collaboration/coordination across members of different units?
Who are the “key players” in the emergent network of collaboration/coordination?
Who are the bridges between units?
Who are the central figures within a given unit?
Who are the marginal figures?
Who are the bottlenecks in the flow of information/collaboration?
How
i
s the intended structure different from the emergent one, and what can be done to “fix” the problem?
How is the network changing over time?
Source:
Borgatti
, 2014Slide23
HR CHALLENGES
SNA
TOOLS
Recruitment
** area to be developed **
Executive
Coaching
Helping exec work with the informal network
Network elicitation; visualization algorithms;
social capital audit
Succession
Planning
Promotability
Selecting task leader
Centrality measures
Retention
PlanningRetaining key peopleTransferring retiring skills
Centrality-Stake alignment Elicitation + buddyingOrganizational ChangeSeeding influentialsKeyPlayer algorithms
Post-Merger Integration
Tracking integration & identifying holes
Density tables
Location Planning
Whose office should be close to
whom’s
?
Density tables
HR Assessment
All of the above
Source:
Borgatti, 2014Slide24
Social Media Networks
Source: Kane,
Alavi
,
Labianca
, and
Borgatti
, 2013Slide25Slide26
FORMAL NETWORK STRUCTURE IN SALES DIVISION OF INSURANCE FIRM
Slide27
Page
27
Mehra
et al., 2006, Org. Sci.Slide28
Page
28Slide29
Krackhardt’s “Kite Network”:
Which Position is Best (and why)?Slide30Slide31
Centrality Measures for the preceding “Kite Network”
1 2 3 4
Degree Closeness Betweenness Eigenvector
------------ ------------ ------------ ------------
1 A 33.333 50.000 0.000 40.423
2 B 44.444 52.941 2.315 49.810
3 C 44.444 52.941 2.315 49.810
4 D 33.333 50.000 0.000 40.423
5 E 66.667 60.000 10.185 68.027
6 F 55.556 64.286 23.148 56.242
7 G 55.556 64.286 23.148 56.242
8 H 33.333 60.000 38.889 27.699
9 I 22.222 42.857 22.222 6.799
10 J 11.111 31.034 0.000 1.579
For the formulas used to compute these centrality measures,
see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrality
[I won’t ask for
Formulas on the exam]Slide32
Determinants of Power at Work
Sources of positional power:
Formal authority – position in hierarchy and prescribed responsibilities
Relevance – relationship between task and organizational objectives
Centrality – position in key networks
Autonomy – amount of discretion in a position
Visibility – degree to which performance can be seen by others
Sources of personal power:
Expertise – relevant knowledge and skills
Track record – relevant experience
Attractiveness – attributes that others find appealing and identify with
Effort – expenditure of time and energy
©Whetton and Cameron, Developing Management Skills: Gaining Power and Influence, New York, Harper Collins Publishers 1993Slide33
Are Networks A Source of Power?
Note
: Next nine slides are adapted from a case study written by Valdis KrebsSlide34Slide35
The Leaders Collaborate
When the leaders collaborate,
each loses some power … because
of less constrained info. flowSlide36
Subordinates bridge…
and gain power… leaders
lose some powerSlide37
Subordinates Forms Tie with Leader of Other Group
Leader 10 gains power; leader 15 loses power
Subordinate 16 gains power; 11/12/13 gain
some power because their leader is now more
powerfulSlide38
When Subordinates Seize Power
People connect with 16 because of reputation
as a bridge/broker (the rich get richer). 16 now more powerful than her boss. 16 lets
tie to 14 lapse…Slide39
Power Struggle Ensues…
Boss 15 cuts tie to Boss 10… making 16
even more powerful!Slide40
Emergent Network (grey ties formal; purple informal)
Who is more powerful? 10 or 16? Why?Slide41
What if 16 builds Intra-Group Ties Instead?
15 and 16 are
“structurally equivalent”Slide42
But When Everyone is Connected…
Everyone in Group
B is equally
powerful Slide43
The Power of Informal BrokersSlide44
When The Leaders Connect…
Greater dispersion of
power…Slide45
Assessing Your Personal NetworkSlide46
What kind of Network is ideal?
What are you trying to do?
Size
Composition/Diversity/Range
Structure
Challenges in seeing holes
Challenges in plugging holes
Reputation deficits
The vision advantage
Like over-the-horizon radarSlide47
The Network You Need
Whose cooperation do I need?
Whose compliance do I need?
Whose opposition can thwart my work plans?
Who needs my cooperation and compliance?
© Michael E. Wasserman, 2010
47Slide48
The Network Your Group Needs
What information is critical to your group’s performance (internally/externally)?
Who are the groups/people your group needs connections to for this information?
