Hippocrates Greek Doctor 5 th or 4 th Century BC Why Important Believed and taught that Medicine was a natural not supernatural Developed the ideas of clinical observation watching the patient and recording the symptoms and the theory of the 4 ID: 934137
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Slide1
Health and the People
Key individuals
Slide2Hippocrates
Greek Doctor5
th or 4th
Century BC
Why Important?Believed and taught that Medicine was a natural, not supernatural.
Developed the ideas of clinical observation (watching the patient and recording the symptoms) and the theory of the 4
humours.Factors in their success
Writing – Hippocrates and his followers published the Hippocratic Collection, which contained his views on medicine and different recorded illnesses. These spread through the Greek world and later through Asia due to Alexander the Great’s success.Problems
Ideas of Four Humours was wrong
Slide3Galen
Doctor in ancient Rome2
nd Century
Why Important?
Took Hippocrates’ ideas to Rome.Developed the theory of opposites – his view of medicine was unchallenged for centuries.
Also developed knowledge of anatomy by dissecting animals.Factors in their success
Fame – he became doctor for the Emperor and his ideas spread across the Roman Empire which reached across Europe and into Asia and Africa.Religion – Rome became the
centre of Christianity and they adopted Galen’s theories which were accepted without question until the Renaissance.
Problems4 Humours
and therefore Theory of Opposites was wrong. Animals have different anatomies.
Slide4Andreas
Versalius 16th
Century1514-64
Professor of Anatomy
Why Important?Challenged Galen’s ideas.
Published books that corrected Galen’s earlier mistakes on Anatomy.
Led to further research and understanding of the human body.Factors in their successThe Renaissance led to freedom to experiment and to challenge previous ideas.
Padua was a renowned school of learning that allowed the dissection of human corpses.
Printing made ideas easier to communicate.Able to build on the much earlier works of Galen.
ProblemsA better understanding of anatomy didn’t help anyone at the time.
Slide5John
Arderne
Born in Newark 1307Trained surgeonWorked on battlefield
Developed ointment from hemlock, opium, henbane.Wrote books explaining his methods. Urged doctors to trust own judgement.Treated poor for free and charged the rich.
Slide6Ambroise
Pare16th
CenturyFrench Surgeon
Why Important
Developed new ways of dealing with battlefield wounds.
Introduced ligatures as a less painful way of sealing severed blood vessels.Factors in their successLuck – He ran out of hot oil during a battle and had to find a new way to deal with gunshot wounds.
Education – Used knowledge of previous treatments to develop new ones.
Printing – made his ideas easier to communicate.Problems
No knowledge of germs – meant ligatures carried infection into the wound. Early resistance to ideas.
Slide7William Harvey 1578-1657
Why Important ?
Discovered and proved that the heart works like a pump.Worked out that blood is circulated around the body.
Published his findings.
Factors in their successPrior Learning – He worked on the theories already developed by his predecessors at Padua.
Experimentation and recording of findings.Influential contacts – he treated the King.
Printing – made his ideas easier to communicate.Problems
Understanding circulation didn’t help people at the time
Slide8Thomas Sydenham-The ‘English Hippocrates’
Born 1624-educated at Oxford and Cambridge
Sydenham distrusted those who based their diagnosis and treatments on book learning.Believed in close observations of the symptoms of disease.
He believed diseases had different characteristics, each disease had separate unique treatment.Interested in treating form of Malaria.Sydenham interested in Smallpox, He devised ‘cool therapy’.
Many thought him eccentric.
Slide9Edward
JennerCountry Doctor 18
th/19th
Century
Why important?He experimented with the Cowpox disease and worked out that it could be used to stop the deadly Smallpox illness.
His idea of vaccination against Smallpox became very popular.
Factors in their successBetter education for doctors – scientific and anatomical training was necessary to qualify.
Knowledge of traditional treatments, he just tried to work out how he could extend the idea.A willingness to experiment and record his findings scientifically.
ProblemsResistance to his ideas from others. Lack of Govt. interest in compulsory vaccination.
Slide10Ignaz
SemmelweissHungarian hospital director
19th century
Why important?
He worked out that washing before a medical procedure reduced the risk of infection. He reduced death rates in his hospital by enforcing cleanliness in medical students before they examined patients.
Factors in their successHe tested his theory across two wards and lectured on the findings (1847-50).
He lectured on his theory and published a book in 1861.Problems
He was ignored. Doctors didn’t want to accept they caused death and claimed washing took too much time
Slide11James Simpson
Edinburgh Doctor 19th Century
Why important?
Discovered the use of Chloroform as an
anaesthetic
. (1847) Campaigned for increased use of
anaesthetics in surgery and childbirth. Queen Victoria used it as one of his patients.Factors in their success
Chemistry allowed the development of new drugs. Previous work on anaesthetics
by Humphrey Davey and others showed the way.Chloroform had already been developed for other purposes.
As doctor to the Queen, his ideas became popular.Problems
Opposition to his new ideas. Surgery could take longer = more death.
Overdose = death.
Slide12Robert Liston
London Surgeon 19th century
Why important?
The first European surgeon to use
anaesthetics
during an operation.A well-known speed surgeon.
Famous for managing to kill three people in one operation (two due to infection and blood poisoning).
Factors in their successPrior development of anaesthetics
in the USA and the publishing of the results meant that knowledge was passed between doctors.Notoriety from his earlier success as a speed surgeon at a large hospital.
