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FinallyfortheSCCde ningq1oneobtainstypeelematypeelist1xTJ x0 1x195x6 Tdx 00elemelist1typeeblist2xTJ x0 1x195x6 Tdx 00elemeblist2b ID: 449906
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:-typelist�---[];a;b;[list|list].%predicatesignatures::-app(list,list,list).:-p(list).Notethatthelisttypeisnotthestandardone.Thereasonisthatapp/3iscalledoncewithlistsofa'sandb'sandoncewithlistswhoseelementsaretheformerlists.Thewell-typingconstraint,statingthatbothcallsmusthavethesamesignatureasthepredicateapp/3enforcestheaboveunnaturalsolution.Hence,themonomorphictypeinferenceisnotsointerestingforlargeprogramsastheylikelyusemanydi erenttypeinstancesofbasepredicates.InalanguagewithpolymorphictypessuchasMercury,[6],onetypicallydeclaresapp/3ashavingtypeapp(list(T),list(T),list(T)).TherstcallinstantiatesthetypeparameterTwiththeatypeelemdenedaselem�---a;bwhilethesecondcallinstantiatesTwithlist(elem).Thesetsoftermsdenotedbythesepolymorphictypeslist(elem)andlist(list(elem))arepropersubsetsofthemonomorphictypelist.Forin-stance,theterm[a|b]isoftypelist,butnotoftypelist(elem).Hence,polymorphictypesallowforamoreaccuratecharacterizationofprogramterms.Theworkin[1]alsosketchestheinferenceofapolymorphicwell-typing.However,therulespresentedthereareincomplete.Wereferto[4]foracom-prehensiveset.Inthispaper,werevisittheproblemofinferringapolymorphictyping.However,weimposetherestrictionthatcallstoapredicatethatoccurinsidethestronglyconnectedcomponent(SCC)thatdenesthepredicate(forsimplicitywerefertothemasrecursivecalls)havethesametypesignatureasthepredicate.Othercalls,appearinghigherinthecallgraphoftheprogramhaveatypesignaturethatisapolymorphicinstanceofthedenition'stype.Themotivationoftherestrictionisthatitcanbecomputationallyverydemandingwhenarecursivecallisallowedtohaveatypethatisatrueinstanceofthedenition'stype.Henglein[2]showedthattypecheckinginsuchasettingisun-decidable,andSchrijversandBruynooghe[4]havestrongindicationsofsimilarundecidabilityfortypeinference.Appliedontheaboveprogramfragment,oneobtainsthefollowingwell-typing::-typeelem�---a;b.:-typelist1(T)�---[];[T|list1(T)].:-typelist2(T)�---[];[T|list2(T)].:-app(list1(T),list2(T),list2(T)).:-p(list2(list2(elem)).:-callapp1(list1(elem),list2(elem),list2(elem)).:-callapp2(list1(list2(elem)),list2(list2(elem)),list2(list2(elem))).Bothlist1andlist2arerenamingsofthestandardlisttype,hencethiswell-typingisequivalenttowhatonewoulddeclareinalanguagesuchasMercury.Asforthetypesignaturesofthecalls,callappireferstothatoftheithcall.In Finally,fortheSCCdeningq/1oneobtains::-typeelem�---a.%:-typeelist1&#x]TJ ;� -1;.95; Td;&#x [00;---[elem|elist1];[].:-typeeblist2&#x]TJ ;� -1;.95; Td;&#x [00;---[elem|eblist2];b.%:-typeelistlist1&#x]TJ ;� -1;.95; Td;&#x [00;---[eblist2|elistlist1];[].:-typeelistlist2&#x]TJ ;� -1;.95; Td;&#x [00;---[eblist2|elistlist2];[].%signatures:-q(elistlist2).:-callapp1(elist1,eblist2,eblist2).:-callapp2(elistlist1,elistlist2,elistlist2).Thisrevealsthateblist2isnotastandardlistandthatitistherstcalltoapp/3thatemploysthistype.ThisexampleshowsthattheSCCbasedpolymorphicanalysisprovidesmoreusefulinformationthanthetruepolymorphicone.Itisinterestinginanotheras-pect.Itgivesuptheusualconceptunderlyingpolymorphictypingthateachpred-icateshouldhaveauniqueprincipaltypingandthatallcallsshouldhaveatypethatisaninstanceofit.Indeed,thetypesoftherstandsecondcallareequiv-alenttoinstancesofthetypesignaturesapp(list1(T),blist2(T),blist2(T))andapp(list1(T),list2(T),list2(T))respectively,wherethetypeslist1(T)andlist2(T)arethestandardpolymorphiclisttypesbutblist2(T)isdenedasblist2(T)&#x]TJ ;� -1;.95; Td;&#x [00;---[T|eblist2(T)];b.Ourcontributionsarethefollowing:{WeproposeanewandecientpolymorphictypeanalysisbasedonanSCCbySCCtraversaloftheprogram.