What are the main uncertainties, threats, and opportunities your group faces (internally/externally)?
Who are the groups/people your group needs connections to for this information?
Where is your group in the (internal/external) flow of information?
Who are the groups/people your group needs connections to for this information?
48Slide49
The Networking Landscape
Peers
Subordinates
Superiors
Your connection to:
Suppliers
Customers
Stake holders
- Government officials
- Judges; Lawyers; Police
- Content Experts
- Leaders at other labs
Teams
Departments/Divisions
Your groups’ connections to:
Suppliers
Customers
Stake holders
- Government officials
- Judges; Lawyers; Police
- Content Experts
- Leaders at other labs
© Michael E. Wasserman, 2010
49
Internal
External
Inter-
Personal
Inter-
GroupSlide50
Changing/Maintaining Networks
Homophily
Contact hypothesis
Propinquity
It’s a small world
The power of role modelling
Find reasons for interacting (common tasks, shared purpose, personal passions)
Make time: this is workSlide51
© Michael E. Wasserman, 2010
51
Current Contact
Invest
Hold
Divest
Managing your Network PortfolioSlide52
What Influences Tie Formation?
Self-similarity: the
homophily
principle
Proximity
Shared activities
?
Social identity
From
Cialdini
: Reciprocity/symmetry; and from
Heider
, transitivity/cognitive dissonance (friends of friends)
Embedded ties persist longerSlide53
Uzzi and Dunlap:
Social Capital at Work
Social capital exists “where people have an advantage because of their location in social structure”
Private information; access to diverse skill sets and ways of thinking; power (getting things done); professional growth
* Early career
: Operational skills and what you can accomplish independently.
* Later career
: Ability to develop effective relationships with key people.
Typical concerns:
Insincere; manipulative; not “real” work
Questions:
What factors influence the network you have?
What is the network you need to have?
How can you build that network?Slide54
Similarity and LikingSlide55
Friendship Network at an Ivy League University in 1988Slide56Slide57
Practical Tips for Managing Your Personal Network
Share information that benefits the other; do a favor.
“I wouldn’t be caught dead joining any club that would have me as a member”
Marx, Groucho
Engineer serendipity: e.g., breakfast meetings
Reactivate some dormant ties– just lunch?
Look for bridging roles and positions
Leverage others’ ties (“Soul of a new machine”): hitch your network to theirs
Identify keyplayers in informal and formal structure and nurture those roles/ties
Keep your “enemies” close: invite key “customers”/”suppliers” to informal meeting/event
Cultivate contacts
before
you need them
Attend conferences: keep up your external ties
57Slide58
Practical Tips for Managing Your Group’s Network
Manage identity/manage similarity
Birds of a feather…
The power of numbers
Perceptions of similarity can be shaped
Use physical location to anticipate and manage ties
Create joint-tasks
Empower people to pool social capital
Share leadership
58Slide59
What you can do now
Start informal breakfast meetings– food is crucial. Extend casual invitations to chat about things
Reactivate one or two of your previous contacts. Extend an invitation or just stop by to chat
Share information with a subordinate: creates a virtuous circle.
Who are the information bridges internally and externally?
Identify outside suppliers and invite them to lunch
Attend some of those seemingly wasteful events– trade shows, cocktail parties, etc.
59Slide60
60
Current Contact
Invest
Hold
Divest
Managing your Network PortfolioSlide61
61
Build New Contacts
Maintain
or Deepen Current Contacts
Leverage Current Contacts
E
xtract value from a relationship
Divest from
Current Contacts
Reduce the
intensity or frequency with which you connect
Managing your Network PortfolioSlide62
Resources
Leadership: Online Resource:
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/leadership_theories.htm
Tracy Kidder’s “Soul of a new machine.”
Social Networks:
Download and install UCINET (version 6.29) from:
http://www.analytictech.com/downloaduc6.htm
Malcolm Gladwell’s “The Tipping Point”
Alber-Laszlo Barabasi’s “Linked: How everything is connected to everything else and what it means”
Cross, R. & Parker, A. “The hidden power of social networks: Understanding how work really gets done in organizations.”
More specialized books on social networks:
http://www.insna.org/INSNA/books_inf.html
Link to INSNA:
http://www.sfu.ca/~insna/
Social Networks Analysis for Newbies
Slide63
Thanks!
Questions?