ProblemsMistook aneurism for abscess
Removed testicles by accident & only surgeon in history to have performed an operation with a 300% mortality rate, losing his patient to infection, accidentally amputating his assistant's fingers, who also died of infection, and slashing a spectator who died from shock.
Slide13Edwin Chadwick
19th century
Public Health Report Writer
Reported on the effects of poverty and poor living conditions on health and recommended Public Health Reform (1847). This led to a Public Health Act (1848)
Factors in their successGovernment: Gave Chadwick the job of investigating sanitation and, eventually, introduced his recommendations.
Problems1848 Act was mainly voluntary and many towns ignored it. Some changes were reversed later.
Slide14Dr John Snow
London Doctor19
th Century
Why important?
He established the link between Cholera and infected water by examining an outbreak in London (1854), he got the pump disabled.
He also worked out safe doses of anaesthetics and treated Victoria.
Factors in their successHe had treated Queen Victoria with Chloroform and therefore was respected as a doctor.
He developed the idea of plotting the outbreaks of disease on a map so that patterns could be seen – this helped the study of epidemics.
He published his findings. ProblemsHe couldn’t prove why disease spread so it didn’t lead to better water generally
Slide15Florence Nightingale
Why Important?
Professionalised nursing and improved conditions in hospitals, first during the Crimean War and later in UK. Started a nurses Training School and wrote ‘Notes on Nursing’ both in 1860.
Factors in their successReligion: Felt that God called her to work.
Government: Asked her to go to Scutari and supported her efforts for change. War: Crimean War success made her famous and allowed ideas to spread.
ProblemsShe spent the second half of her life as an invalid and directed things from her bedroom.
Slide16Louis Pasteur
French Scientist 19th Century
Why Important?
Developed Germ Theory (1864) – proved that germs held in the air led to decomposition.
Develops vaccines for Chicken Cholera, Anthrax and Rabies.Factors in their success
The microscope – allowed him to study microbes.Government support and National rivalry meant that his projects received funds and equipment.
Luck – His chickens were given the wrong disease and he was able to work out why they survived.
Slide17Robert Koch
German Doctor19
th Century
Why Important?
Discovered the actual microbes that caused diseases such as Cholera and Tuberculosis.Found a way to make the microbes easy to see and therefore easier to study.
Factors in their successThe microscope – allowed him to study microbes.
Government support and National rivalry meant that his projects received funds and equipment.
Scientific Research techniques meant that he recorded everything in detail to allow others to study his findings further.
Slide18Joseph Lister
Professor of Surgery Glasgow19
th Century
Why Important?
Used Carbolic Acid spray as an antiseptic during surgery in order to kill the germs in the air. (1865-67)
This cut his post-operative mortality rate to 5%.Factors in their success.
Pasteur’s work on Germ Theory. He used this idea to try to cut deaths from infection.Prior knowledge – Carbolic Acid had been used before to make sewage safe as a
fertiliser.Publishing – the growth of medical journals meant new ideas could be easily shared.
Problems
Opposition to his new ideas.Carbolic acid irritated the skin and eyes of surgeons.
Slide19Elizabeth Garret Anderson
First women doctor in Britain19
th Century
Why Important?
First woman to qualify as a doctor in Britain (1865). She faced continued male opposition to her career. Started the New Hospital for Women in London. Women allowed in Medicine from 1876.Factors in their success
She qualified through the Society of Apothecaries, was inspired by first American female doctor Elizabeth Blackwell. She learned French so she could study in Paris where women were allowed.
The Government eventually passed a law to allow women to study Medicine.Problems
She was a women in a very sexist male dominated world.
Slide20Joseph
BazalgetteEngineer
19th Century
Why Important?
As Chief Engineer in London he designed and supervised a new sewage system (1856-66) that carried waste to treatment plants. He also built it big, so it continues to work until the present day.Factors in their success
Government: Appointed and supported the development after Cholera outbreak killed 10,000 (1853/4) and the ‘Great Stink’ (1858).Technology: Sewage processing plants.
Slide21Alexander Fleming
Research Scientist20
th Century
Why Important?
He identified and published the discovery of penicillin, an anti-biotic mould that killed bacteria (1928).
Factors in their successLuck: He was studying bacteria and returned to find
mould in one dish that was killing it.
Skill: He was able to see the importance of this and then conducted experiments to show it killed other types of bacteria.
He published his findings in scientific journalsProblemsHis findings were mainly ignored.
It was difficult for him to produce penicillin
in enough quantity.
Slide22William Beveridge
Public Health Report Writer20
th Century
Why Important?
Produced a report about ways to fight the 5 ‘Giant Evils’; ‘Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness’(1942). This led to the development of the NHS and Welfare State after 1945.Factors in their Success
Government: Wartime coalition government asked for the report on how Britain should be rebuilt after the war. The 1945 Labour government introduced the measures.
War: WW2 and people’s hardship built support for the suggested reforms.
Slide23Ernest Chain and
Howard FloreyMedical Scientists 20
th Century
Why Important
They developed the way to
mass produce penicillin which has since saved thousands of lives and made many other better more quickly.Factors in their success
Fleming’s research.War:
WW2 and especially the US involvement provided the funding to develop penicillin in large quantities. US drug companies provided facilities.
Scientific Research: They were researchers from Oxford University who worked togetherProblems
In the early days they also found production difficult and one patient improved then died when they ran out.
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