{Wecompareourapproachwithtwootheranalyses,acheapbutinaccuratemonomorphicanalysisandanaccuratebutexpensivepolymorphicanalysis.{Oursmallevaluationshowstherespectivemeritsofthedi erentanalyses.Intherestofthisabstract,wedescribethedi erentwell-typingsandtheirinferenceinmoredetailandweendwithasmallevaluationoftheirmerits.2ProblemStatementandBackgroundKnowledgeLogicProgramsOursyntaxoflogicprogramsisdenedasfollows:Program:={Clause};Clause:=Atom':-'Goal;Goal:=Atom|'('Goal,Goal')'|Term'='Term|'true';Atom:=Pred'('Term','...','Term')';Term:=Var|Functor'('Term','...','Term')';Pred,FunctorandVarrefertosetsofpredicatesymbols,functionsymbolsandvariablesrespectively.Elementsofthersttwosetsaredenotedwithstringsstartingwithalowercase,whereaselementsofVarstartwithanuppercase. (MonoCall)p( 1;:::; n)2��`ti: i �`p(t1;:::;tn):(RecCall)p( 1;:::; n)2��`ti: i �`p(t1;:::;tn):(PolyCall)p( 1;:::; n)2��`ti: 0i 0i= i �`p(t1;:::;tn):(SCCCall)�`ti: 0i(:-type 0i�!:::)2��0[f :-type 0i�!:::g[fp( 01;:::; 0n)g`subprog(p=n): �`p(t1;:::;tn): Fig.2.TheCallRulesThedi erentwaysofwell-typingacallaregiveninFigure2.Forthemonomor-phicanalysis,thewell-typingofacallisidenticaltothatofthepredicateintheenvironment(MonoCallrule).Fortheothertwoanalyses,thisonlyholdsfortherecursivecalls(RecCallrule).Thepolymorphicanalysisrequiresthatthetypeofanon-recursivecallisaninstance(undertypesubstitution)ofthetypeofthepredicate(PolyCallrule),whiletheSCCbasedanalysis(SCCCallrule)requiresthatthewell-typingofthecallin�|whichisp( 01;:::; 0n)|issuchthatthereexistsatypingenvironment(thatcanbedi erentfrom�)withthefollowingproperties:thesubprogramdeningthepredicate(subprog(p=n))iswell-typedin�0andthepredicatesignatureofp=nisp( 01;:::; 0n)itself.Notethatthisimpliesthatthereexistsapolymorphictypesignatureforp=nsuchthatp( 01;:::; 0n)isaninstanceofit;however,thatpolymorphictypecanbedi erentfordi erentcalls.Inallthreeanalyses,weareinterestedinminimalsolutions.Informally:fewercasesinatyperuleisbetterandonetypeisbetterthananother,whenthelatterisequivalenttoaninstanceoftheformer.3TheMonomorphicTypeAnalysisThemonomorphictypesystemissimple.Itrequiresthatallcallstoapredicatehaveexactlythesametypingasthesignature(ruleMonoCallinFigure2).Themonomorphictypeinference(rstdescribedin[1])consistsofthreephases:(1)Derivetypeconstraintsfromtheprogramtext.(2)Normalize(orsolve)thetypeconstraints.(3)Extracttypedenitionsandtypesignaturesfromthenormalizedconstraints.Apracticalimplementationmayinterleavethesephases.Inparticular,(1)maybeinterleavedwith(2)viaincrementalconstraintsolving.Wediscussthethreephasesinmoredetailbelow.Phase1:TypeConstraintDerivationForthepurposeofconstraintderivationweassumethatadistincttype isassociatedwitheveryoccurrenceofaterm.Inaddition,everydenedpredicatephasanassociatedtypesignaturep( ) {Atype thatdoesnotappearastherstargumentinaconstraintgetsasitstypeexpressionauniquetypevariableA.{Atype thatappearsonthelhsofaconstraintisassignedauniquetypenamet.ThistypenamehasasitsargumentsthetypevariablesAiofcorrespondingtypes isuchthat i1arethetypeexpressionsofthe i.Thetypedenitionsfollowfromthetypeexpressionsinastraightforwardmanner.Foreachtype withtypeexpressiont( A)wegetatypedenitiont( A)�!:::.Thisdenitioncontainsonecasef(:::)foreachconstraint f( ),wheretheargumentexpressionsarethetypeexpressionsofthetypes .PropertiesItisfairlyeasytoseethatbytheaboveapproachwegetasound,completeandterminatingalgorithm.Ofparticularinterestisthetimecomplexityofnormalization:Theorem1(TimeComplexity).Thenormalizationalgorithmhasanear-lineartimecomplexityO(n (n)),wherenistheprogramsizeand istheinverseAckermannfunction.The (n)factorfollowsfromtheUnifstep,ifimplementedwiththeoptimalunion-ndalgorithm.4ThePolymorphicTypeAnalysisThepolymorphictypesystemrelaxesthemonomorphicone.Thetypesignatureofnon-recursivepredicatecallsisaninstanceofthepredicatesignature,ratherthanbeingidenticaltoit.In[4],atypeinferenceisdescribedthatallowsthisalsoforrecursivecalls.constraintderivationtothecurrentsetting).Ithasacomplexsetofrulesbecausethereispropagationoftypeinformationbetweenpredicatesignatureandcallsignatureinbothdirections.Anewcaseinatyperulefromatypeinthesignatureofacallispropagatedtothecorrespondingtypeinthesignatureofthedenitionandinturnpropagatedtothecorrespondingtypesinthesignatureofallothercalls.There,itcanpotentiallyinteractwithotherconstraints,leadingtoyetanothercaseandtriggeringanewroundofpropagation.Experimentsindicateacubictimecomplexity.5TheSCCTypeAnalysisWesummarizebrie ytheprocedurefortheSCC-basedtypeinference.Thestronglyconnectedcomponents(SCCs)ofaprogramaresetsofpredicates,whereeachcomponentiseitherasingletoncontaininganon-recursivepredi-cateoramaximalsetofmutuallyrecursivepredicates.ThereisapartialorderontheSCCs;forcomponentss1ands2,s1s2i somepredicateins1depends(possiblyindirectly)onapredicateins2. 1I.e., iisreachablefrom usingtheconstraints. Anotherscalablebenchmark(AppendixCof[5])provokestheworst-casequadraticbehavioroftheSCCanalysis,whichisstillmuchbetterthanthecubicbehaviorandconstantfactorsofthepolymorphicanalysis.7ConclusionandFutureWorkWithintheframeworkofpolymorphicwell-typingsofprograms,itiscustomarytohaveauniqueprincipaltypesignatureforpredicatedenitionsandtypesig-naturesofcalls(fromoutsidetheSCCdeningthepredicate)thatareinstancesoftheprincipaltype.WehavepresentedanovelSCC-basedtypeanalysisthatgivesuptheconceptofauniqueprincipaltypeandinsteadallowsdi erentcallstohavetypesignaturesthatareinstancesofdi erentwell-typingsofthepred-icatedenition.Thiso erstwoadvantages.Firstly,itismuchmoreecientthanatruepolymorphicanalysisandisonlyslightlymoreexpensivethanamonomorphicone.Inpractice,itscaleslinearlywithprogramsize.Secondly,whenanunexpectedcaseappearsinatyperule(whichmayhintataprogramerror),itiseasytogureoutwhetheritisduetothepredicatedenitionortoaparticularcall.Thisinformationcannotbereconstructedfromtheinferredtypesinthepolymorphicandthemonomorphicanalyses.InfutureworkweplantoinvestigatethequalityofthenewanalysisbyperformingtypeinferenceonMercuryprogramswherealltypeinformationhasbeenremovedandcomparingtheinferredtypeswiththeoriginalones.References1.M.Bruynooghe,J.P.Gallagher,andW.VanHumbeeck.Inferenceofwell-typingforlogicprogramswithapplicationtoterminationanalysis.InC.HankinandI.Siveroni,editors,StaticAnalysis,SAS2005,Proceedings,volume3672ofLectureNotesinComputerScience,pages35{51.Springer,2005.2.F.Henglein.Typeinferencewithpolymorphicrecursion.ACMTrans.Program.Lang.Syst.,15(2):253{289,1993.3.A.MycroftandR.A.O'Keefe.ApolymorphictypesystemforProlog.ArticialIntelligence,23(3):295{307,1984.4.T.SchrijversandM.Bruynooghe.Polymorphicalgebraicdatatypereconstruction.InA.BossiandM.J.Maher,editors,Proceedingsofthe8thInternationalACMSIGPLANConferenceonPrinciplesandPracticeofDeclarativeProgramming,July10-12,2006,Venice,Italy,pages85{96,2006.5.T.Schrijvers,J.Gallagher,andM.Bruynooghe.Frommonomorphictopolymorphicwell-typingsandbeyond,extendedreport.TechnicalReportCW518,Dept.Comp.Sc.,KatholiekeUniversiteitLeuven,2008.6.Z.Somogyi,F.Henderson,andT.Conway.TheexecutionalgorithmofMercury,anecientpurelydeclarativelogicprogramminglanguage.JournalofLogicPro-gramming,29(1-3):17{64,1996.