63Slide64
Emile Durkheim
Social facts: The importance of external forces… the constraining nature of social facts
Max Weber
The meaning behind the action… the interpretation of action
64
TWO CONTRASTING PERSPECTIVES ON THE STUDY OF SOCIAL (NETWORK) STRUCTURESlide65
Epictetus
Men [and presumably women] are influenced not by things but by their thoughts of things…
65Slide66
Reality and Perception
Networks lead a double-life as both
reality
and
perception
David Krackhardt
Theodore Mead Newcomb
Fritz
HeiderSlide67
Defining Real (Friendship) Ties
Perceived Tie
Real Directed Tie
IF
THEN
Locally Aggregated Structure (LAS) from Intersection Rule (Krackhardt, 1986)
IF
THEN
Symmetrization
Real Undirected Tie
STEP 1:
STEP 2:Slide68
Defining Perceived (Friendship) Ties
Perceived Directed Tie
IF
THEN
Symmetrization
Perceived Undirected TieSlide69
Ties: Real, Imagined, Unseen
Perceived Tie
Existing Tie
Not Perceived Tie
Non-Existing Tie
Accurately Perceived Tie
Imagined Tie
Unseen Tie
Absent and unknown or Correctly seen as absentSlide70Slide71
Jacob MorenoSlide72
Figures from
Imaginary Worlds: Using Visual Network Scales to Capture Perceptions of Social Networks
in
Research in the Sociology of Organizations: Contemporary Perspectives on Organizational Social Networks
Citation: Mehra, A., Borgatti, S., Soltis, S., Floyd, T., Ofem, B., Kidwell, V., and Halgin, D. (Forthcoming). Imaginary Worlds: Using Visual Network Scales to Capture Perceptions of Social Networks. In S. Borgatti, D. Brass, D. Halgin, G. Labianca & A. Mehra (Eds.),
Research in the Sociology of Organizations: Contemporary Perspectives on Organizational Social Networks
. Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.Slide73
Figure 1 Explaining Network Images
In this section of the questionnaire, we ask about your perceptions of the overall pattern of close friendships in [the organization]. As you are probably aware, we can represent the structure of close friendships in [the organization] as a network in which a small circle is used to represent a person, and a line between two circles indicates that those two people are close friends. Here is a made-up example to illustrate what we mean:Slide74
Figure 2 Explaining Personal Network Images
In this section, we are going to show you some stylized pictures of your personal network of close friendships in [the organization]. By personal network we mean the set of relations among you, your close friends, and the relations among your close friends. In each diagram, the larger circle in the center is you; the other circles represent your close friends, and the lines between the circles represent close friendships. Please take a look at the pictures and their verbal descriptions, and then tell us which network YOU think looks most like your personal network of close friends in [the organization].Slide75
Figure 3 Perception of Ego Network Density
This question focuses on your perceptions of the degree of interconnectedness among your
close friends in [the organization].
In your opinion, which of the network diagrams below best approximates the degree of
interconnectedness in your personal network of close friendships in [the organization]? Please make your selection by clicking one of the pictures below. Please select one choice.
1. None of my friends are friends with each other
2. A few of my friends are friends with each other
3. About half of my friends are friends with each other
4. Most of my friends are friends with each other
5. All of my friends are friends with each otherSlide76
Figure 4 Perception of Ego Network Bridging
In the diagram below, there are two groups/cliques of people. The large circle that connects the two groups/cliques can be thought of as a bridge.
Using the scale below, please rate the extent to which you think you occupy a bridging position in your personal network of close friendships in [the organization]-- i.e., the extent to which, like the "you circle," you are close friends with groups that otherwise lack close friendship relations with each other.
1:
I do not occupy any bridging positions
2
3
4
5: I occupy many bridging positionsSlide77
Figure 5 Perception of Ego Network Reach
Some of your close friends may have few other close friends (pictured on the left) while other of your close friends might have many close friends (pictured on the right).
In your opinion, which of the network diagrams below best approximates your personal network of close friendships in [the organization]? Please make your selection by clicking one of the pictures below. Please select one choice.
1. My friends have few close friends
2. My friends have some close friends
3. My friends have many close friendsSlide78
Perception of Ego Network Reach – 1 to 5 option
In your opinion, which of the network diagrams below best approximates your personal network of close friendships in [the organization]? Please make your selection by clicking one of the pictures below. Please select one choice.
1.
My close friends have very few close friends
2.
My close friends have some close friends
3.
My close friends have a moderate number
of close friends
4
.
My close friends have a relatively large
number
of close
friends
5
.
My close friends have a very large number
of close friendsSlide79
Figure 6 Perception of Whole Network Density
This question focuses on your perceptions of the degree of interconnectedness of close
friendships within [the organization]. The more interconnected the network, the more dense the pattern of relations within the network is.
In your opinion, which of the network diagrams below best approximates the density of the network of close friendships in [the organization] as a whole. Please make your selection by clicking one of the pictures below. Please select one choice.
1: Very low network density
2: Low network density
3: Moderate network density
4: Relatively high network density
5: Very high network densitySlide80
Figure 7
Perceived Structure of Whole Network
In this part of the questionnaire, you will be asked to indicate how you see the overall network structure among [people in the organization].
There are four diagrams below.
(A) Core-periphery
: in this network, there is a core of well-connected people, and most people are on the poorly connected margins of the network.
(B) Clique structure
:
this is a network composed of distinct cliques; members of a clique have lots of ties to each other and very few ties to people outside their own clique.
(C) Sparse network
: this is a sparsely connected network; members have ties to only a few of the many people in the network.
(D) Dense network
: this is a densely connected network; people have many ties to each other.
Please rank the four diagrams representing the overall structure of the
friendship network by using numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 (meaning: 1 = most likely to 4 = most unlikely).
Rank:
Rank:
Rank:
Rank:Slide81
Figure 8 Perceived Changes in Density in Personal Network
In
this section, we ask you for your perceptions of the
changes
in your network of close friends
in [the organization].
This question focuses on your perceptions of CHANGES in
the degree of interconnectedness among your close friends in
[the organization].
The network diagram on the left represents a personal network with NO interconnectedness. The network diagram on the right represents a personal network that is completely interconnected
.
Using
the scale below, please choose the answer that best represents your perception of how your network has changed since last year at this time.
Slide82
Figure 9 Perceived Change in Bridging in Personal Network
This
question focuses on your perceptions of the CHANGE in the number of
bridging positions you occupy among your close friends
in [the organization].
In the diagram below, there are two groups/cliques of people. The large circle that connects the two groups/cliques can be thought of as a
bridge
.
Using the scale below, please choose the answer that best represents how the number of bridging positions you occupy among your close friends
in [the organization] has
changed since last year at this time.Slide83
Figure 10 Perception of Change in Network Position
This
question focuses on your perceptions of CHANGES in your
position in the network of close friends
in [the organization]
.
The network diagram on the left represents a person on the periphery of the network. This person has close friends who themselves are not connected to many others. The network diagram on the right represents a person in the center of the network. This person has close friends who themselves are connected to many others
.
Using
the scale below, please choose the answer that best represents your perception of how your position in the
organization’s network
has changed since last year at this time.
Slide84
Figure 11
Perception of Change in
Whole Network Density
This question focuses on your perceptions of
changes in the density of the overall network of personal friendships in [the organization]
.
Since last year this time, would you say that the overall network of personal friendships in the organization has become:
1. A lot less dense
2. A little less dense
3. Relatively unchanged
in terms of density
4. A little
more dense
5. A lot more denseSlide85
Figure
12 Retrospective Perceptions of Friendship Tie
Trajectories
Consider your relationships with your close friends. The way that each relationship progressed over time may be different from the others. You may have shared an instant bond with some friends, while for others, the friendship developed slowly over time.
The images below represent different ways that relationships may progress over time. The horizontal axis represents the passage of time. The vertical axis represents the status of the relationship and ranges from Strong Like at the top to Strong Dislike on the bottom.
Please enter FIVE of your
close
friends and select the image that best depicts the way that your friendship with each person has progressed over time.Slide86
Figure 13 Prospective
Perceptions of Friendship Tie Trajectories
As you approach your graduation from [the university], there is a possibility that you will move away from your close friends. Imagine that after graduation, you move more than 100 miles away from each of the close friends listed below.
Then, for each friend you named, please select the image that best depicts the way you expect the friendship will progress or change AFTER the move.Slide87
Figure 14 Preference for Dense Networks
This
question focuses on the degree of interconnectedness between a person and his or her close friends.
If this were your network, which diagram represents the degree of interconnectedness that you would prefer?Slide88
Figure 15 Preference for Bridging Positions
Using
the scale below, please rate the extent to which you would prefer to occupy go-between positions in your personal networks. i.e., the extent to which, like the "you circle," you would prefer to have close friendships with people in groups that otherwise lack close friendship relations with each other.
1 - I would prefer not to occupy any go-between positions
2
3
4
5 - I would prefer to occupy many go-between positionsSlide89
Figure 16 Preference for Network Reach
This
question focuses on the extent to which a person's close friends have many other close friends, or how well-connected the principal person's close friends are.
If this were your network, which diagram represents how connected you would prefer your close friends to be?Slide90
Figure 17 Approach to Transforming Networks
People
might occupy go-between positions for many different reasons. Sometimes, a person acts as a go-between for two other people simply because the two others do not know each other. Sometimes, a person acts as a go-between for two other people because the two others actively dislike each other
.
The below image represents a person acting as a go-between for two others who do not know each other. Please think of times when you found yourself in this position.
When you found yourself in this position, what has been your typical reaction?
I did not attempt to change things
I tried to arrange for the two people to meet
I dropped one of the two people as a friend